1. What is troubleshooting?

Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes
on a machine or a system. It is a logical, systematic search for the source of a problem in order
to solve it, and make the product or process operational again. Troubleshooting is needed to
identify the symptoms. Determining the most likely cause is a process of elimination—eliminating
potential causes of a problem. Finally, troubleshooting requires confirmation that the solution
restores the product or process to its working state.

2. How DNS works?

When you enter a URL into your Web browser, your DNS server uses its resources to resolve the
name into the IP address for the appropriate Web server. ... Instead, you just connect through a
domain name server, also called a DNS server or name server, which manages a massive
database that maps domain names to IP addresses.

3. What relay agent?

The DHCP Relay Agent component relays DHCP messages between DHCP clients and DHCP
servers on different IP networks. Because DHCP is a broadcast-based protocol, by default its
packets do not pass through routers. The DHCP Relay Agent is compliant with RFC 1542,
"Clarifications and Extensions for the Bootstrap Protocol.”

4. What is DHCP?
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network protocol that enables a server to
automatically assign an IP address to a computer from a defined range of numbers (i.e., a scope)
configured for a given network.

5. TCP Vs UDP?
There are two types of Internet Protocol (IP) traffic. They are TCP or Transmission Control
Protocol and UDP or User Datagram Protocol. TCP is connection oriented – once a connection
is established, data can be sent bidirectional. UDP is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol.

6. Explain OSI Layers?

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes
and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system
without regard to their underlying internal structure and technology. ... The model partitions a
communication system into abstraction layers.

7. Working of Network Layer?

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length
data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining
the quality of service functions. Functions of the network layer include: Connection model:
connectionless communication.

8.Difference between hub, switch and router?

Difference between a Ethernet hub, a switch, and a router. ... Ethernet hubs, switches, and routers
are all devices that let you connect one or more computers to other computers, networked
devices, or even other networks. Each has two or more connectors called ports into which you
plug in the cables to make the connection.
9.Explain classes of IP

10.IPv4 Vs IPv6.
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. It is the underlying technology that makes it possible
for us to connect our devices to the web. Whenever a device access the Internet (whether it's a
PC, Mac, smartphone or other device), it is assigned a unique, numerical IP address such as
99.48.227.227. To send data from one computer to another through the web, a data packet must
be transferred across the network containing the IP addresses of both devices.
IPv6 is the sixth revision to the Internet Protocol and the successor to IPv4. It functions similarly
to IPv4 in that it provides the unique, numerical IP addresses necessary for Internet-enabled
devices to communicate. However, it does sport one major difference: it utilizes 128-bit
addresses. I'll explain why this is important in a moment.

11.Internet vs Intranet.
Internet
1. Internet is wide network of computers and is open for all.
2. Internet itself contains a large number of intranets.
3. The number of users who use internet is Unlimited.
4. The Visitors traffic is unlimited.
5. Internet contains different source of information and is available for all.

Intranet
1. Intranet is also a network of computers designed for a specific group of users.
2. Intranet can be accessed from Internet but with restrictions.
3. The number of users is limited.
4. The traffic allowed is also limited.
5. Intranet contains only specific group information.
Therefore the Internet is an open, public space, while an intranet is designed to be a private
space. An intranet may be accessible from the Internet, but it is protected by a password and
accessible only to authorized users.
12.Explain handshaking protocol.
#Handshaking Defined
Handshaking is an automated process that sets parameters for communication between two
different devices before normal communication begins. Much like the way a human handshake
sets the stage for the communication to follow, the computing handshake provides both devices
with the basic rules for the way data is to be shared between them. These rules can include
transfer rate, coding alphabet, parity, interrupt procedure and more.
#When Handshaking Takes Place
In order to establish a connection between a computer and a device like a modem, printer, or
server, the handshake process begins the connection by telling both devices how to communicate
with each other. A classic example is the noises made when two dial-up modems connect to each
other. That squealing noise is actually the handshaking procedure. A handshake can also be used
between a computer and a printer before printing takes place to tell the printer how to receive and
output the data it receives from the computer.
#Why Handshaking Is Used
In addition to exchanging protocol information, handshaking is often used to verify the quality or
speed of the connection, as well as any authority that may be required to complete the connection
between devices. This latter purpose is a common part of establishing a connection between your
computer and a remote server.
#Examples of Handshaking Protocols
While practically every computing device that connects to another device uses handshaking, there
are a few examples you use every day. The cryptographic protocol Transport Layer Security and
its predecessor Secure Sockets Layer both use a handshaking procedure when making network
connections to verify authorization and protect data between two computers. USB connections
between computers and devices also use handshakes to verify data has been received
successfully, that it was not received, or that the device requires user intervention to continue.

13. Explain 7 layers of OSI Model.

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement
protocols in seven layers. There is really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible.
The OSI model doesn't perform any functions in the networking process. It is a conceptual
framework so we can better understand complex interactions that are happening.
Who Developed the OSI?
The International Standards Organization
(ISO) developed the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It divides
network communication into seven layers.
Layers 1-4 are considered the lower layers,
and mostly concern themselves with moving
data around. Layers 5-7, the upper layers,
contain application-level data. Networks
operate on one basic principle: "pass it on."
Each layer takes care of a very specific job,
and then passes the data onto the next layer.

The 7 Layers of the OSI

In the OSI model, control is passed from one
layer to the next, starting at the application
layer in one station, and proceeding to the
bottom layer, over the channel to the next
station and back up the hierarchy. The OSI
model takes the task of inter-networking and
divides that up into what is referred to as a
vertical stack that consists of the following 7 layers. Click each link in the list below to read
detailed information and examples of each layer:

Physical (Layer 1)
OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal — through
the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and
receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet,
RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

Data Link (Layer 2): At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded
into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the
physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub
layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The
MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission
to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2,
HDLC, Frame Relay.
Network (Layer 3): Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating
logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and
forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
congestion control and packet sequencing.

Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

Transport (Layer 4): OSI Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data
between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
It ensures complete data transfer.

Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

Session (Layer 5): This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and
dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.
Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
.

Presentation (Layer 6): This layer provides independence from differences in data
representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa.
The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept.
This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from
compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG,
MPEG, MIDI.

Application (Layer 7): OSI Model, Layer 7, supports application and end-user
processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.
Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file
transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist
entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP
14. Explain TCP/IP Model.

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used
in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source
and destination or the internet. These protocols offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet

Protocol was developed by Department of Defence's Project
Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research
project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to
making the TCP/IP reference model were:

 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more

machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained
intact untill the source and destination machines were
functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer

to talk to(send data packets) another application running on
different computer.

Description of different TCP/IP protocols

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork

layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport
layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack.
Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote

machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic
mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts
connected over a network.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
15. Make a WiFi Hotspot for Windows 7 without Software/Router

You can also use your Windows 7 laptop or desktop as a wireless hotspot without software and
without cmd. Unlike Windows 8 WiFi hotspot or Windows 10 WiFi hotspot, Microsoft enables
the graphical wizard to help create an ad hoc network in Windows 7. You can read more about it
in the post Top 3 Ways to Create Windows PC WiFi Hotspot.

Here is how to convert your Windows 7 PC into WiFi hotspot with the help of wizard to share
internet connection. If it does not work, try the method of Top 1.

Step 1. Go to the “Manage wireless network” window. You can click on the Start menu and type
“wireless” into the search box to locate it.

Step 2. Click on the “Add” button to add a wireless network.

Step 3. Select “Create an ad hoc network” and click on “Next”.

Step 4. Enter a name and password for your wireless hotspot and select “Save this network”.
Remember to activate the “Allow other network users to connect through this computer’s internet
connection” checkbox.

Updated: We’ve received some reports about saying the wireless hotspot has no internet
connection by using this method. This could happen when the wireless network adapter driver is
not working or when your computer has other conflicts. We do recommend you to try OSToto
Hotspot to build a safe and stable hotspot for Windows 7.

16. Explain different classes in Network

IP may refer to any of the following:

1. Short for Internet Protocol address, an IP or IP address is a number (example shown right)
used to indicate the location of a computer or other device on a network using TCP/IP. These
addresses are similar to those of your house, allowing data to reach the appropriate destination on
a network and the Internet.

IPv4 vs. IPv6

As the Internet and technology evolve, there has been an increasing demand for IP addresses. To
help meet the demand for IP addresses, there are two types of addresses used today: IPv4 and IPv6.
Although you may only deal with an IPv4 address in your local home, school, or small office, you
should also be aware of IPv6 addresses for when you encounter them.

Example of an IPv4 address:

45.79.151.23

Example of an IPv6 address:

2601:681:4200:c5c0:516:f0bb:ac3b:46bd

IP address classes
With an IPv4 IP address, there are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of
valid IP addresses, shown in the following table.
 Class Address Range Supports
Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.
Class B 128.1.0.1 to Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
191.255.255.254
Class C 192.0.1.1 to Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
223.255.254.254
Class D 224.0.0.0 to Reserved for multicast groups.
239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or Research and Development
254.255.255.254 Purposes.

Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for the loopback or localhost, for example, 127.0.0.1 is the loopback
address. Range 255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network.

IP address breakdown
Every IP address is broken down into four sets of octets and translated into binary to represent the
actual IP address. The below table is an example of the IP 255.255.255.255. If you are new to
binary, we highly recommend reading our binary and hexadecimal conversions section to get a
better understanding of what we're doing in the below charts.

IP: 255 255 255 255

Binary value: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111
Octet value: 8 8 8 8

For an example, let's break down the IP "166.70.10.23" in the following table. The first row
contains the separate sections of the IP address, the second has binary values, and the third row
shows how the binary value equals the section of the IP address.

IP: 166 70 10 23
Binary value: 10100110 01000110 00001010 00010111
Numerical value: 128+32+4+2=166 64+4+2=70 8+2=10 16+4+2+1=23

Automatically assigned addresses

There are IP addresses that are automatically assigned (dynamic allocation) when you set up a
home network. These default addresses are what allow your computer and other network devices
to communicate and broadcast information over your network. Below are the most commonly
assigned default addresses for home networks.

192.168.1.0 0 is the automatically assigned network address.

192.168.1.1 1 is the commonly used address used as the gateway.
192.168.1.2 2 is also a commonly used address used for a gateway.
192.168.1.3 - 254 Addresses beyond 3 are assigned to computers and devices on the network.
192.168.1.255 255 is automatically assigned on most networks as the broadcast address.

If you have ever connected to your home network, you should be familiar with the gateway address
or 192.168.1.1, which is the address you use to connect to your home network router to change its
settings. Another common IP range that may be used is 10.0.0.3-254.

Getting an IP address
By default, the router you use will assign each of your computers their own IP address, often using
NAT to forward the data coming from those computers to outside networks such as the Internet.
If you need to register an IP address that can be seen on the Internet, you must register through
InterNIC or use a web host that can assign you addresses.

Anyone who connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address by their Internet Service Provider
(ISP), which has registered a range of IP addresses. For example, let's assume your ISP is given
100 addresses, 109.145.93.150-249. In this range, the ISP owns addresses 109.145.93.150 to
109.145.93.249 and can assign any address in that range to its customers. So, all these addresses
belong to your ISP until they are assigned to a customers computer. In the case of a dial-up
connection, you are given a new IP address each time you dial into your ISP. With most broadband
Internet service providers, you are always connected to the Internet your address rarely changes.
It remains the same until the service provider requires otherwise.
The above picture is taken from our "How do computers connect to each other over the Internet"
page and gives a good overview of how a computer can talk to another computer over the Internet
using an IP address.

There are two types of addressing in networking: Physical addressing and logical addressing.
Physical address is the MAC address (Media access control) which is fixed for a particular
computer. Logical address is the IP (Internet Protocol) address. In this CCNA tutorial, you will get
to know Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and different network classes explained in a simple
way.

17. What is Subnet Mask?

If you’re a newbie to networking then the concept of Subnet mask may seem a little bit confusing,
I also had a tough time struggling with subnet mask during my earlier days. By definition subnet
mask is a 32 bit address used with an IP in order to identify its network and host portions.

Well, here I am going to put the simplest explanation for subnet mask. Please refer the network
diagram below for better understanding. Let’s say you’ve got an IP address 200.1.1.2 with a subnet
mask 255.255.255.0, it means that 200.1.1 is the network portion and last octet is the host portion.
So any IP which starts with 200.1.1 goes to the same network (Network A), like 200.1.1.1,
200.1.1.10, 200.1.1.100 upto 200.1.1.254. And hence they don’t require a router to communicate
with each other.

In Network A the first IP 200.1.1.0 is used to indicate network address and last IP 200.1.1.255 is
used to send broadcast messages to all host computers in the network A.

Now another IP 200.1.2.2 which also has the same subnet mask cannot communicate with Network
A without using a router because there’s a change in the network part. It belongs to another network
with network address 200.1.2.0(Network B). Hope you got the point.

Another IP 10.1.1.2 with subnet mask 255.0.0.0 makes you understand that it belongs to the
network 10.0.0.0(Network C), where only the first octet indicates network.

So subnet mask let’s you understand the IP belongs to which network. By default the following
subnet masks are used.
Note: All host bits ‘0’ is a network address.
All host bits ‘1’is a broadcast address.
Now let us see network classes A B C D of internet protocol a little deeper.

Network Class Ranges with Subnet Mask

Class A Network
Class A network range starts from 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255. See the screenshot for easier
understanding.

Class A network subnet mask is 255.0.0.0, which means it has 8 network bits of which the first bit
is fixed as ‘0’. And hence a total of 7 network bits and 24 host bits.
Hence total no. of network will be
Here 2 is subtracted as 0.0.0.0 is the default network and 127.0.0.0 is the loopback ip address used
for checking proper functionality (self testing).

And total number of hosts per network will be

Here 2 is subtracted for network and broadcast address.

Class A network example:

Network address -1.0.0.0
Subnet Mask -255.0.0.0
First host IP address -1.0.0.1
Last host address -1.255.255.254
Broadcast address -1.255.255.255

Class B Network
Now class B network range starts from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. Default subnet mask is
255.255.0.0, which means it has 16 network bits of which first two bits are fixed as ‘10’. And
hence a total of 14 network bits and 16 host bits.

So total no. of networks will be

And the total number of hosts per network will be

2 IP’s are subtracted, one each for network and broadcast address.
Let us take an example:
Network address -128.0.0.0
Subnet Mask -255.255.0.0
First host address -128.0.0.1
Last host address -128.0.255.254
Broadcast address -128.0.255.255

Class C Network
IP range starts from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. Class C network subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
that means it has 24 network bits of which the first three bits are fixed as ‘110’. So a total of 21
network bits and 8 host bits.
Hence total no. of network will be
And the total number of hosts per network will be

Here also 2 IP’s are subtracted, one for network and other for broadcast address.

Class C network example:

Network address -192.0.0.0
Subnet Mask -255.255.255.0
First host address -192.0.0.1
Last host address -192.0.0.254
Broadcast address -192.0.0.255
18. What does Subnetting mean?

Subnetting is the strategy used to partition a single physical network into more than one smaller
logical sub-networks (subnets). An IP address includes a network segment and a host segment.
Subnets are designed by accepting bits from the IP address's host part and using these bits to assign
a number of smaller sub-networks inside the original network. Subnetting allows an organization
to add sub-networks without the need to acquire a new network number via the Internet service
provider (ISP). Subnetting helps to reduce the network traffic and conceals network complexity.
Subnetting is essential when a single network number has to be allocated over numerous segments
of a local area network (LAN).

Subnets were initially designed for solving the shortage of IP addresses over the Internet.

Each IP address consists of a subnet mask. All the class types, such as Class A, Class B and Class
C include the subnet mask known as the default subnet mask. The subnet mask is intended for
determining the type and number of IP addresses required for a given local network. The firewall
or router is called the default gateway. The default subnet mask is as follows:

 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0
 Class C: 255.255.255.0

The subnetting process allows the administrator to divide a single Class A, Class B, or Class C
network number into smaller portions. The subnets can be subnetted again into sub-subnets.

Dividing the network into a number of subnets provides the following benefits:

 Reduces the network traffic by reducing the volume of broadcasts

 Helps to surpass the constraints in a local area network (LAN), for example, the maximum
number of permitted hosts.
 Enables users to access a work network from their homes; there is no need to open the
complete network.
19. IPv4 vs. IPv6
As the Internet and technology evolve, there has been an increasing demand for IP addresses. To
help meet the demand for IP addresses, there are two types of addresses used today: IPv4 and IPv6.
Although you may only deal with an IPv4 address in your local home, school, or small office, you
should also be aware of IPv6 addresses for when you encounter them.

Example of an IPv4 address:

45.79.151.23

Example of an IPv6 address:

2601:681:4200:c5c0:516:f0bb:ac3b:46bd
20. Define Class of IP.

Network IP address is used to identify a host (PC or any network device) in a network. IP is a 32
bit binary number divided into 4 octet groups, each octet giving a maximum of 255 in decimal.
For easier addressing of these IP address octet, they are written as dotted decimals.

Must Read: [Complete Guide] Class A IP Address, Subnet Mask, and Subnetting

Note: How to find out a host IP address? You can go for the command prompt IP address check
by typing ipconfig as shown in the screenshot below

Classes of IP address in networking

IP is divided into 5 classes of network addresses based on the range of first octet.
Out of the total valid addresses in each class, two dedicated IP address is reserved for;

1. Network address
2. Broadcast address

So the total number of available IP addresses will be

21. Public vs Private IP addresses

To communicate over an internet, a device must have a public IP address which is provided by
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority). Private range of IP addresses are used in an intranet
(an internal network that uses internet technology). IANA also provides address for private
networks in each class as follows:

Private Network Address Ranges in each Class

Before going in detail to IP classes we need to know about subnet masks and how to find subnet
mask for IP addresses.

22. What is Modulation?

Modulation is a process through which audio, video, image or text information is added to an
electrical or optical carrier signal to be transmitted over a telecommunication or electronic
medium. Modulation enables the transfer of information on an electrical signal to a receiving
device that demodulates the signal to extract the blended information.

Modulation is primarily used in telecommunication technologies that require the transmission of

data via electrical signals. It is considered the backbone of data communication because it enables
the use of electrical and optical signals as information carriers. Modulation is achieved by altering
the periodic waveform or the carrier. This includes carrying its amplitude, frequency and phase.
Modulation has three different types:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude of the carrier is modulated.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency of the carrier is modulated.
3. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase of the carrier is modulated.

A modem is a common example/implementation of a modulation technique in which the data is

modulated with electrical signals and transmitted over telephone lines. It is later demodulated to
receive the data.

23. Difference Wired and wireless Network?

As we know "wired" is the term refers to any physical medium consisting of cables. The cables
can be copper wire, twisted pair or fiber optic. Wired network is used to carry different forms of
electrical signals from one end to the other. Mostly in wired network one internet connection is
being taken using T1 line, cable modem or using any other means. This connection is shared among
multiple devices using wired network concept.

EXAMPLE #1: LAN (Local Area Network): This network consists of ethernet cards housed in
PCs or laptops. These cards are connected using ethernet cables. The data flows between these
cards. For small wired network router is used to connect few number of desktop or laptop
computers. In order to increase the network coverage for more number of systems multiple
switches and routers are used.

Wireless Network

As we know "Wireless" is the term refers to medium made of electromagnetic waves (i.e. EM
Waves) or infrared waves. All the wireless devices will have antenna or sensors. Typical wireless
devices include cellular mobile, wireless sensors, TV remote, satellite disc receiver, laptops with
WLAN card etc. Wireless network does not use wires for data or voice communication; it uses
radio frequency waves as mentioned above. The other examples are fiber optic communication
link and broadband ADSL etc.

EXAMPLES:
1. Outdoor cellular technologies such as GSM, CDMA, WiMAX, LTE, Satellite etc.
2. Indoor wireless technologies such as Wireless LAN(or WiFi), Bluetooth, IrDA, Zigbee, Zwave
etc.

Following table mentions comparison between wired network and wireless network types.

Specifications Wired network Wireless network

lower compare to wired networks, But
Speed of operation Higher
advanced wireless technologies such as LTE,
 LTE-A and WLAN-11ad will make it
possible to achieve speed par equivalent to
wired network
System Low, as Frequency Spectrum is very scarse
High
Bandwidth resource
More as wireless subscriber stations, wireless
Less as cables are not
Cost routers, wireless access points and adapters
expensive
are expensive
Wired network installation is
Wireless network installation is easy and it
Installation cumbersome and it requires
requires less time
more time
Limited, as it operates in the
Not limited, as it operates in the entire
Mobility area covered by connected
wireless network coverage
systems with the wired network
Transmission copper wires, optical fiber
EM waves or radiowaves or infrared
medium cables, ethernet
requires hubs and switches for
Network coverage More area is covered by wireless base stations
network coverage limit
extension which are connected to one another.
extension
WLAN, WPAN(Zigbee, bluetooth), Infrared,
Applications LAN (Ethernet), MAN
Cellular(GSM,CDMA, LTE)
Channel Interference is less as one Interference is higher due to obstacles
Interference and wired network will not affect between wireless transmitter and receiver e.g.
signal power loss the other weather conditions, reflection from walls, etc.
QoS (Quality of Poor due to high value of jitter and delay in
Better
Service) connection setup
High compare to wireless
counterpart, as manufactured
cables have higher Reasonably high, This is due to failure of
Reliability
performance due to existence router will affect the entire network.
of wired technology since
years.

24: What is difference between CDMA & GSM?

Ans:

CDMA
GSM

Stands for Code Division Multiple Access Global System for Mobile communication

Storage Type Internal Memory SIM (subscriber identity module) Card

 CDMA
GSM

Global market share 25% 75%

Dominance Dominant standard in the U.S. Dominant standard worldwide except the
U.S.

Data transfer EVDO/3G/4G/LTE GPRS/E/3G/4G/LTE

Network There is one physical channel and a Every cell has a corresponding network
special code for every device in the tower, which serves the mobile phones in
coverage network. Using this code, that cellular area.
the signal of the device is
multiplexed, and the same physical
channel is used to send the signal.

International Less Accessible Most Accessible

roaming

Frequency band Single (850 MHz) Multiple (850/900/1800/1900 MHz)

Network service Handset specific SIM specific. User has option to select
handset of his choice.

25: WHERE ICMP PROTOCOL IS USED?

ANS: The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol in the
Internet protocol suite. It is used by network devices, including routers, to send error messages and
operational information indicating, for example, that a requested service is not available or that a host or
router could not be reached.

26: UTP AND STP?

ANS: The twist in the wire cancels out any magnetic interference that may develop in the wiring. There are two
common types of twisted pair cabling, STP andUTP. The S stands for Shielded, the U stands for Unshielded, and
the TP stands for twisted pair for both.
1. STP cables are shielded while UTP cables are unshielded
2. STP cables are more immune to interference and noise than UTP cables
3. STP cables are better at maximizing bandwidth compared to UTP cables
4. STP cables cost more per meter compared to UTP cables
5. STP cables are heavier per meter compared to UTP cables
6. UTP cables are more prevalent in SOHO networks while STP is used in more high-end applications.

27: WHY WIRES ARE TWISTED AROUND EACH OTHER IN TWISTED PAIR CABLE?
ANS: Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit
are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from
external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs.
28:EXPLAIN REPEATERS?
ANS: A repeater is a network device that is used to regenerate or replicate signals that are
weakened or distorted by transmission over long distances and through areas with high levels of
electromagnetic interference (EMI).

29: WHICH IEEE STANDARDS DEFINE WIRELESS NETWORKING?

ANS: IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4,
3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands.

30 : HOW TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY OF A 3 WAY HANDSHAKE?

ANS: In TCP, the two parties keep track of what they have sent by using a Sequence number. Effectively
it ends up being a running byte count of everything that was sent. The receiving party can use the opposite
speaker's sequence number to acknowledge what it has received.
But the sequence number doesn't start at 0. It starts at the ISN (Initial Sequence Number), which is a
randomly chosen value. And since TCP is a bi-directional communication, both parties can "speak", and
therefore both must randomly generate an ISN as their starting Sequence Number. Which in turn means,
both parties need to notify the other party of their starting ISN.
So you end up with this sequence of events for a start of a TCP conversation between Alice and Bob:
Alice ---> Bob SYNchronize with my Initial Sequence Number of X
Alice <--- Bob I received your syn, I ACKnowledge that I am ready for [X+1]
Alice <--- Bob SYNchronize with my Initial Sequence Number of Y
Alice ---> Bob I received your syn, I ACKnowledge that I am ready for [Y+1]
Notice, four events are occurring:
1. Alice picks an ISN and SYNchronizes it with Bob.
2. Bob ACKnowledges the ISN.
3. Bob picks an ISN and SYNchronizes it with Alice.
4. Alice ACKnowledges the ISN.
In actuality though, the middle two events (#2 and #3) happen in the same packet. What makes a packet
a SYN or ACK is simply a binary flag turned on or off inside each TCP header, so there is nothing
preventing both of these flags from being enabled on the same packet. So the three-way handshake ends
up being:
Bob <--- Alice SYN
Bob ---> Alice SYN ACK
Bob <--- Alice ACK
Notice the two instances of "SYN" and "ACK", one of each, in both directions.

So to come back to your question, why not just use a two-way handshake? The short answer is because a
two way handshake would only allow one party to establish an ISN, and the other party to acknowledge
it. Which means only one party can send data.
But TCP is a bi-directional communication protocol, which means either end ought to be able to send data
reliably. Both parties need to establish an ISN, and both parties need to acknowledge the other's ISN.

31: WHY WAS OSI MODEL PROPOSED?

ANS: OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how applications can communicate over
a network. A reference model is conceptual framework for understanding relationships. ... The TCP/IP
protocols, which define the Internet, do not map cleanly to the OSI model.
It’s most important as a learning tool, but also as a troubleshooting reference. Each layer represents
distinct areas of processing and/or separation of functions. Keeping that in mind, and understanding it,
allows one to be much more effective at diagnosing and resolving problems. One doesn’t need to “stress
out” to always define which layer an issue is, just thinking (and sometimes communicating) in layers is
the point.
The model is also important/relevant to design, engineering. Again, it goes back to separation of duties,
functions…. providing areas of focus, forcing one to address (consider) design at each layer.

32. What is Network Security?

Ans. Network security is the security provided to a network from unauthorized access and risks.
It is the duty of network administrators to adopt preventive measures to protect their networks
from potential security threats.

Computer networks that are involved in regular transactions and communication within the
government, individuals, or business require security. The most common and simple way of
protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password.

Examples of Network Security

Firewalls:
One of the most basic and easily implemented methods of network security is the firewall. A
firewall can be software based, such as what is provided with Windows, or hardware based, such
as a router. The basic idea behind a firewall is to allow authorized access to a computer while
blocking unauthorized access. This is accomplished by configuring access conditions based on
user defined rules, IP addresses, and port accessibility
33 .What is the frequency range of AM and FM? Which one is better and why?
Ans.
AM (or Amplitude Modulation) and FM (or Frequency Modulation) are ways of
broadcasting radio signals. Both transmit the information in the form of electromagnetic
waves. AM works by modulating (varying) the amplitude of the signal or carrier transmitted
according to the information being sent, while the frequency remains constant. This differs
from FM technology in which information (sound) is encoded by varying the frequency of
the wave and the amplitude is kept constant.

Comparison chart

AM versus FM comparison chart

Factors AM FM

Stands for AM stands for Amplitude FM stands for Frequency Modulation

Modulation

Origin AM method of audio transmission FM radio was developed in the United

was first successfully carried out states in the 1930s, mainly by Edwin
in the mid 1870s. Armstrong.

Modulating In AM, a radio wave known as the
differences "carrier" or "carrier wave" is
modulated in amplitude by the
signal that is to be transmitted. The
frequency and phase remain the
same.
In FM, a radio wave known as the
"carrier" or "carrier wave" is
modulated in frequency by the signal
that is to be transmitted. The
amplitude and phase remain the same.

Pros and cons AM has poorer sound quality
compared with FM, but is cheaper
and can be transmitted over long
distances. It has a lower bandwidth
so it can have more stations
available in any frequency range.
FM is less prone to interference than
AM. However, FM signals are
impacted by physical barriers. FM
has better sound quality due to higher
bandwidth.

Frequency AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum
Range KHz (OR) Up to 1200 bits per from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to
second. 2400 bits per second.

Bandwidth Twice the highest modulating Twice the sum of the modulating
Requirements frequency. In AM radio signal frequency and the frequency
broadcasting, the modulating deviation. If the frequency deviation
signal has bandwidth of 15kHz, is 75kHz and the modulating signal
and hence the bandwidth of an
 AM versus FM comparison chart

Factors AM FM

amplitude-modulated signal is frequency is 15kHz, the bandwidth

30kHz. required is 180kHz.

Zero crossing in Equidistant Not equidistant

modulated
signal

Complexity Transmitter and receiver are
simple but syncronization is
needed in case of SSBSC AM
carrier.
Tranmitter and reciver are more
complex as variation of modulating
signal has to beconverted and
detected from corresponding
variation in frequencies.(i.e. voltage
to frequency and frequency to voltage
conversion has to be done).

Noise AM is more susceptible to noise FM is less susceptible to noise

because noise affects amplitude, because information in an FM signal
which is where information is is transmitted through varying the
"stored" in an AM signal. frequency, and not the amplitude.

34.What is WiMax?
Ans.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless industry coalition
dedicated to the advancement of IEEE 802.16 standards for broadband wireless access (BWA)
networks.
WiMAX supports mobile, nomadic and fixed wireless applications. A mobile user, in this context,
is someone in transit, such as a commuter on a train. A nomadic user is one that connects on a
portable device but does so only while stationary. For example, connecting to an office network
from a hotel room and then again from a coffee shop.
35. Difference between QSK,PSK,FSK. Which one is better?
Ans.
Modulation of digital signals is known as Shift Keying. There are 3 types: ASK, FSK and PSK.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): According to difference signals, it adjusts the amplitude of
sine-wave.
Pros: simple
Cons: susceptible to noise
Example: Many legacy wireless systems, e.g. AMR
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): It uses digital signal to adjust the frequency of wave carrier.
Pros: less susceptible to noise
Cons: theoretically requires larger bandwidth/bit than ASK
Popular in modern systems

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Different phase angles in the carrier signal are used to represent the
binary states of 0 and 1
Pros:
– Less susceptible to noise
– Bandwidth efficient
Cons:
– Requires synchronization in frequency and phase and complicates
receivers and transmitter
Example: IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee

In the alarm system, FSK is much better than ASK because of the following advantages:

 Stronger anti-interference ability

 Longer transmission distance
  Stronger anti-hack ability

36. Frequency of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth?

Ans.
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are different standards for wireless communication.
Bluetooth technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices
that are near each other when speed is not an issue, such as telephones, printers, modems and
headsets. It is best suited to low-bandwidth applications like transferring sound data with
telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring
files) or keyboard and mice.
Wi-Fi is better suited for operating full-scale networks because it enables a faster connection,
better range from the base station, and better wireless security (if configured properly) than
Bluetooth.

Comparison chart

Bluetooth versus Wi-Fi comparison chart

Factors Bluetooth Wi-Fi

Frequency 2.4 GHz 2.4, 3.6, 5 GHz

Cost Low High

Bandwidth Low ( 800 Kbps ) High (11 Mbps )

Specifications Bluetooth SIG IEEE, WECA

authority

Security It is less secure Security issues are already being

debated.

Year of 1994 1991

development

Primary Devices Mobile phones, mouse, Notebook computers, desktop

keyboards, office and industrial computers, servers, TV, Latest
automation devices. Activity mobiles.
trackers, such as Fitbit and
Jawbone.
 Bluetooth versus Wi-Fi comparison chart

Factors Bluetooth Wi-Fi

Hardware Bluetooth adaptor on all the Wireless adaptors on all the devices
requirement devices connecting with each of the network, a wireless
other router and/or wireless access points

Range 5-30 meters With 802.11b/g the typical range is 32

meters indoors and 95 meters (300 ft)
outdoors. 802.11n has greater range.
2.5GHz Wi-Fi communication has
greater range than 5GHz. Antennas
can also increase range.

Power Low High

Consumption

Ease of Use Fairly simple to use. Can be used
to connect up to seven devices at
a time. It is easy to switch
between devices or find and
connect to any device.
It is more complex and requires
configuration of hardware and
software.

Latency 200ms 150ms

Bit-rate 2.1Mbps 600 Mbps

37. What are GPRS and LTE?

Ans.
GPRS:
General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) is a packet-based wireless communication service that
promises data rates from 56 up to 114 Kbps and continuous connection to the Internet for mobile
phone and computer users. The higher data rates allow users to take part in video conferences and
interact with multimedia Web sites and similar applications using mobile handheld devices as well
as notebook computers. GPRS is based on Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication and
complements existing services such circuit-switched cellular phone connections and the Short
Message Service (SMS).

LTE :

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is the project name given to development of a high performance air
interface for cellular mobile communication systems. It is the last step toward the 4th generation
(4G) of radio technologies designed to increase the capacity and speed of mobile telephone
networks. While the former generation of mobile telecommunication networks are collectively
known as 2G or 3G, LTE is marketed as 4G.

LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to previous cellular systems.
They enable LTE to operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also provide
the much higher data rates that are now required.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex)

OFDM technology has been incorporated into LTE because it enables high data bandwidths to be
transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to reflections and
interference.

MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)

One of the main problems that previous telecommunications systems have encountered is that of
multiple signals arising from the many reflections that are encountered in antenna deployments.
By using MIMO, these additional signal paths can be used to advantage and are able to be used to
increase the throughput.

SAE (System Architecture Evolution)

With the very high data rate and low latency requirements for 3G LTE, the system architecture
must evolve to achieve the performance improvement benchmarks. One change is that a number
of the functions previously handled by the core network have been transferred out to the periphery.
Essentially this provides a much "flatter" form of network architecture. In this way latency times
can be reduced and data can be routed more directly to its destination.

38. Types of losses in transformers?

Ans. Transformer is a static device, i.e. we do not get to see any movements in its parts, so no
mechanical losses exist in the transformer and only electrical losses are observed. So there are two
primary types of electrical losses in the transformer:
1. Copper losses
2. Iron losses
Other than these, some small amount of power losses in the form of ‘stray losses’ are also observed,
which are produced due to the leakage of magnetic flux.
Copper losses
These losses occur in the windings of the transformer when heat is dissipated due to the current
passing through the windings and the internal resistance offered by the windings. So these are also
known as ohmic losses or I2R losses, where ‘I’ is the current passing through the windings and R
is the internal resistance of the windings.
These losses are present both in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer and depend
upon the load attached across the secondary windings since the current varies with the variation in
the load, so these are variable losses.
Mathematically, these copper losses can be defined as:
Pohmic = IpRp + IsRs
Iron losses
These losses occur in the core of the transformer and are generated due to the variations in the
flux. These losses depend upon the magnetic properties of the materials which are present in the
core, so they are also known as iron losses, as the core of the Transformer is made up of iron. And
since they do not change like the load, so these losses are also constant.
There are two types of Iron losses in the transformer:
1. Eddy Current losses
2. Hysteresis Loss
Eddy Current Losses
When an alternating current is supplied to the primary windings of the transformer, it generates an
alternating magnetic flux in the winding which is then induced in the secondary winding also
through Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, and is then transferred to the externally
connected load. During this process, the other conduction materials of which the core is composed
of; also gets linked with this flux and an emf is induced.
But this magnetic flux does not contribute anything towards the externally connected load or the
output power and is dissipated in the form of heat energy. So such losses are called Eddy Current
losses and are mathematically expressed as:
Pe = Ke f² Kf² Bm²
Where;
Ke = Constant of Eddy Current
Kf² = Form Constant
Bm = Strength of Magnetic Field
Hysteresis Loss
Hysteresis loss is defined as the electrical energy which is required to realign the domains of the
ferromagnetic material which is present in the core of the transformer.
These domains loose their alignment when an alternating current is supplied to the primary
windings of the transformer and the emf is induced in the ferromagnetic material of the core which
disturbs the alignment of the domains and afterwards they do not realign properly. For their proper
realignment, some external energy supply, usually in the form of current is required. This extra
energy is known as Hysteresis loss.
Mathematically, they can be defined as;
>Ph = Kh Bm1.6 fV

39. GSM OSI model and process of calling?

Ans.
GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow communications between two
different systems. The lower layers assure the services of the upper-layer protocols. Each layer
passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been formatted, transmitted, and
received accurately.
The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown below:

MS Protocols
Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three general layers:

 Layer 1 : The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.

 Layer 2 : The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a modified
version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN,
called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the
Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.

 Layer 3 : GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers:

o Radio Resource Management (RR),

o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).
MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS and
the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC. The
responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile is in a
dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.
The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from the mobility
of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects. Location management is
concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the current location of a powered-
on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed.

The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for Call
Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service Management. Each of
these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer. Other functions of the CC
sublayer include call establishment, selection of the type of service (including alternating between
services during a call), and call release.

BSC Protocols
The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis interface
is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower portion of Layer
3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management (BTSM). The BTS
management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.

The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels between
the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to the system, paging
for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control, and call termination. The
BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency coordination, frequency
allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the Layer 2 interfaces.

To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct application
part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the
prime architecture.

MSC Protocols
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to the MTP
Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part (BSS MAP) is said
to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by the layers that are
stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes
the relay process. To find and connect to the users across the network, MSCs interact using the
control-signalling network. Location registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the
role of determining how and whether connections are to be made to roaming users.
Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s location and subscribed
services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location of a user. When the users
move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find the location of the user.
The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the HLR of the MS’s new location.
With the help of location information contained in the user’s HLR, the MT calls can be routed to
the user.

GSM CALL PROCESSING:

START
1. RADIO ACCESS PART
2. ESTABLISHMENT PART
3. AUTHENTICATION CHIPERING & TMSI REALLOCATION PART
4. CALL SET UP
5. TCH SEIZED PART
6. CONVERSATION PART
7. RELEASE BY MS
8. STOP

1. RADIO ACCESS PART-

(1) MS sends channel request msg to BTS using RACH. In addition to message, it also contains
random reference number to differentiate between different MS who makes the request exactly at
the same time.
(2) BTS sends channel required msg to BSC along with first timing advance estimate.
(3) BSC sends channel activation message to BTS, before sending message, BSC starts to search
and allocate the SDCCH. Content of this message is DTX control, CH. ID description and mobile
allocation, ax power level of MS and BTS, TA calculated by BSC.
(4) BTS sends CH. Activation ACK Msg. to BSC, after this BTS sends & receive SACCH.
(5) Once BSC receives the above ACK, it sends immediate assignment command to BTS and tells
about SDCCH to be used.
(6)BTS after receiving LAC , sends immediate assignment message to MS. At this stage, SDCCH
ch. is allocated to MS using AGCCH channel. The contents of this message are, TA, description
and allocated channel, initial max transmission power & exact contents of channel request
message.
2. ESTABLISHMENT PART:-
(1) MS sends CM service request message to BTS using SDCCH .in order to request services for
connection management, sub layer entities like circuit switched connection established SS or SMS.
(2) After BTS receives CM service request message, it sends same MSG to BSC with established
indication messages .it has two uses
(a) Tells BSC that MS is in which channel link.
(b) BTS identifies main signalling link and adds L3 information into this message received from
MS.
(3) Once BSC receives above message, it sends connection request MSG to MSC.
(4) At this stage, BTS sends UA (unnumbered ACK) MSG to MS. UA is L-2 level ACK. Used
in setting L-2 level link in LAPDM protocol.
(5) Once MSC receives CM service request, it sends process access request MSG to VLR for
authentication, ciphering, &TMSI, reallocation, procedures.
3. AUTHENTICATION, CIPHERING & TMSI REALLOCATION:-

(1)AUTHENTICATION:-This procedure uses A3, A8 & 32 digit RAND, which are created in
authentication centre & MS SIM card, which is used for security purpose.
(a)VLR after receiving process access, request message, VLR initiates authentication and
sends it to MSC .this message contains 32 digits RAN B.
(b) Once MSC receives authentication MSG, it sends authentication request message to MS
through different interface + 32 digit RAND.
(c) MS authentication procedure uses A3 & A8 algorithm, in sim cards A3, A8, & 32digit
RAND and same can be found in authentication centre, then authentication went ok.
(2) CIPHERING: - It uses A5 algorithm & used for security.
(a) Ciphering means nobody can decode the information b/w calling and called party, other
than the called party, which has ciphering key sequence.
(b) After authentication, VLR initiates ciphering and sends it to MSC, after this, MSC sends
ciphering mode command MSg to BSC, in order to start process b/w MS and BTS.
(c) Once BSC receives ciphering mode command Msg. it sends CMC msg along with
encryption command to BTS.
(d) After this BTS informed to MS about beginning ciphering & start the recovering in
ciphering mode & MS once receives the CMC message, the MS enters the ciphering mode & sends
ciphering mode ACK MSG to VLR through different interface.
Ciphering process b/w MS and BTS uses SDCCH.
(3) TMSI REALLOCATION:-
(a) After completion of ciphering the VLR accepts the process access request MSG. and
initiates TMSI reallocation process and sends it to MSC, then MSC sends it to MS.
(b) The purpose of this process is to providing the user identity confidently. This procedure
is performed at least at each change of location area.
TMSI reallocation command message contains new combination of TMSI & LA, allocated
by network, usually, TMSI reallocation command message is sent to MS by using RR connection
in ciphering mode.
(c) When MS receives the TMSI reallocation command MSG, it stores the LAI in SIM, if
received, identify IMSI of MS it delete the previous stores TMSI. In both cases VLR is updated.
This procedure b/w BTS and MS uses SDCCH.
(4) CALL SET UP PART:-
(a) After authentication, identification & ciphering the MS is in SDCCH & ready to start real call
set up signalling. The MS sends RIL-3RR set up message i.e. Sent to VLR. This MSG. contains
called party no. and description of required services and some supplementary services.
(b) MSC receives the above message, analyse the request and checks whether it can accepts it
depending upon its capacity to provide the service. If everything is OK, then on one hand MSC
starts establish through network and on other hand send RIL-3RR call proceeding msg. once MS
receives this msg it enters mobile originated call proceeding (noc). In call set up and call
proceeding msg b/w MS & BTS uses SDCCH.
(c) After above completion, MSC sends assignment request msg to BSC in order to start TCH
allocation.
 (d) once BSC receives assignment request msg ,it sends physical context msg to BTS ,by using
msg BSC interfaces actual timing advances from BTS in order to start the TCH allocation.
(e) after this BSC sends channel activation msg to BTS in order to activate TCH ,this msg
contains information like channel no., activation type, channel mode, channel type, channel
identity, encryption information, power level of MS & BTS & finally TA.
(f) BTS sends back channel activation ACK this msg. Contains current TDMA frame no.
(g) BSC receives ACK & sends assignment commond message to ms through BTS using
SDCCH. At this stage, TCH is allocated available to MS.
(h)after receiving assignment commond msg the MS sends SABH(set asynchronous balance
mode) msg to BTS using FACH .this is 1-2 msg & contains L3 information. the contains of the
msg are service request ,ciphering key set,ms ,identity.
(i) Once BTS receives SABH, it sends estb. Indication msg. to BSC this msg has two uses.
(a) Description of ch, MS is on FACCH.
(b) BTS identifies main signaling link & add received information in L3.
(j) BTS after sending ESTB indication msg. to BSC it sends UA (unnumbered ack) msg to MS .
UA is L2 ACK msg used for L-2 link in LAPD protocol.
5. TCH SEIZED PART:-
(a) MS after receiving UA message sends assignment complete msg to MSC, the MS informs
to the n/w, it is now on TCH & everything is ok.BSC ack CH seizure to MSC.
(b) BSC sends channel release to msg. to BTS as MS is on TCH & there is no need for
signalling so SDCCH is released and ACK is send back.
(c) On other side MSC will receive information from external n/w report of the requested call
established, as seen by switch in-charge that the called party has been alerted of incoming call.
(d) Once called party lifts the phone, MSC sends connect msg to MS using FACCH at air
interface. After receiving msg MS enters to speech path.
(e) After that MS sends ACK to MSC in FACCH, MS tells n/w that TCH is activated & it’s on
speech path.
6. CONVERSATION PART:- During conversation ,MS will send measurement reports to BTS
using SACCH 1/SEC or 2/sec at rate of 13 bps or 26 bps. The report contain information like, RX
level ,quality, TA, power control, present BCCH, serving cell, information about neighbour. MS
will have time to decode neighbouring cells when.
1. after receiving and before transmission.
2. before receiving and after transmission.
3. BTS sends these measurement reports to BSC.
7. RELEASE BY MS: -
(a) after conversation part is over, MS sends disconnect msg to MSC using FACCH, this msg
will clear the end to end connection.
(b) when MSC determines that has call no more reason to exist , it sends release msg to MS
,which answers back with an ACK to MSC only then lower connections released & mobile
returned to idle state.
(c) Finally release the RF channels.
8. STOP: - this ends call processing.
40. Difference between FDM and TDM?
Ans.

41. Explain CNN.

Ans.
A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is comprised of one or more convolutional layers (often
with a subsampling step) and then followed by one or more fully connected layers as in a
standard multilayer neural network.
ADVANTAGES:
 The architecture of a CNN is designed to take advantage of the 2D structure of an input
image (or other 2D input such as a speech signal). This is achieved with local connections
and tied weights followed by some form of pooling which results in translation invariant
features.
 Another benefit of CNNs is that they are easier to train and have many fewer parameters
than fully connected networks with the same number of hidden units.

42. Explain OSI Layers.

Ans. The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to
implement protocols in seven layers. The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It divides network communication into seven
 layers. Layers 1-4 are considered the lower layers, and mostly concern themselves with moving
data around. Layers 5-7, the upper layers, contains application-level data. Networks operate on
one basic principle: "pass it on." Each layer takes care of a very specific job, and then passes the
data onto the next layer.
The 7 Layers of the OSI
In the OSI model, control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in
one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up
the hierarchy. The OSI model takes the task of inter-networking and divides that up into what is
referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following 7 layers.
 Physical (Layer 1)
 Data Link (Layer 2)
 Network (Layer 3)
 Transport (Layer 4)
 Session (Layer 5)
 Presentation (Layer 6)
 Application (Layer 7)

Physical (Layer 1)
OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal — through
the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and
receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast
Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission
protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and
frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access
Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how
a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer
controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2,
HDLC, Frame Relay.

Network (Layer 3)
Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual
circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this
layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet
sequencing.
Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

Transport (Layer 4)
OSI Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.
Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session
layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.
Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to
transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts
data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes
called the syntax layer.
Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT,
JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.

Application (Layer 7)
OSI Model, Layer 7, supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any
constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer
provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the
application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.
Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP

43.What is router and modem? What is the difference between the two?

Ans. Routers and modems are two of the most common computer peripherals, yet many people
don't know the function of each one. While the two devices may look similar, they each serve a
difference purpose. Fortunately, the functions of the two devices are pretty easy to understand.

Router: A router is a small box that allows multiple computers to join the same network (see
below).

While early routers provided several Ethernet ports for wired connections, most modern routers
offer wireless connectivity as well. These "wireless routers" often have one or two moveable
antennas on the sides, though some models house the antennas inside the enclosure. Wireless
routers allow multiple computers and other devices, such as smartphones and tablets, to join the
same network.
While connecting to a router provides access to a local network (LAN), it does not necessarily
provide access to the Internet. In order for devices on the network to connect to the Internet, the
router must be connected to a modem. Therefore, most routers have a specific Ethernet port that is
designed to connect to the Ethernet port of a cable or DSL modem.

Modem: A modem is a device that provides access to the Internet (see below).

The modem connects to your ISP, which typically provides either cable or DSL Internet service.
Cable modems have a coaxial (or "coax") connection, which is the same type of connector found
on a TV or cable box. This connects to a cable port on the wall. DSL modems have a telephone
connector, also called an RJ-11 jack, which connects to a telephone socket on the wall.
By connecting your modem to your router (instead of directly to a computer), all devices connected
to the router can access the modem, and therefore, the Internet. The router provides a local IP
address to each connected device, but they will all have the same external IP address, which is
assigned by your ISP.

Factors Modem Router

Layer Data link layer (Layer 2) Network Layer (Layer 3 devices)

Function Facilitates a connection to Directs data in a network. Passes

the internet by transmitting and data between home computers, and
receiving data over telephone lines. between computers and the modem.

Ports 2.One for connection to ISP. Next 2/4/8

one to connect with router(For
large networks)

Data Packet Packet

Transmission
form

Device Type Inter-networking device Networking device

 Factors Modem Router

Connections Can connect to one PC Can connect to multiple PCs or

using Ethernet port networking devices via Ethernet or
WiFi

Necessary for Yes No, but provides additional

Internet security and allow for multiple
Connection? connections.

Independent? Yes. A modem can work without Routers can share information
a router, delivering information between computers, but cannot
(such as Internet access) to a single connect to the internet without a
PC. modem.

Security No security measures Provides security measures to

protect network

44. What is remote controlling?

Ans. A remote control is a component of an electronic device used to operate the

device wirelessly from a distance.

 For example, in consumer electronics, a remote control can be used to operate devices
such as a television set, DVD player, or other home appliance, from a short distance.

A remote control is primarily a convenience feature for the user, and can allow operation of devices
that are out of convenient reach for direct operation of controls. In some cases, remote controls
allow a person to operate a device that they otherwise would not be able to reach, as when a garage
door opener is triggered from outside or when a Digital Light Processing projector that is mounted
on a high ceiling is controlled by a person from the floor level.

45. Explain Network topologies

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology
It transmits data only in one direction.
Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
It is cost effective.
Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
Used in small networks.
It is easy to understand.
Easy to expand joining two cables together
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
Cables fails then whole network fails.
If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
Cable has a limited length.
It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
Hub can be upgraded easily.
Easy to troubleshoot.
Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
Cost of installation is high.
Expensive to use.
If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
Routing
Flooding
Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
Fully connected.
Robust.
Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
Each connection can carry its own data load.
It is robust.
Fault is diagnosed easily.
Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
Installation and configuration is difficult.
Cabling cost is more.
Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
Easily managed and maintained.
Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
Heavily cabled.
Costly.
If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
It is a combination of two or topologies
Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
Effective.
Scalable as size can be increased easily.
Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
Complex in design.
Costly.

46. Explain IP protocols?

Internet Protocol
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to
another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP
address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.
47. Explain SMTP ?
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving e-
mail. However, since it is limited in its ability to queue messages at the receiving end, it is
usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a
server mailbox and download them periodically from the server. In other words, users typically
use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail.
On Unix-based systems, sendmail is the most widely-used SMTP server for e-mail. A
commercial package, Sendmail, includes a POP3 server. Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP
server and can also be set up to include POP3 support.
48. IPv4 and IPv6 comparative analysis
Description IPv4 IPv6
Address 32 bits long (4 128 bits long (16 bytes). Basic architecture is 64 bits
bytes). Address is for the network number and 64 bits for the host
composed of a number. Often, the host portion of an IPv6 address
network and a host
 Description IPv4 IPv6
portion, which (or part of it) will be derived from a MAC address or
depend on address other interface identifier.
class. Various
address classes are Depending on the subnet prefix, IPv6 has a more
defined: A, B, C, D, complicated architecture than IPv4.
or E depending on
initial few bits. The The number of IPv6 addresses is 1028 (79 228 162
total number of 514 264 337 593 543 950 336) times larger than the
IPv4 addresses is 4 number of IPv4 addresses. The text form of the IPv6
294 967 296. address is
xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx, where
The text form of the each x is a hexadecimal digit, representing 4 bits.
IPv4 address is Leading zeros can be omitted. The double colon (::)
nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn, can be used once in the text form of an address, to
where designate any number of 0 bits. For example,
0<=nnn<=255, and ::ffff:10.120.78.40 is an IPv4-mapped IPv6 address
each n is a decimal
digit. Leading zeros
can be omitted.
Maximum number
of print characters is
15, not counting a
mask.
Address Originally, Allocation is in the earliest stages. The Internet
allocation addresses were Engineering Task Force (IETF) and Internet
allocated by Architecture Board (IAB) have recommended that
network class. As essentially every organization, home, or entity be
address space is allocated a /48 subnet prefix length. This would leave
depleted, smaller 16 bits for the organization to do subnetting. The
allocations using address space is large enough to give every person in
Classless Inter- the world their own /48 subnet prefix length.
Domain Routing
(CIDR) are made.
Allocation has not
been balanced
among institutions
and nations.
Address lifetime Generally, not an IPv6 addresses have two lifetimes: preferred and
applicable concept, valid, with the preferred lifetime always <= valid.
except for addresses
assigned using After the preferred lifetime expires, the address is
DHCP. not to be used as a source IP address for new
connections if an equally good preferred address is
 Description IPv4 IPv6
available. After the valid lifetime expires, the address
is not used (recognized) as a valid destination IP
address for incoming packets or used as a source IP
address.

Some IPv6 addresses have, by definition, infinite

preferred and valid lifetimes; for example link-local
Address Address Resolution IPv6 embeds these functions within IP itself as part
Resolution Protocol is used by of the algorithms for stateless autoconfiguration and
Protocol (ARP) IPv4 to find a neighbor discovery using Internet Control Message
physical address, Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6). Hence, there is no such
such as the MAC or thing as ARP6.
link address,
associated with an
IPv4 address.
Address types Unicast, multicast, Unicast, multicast, and anycast.
and broadcast.
Communications A tool to collect a Same for IPv6, and IPv6 is supported.
trace detailed trace of
TCP/IP (and other)
packets that enter
and leave the
system.
Domain Name Applications accept Same for IPv6. Support for IPv6 exists using AAAA
System (DNS) host names and then (quad A) record type and reverse lookup (IP-to-
use DNS to get an name). An application may elect to accept IPv6
IP address, using addresses from DNS (or not) and then use IPv6 to
socket API communicate (or not).
gethostbyname().
The socket API gethostbyname() only supports IPv4.
Applications also For IPv6, a new getaddrinfo() API is used to obtain
accept IP addresses (at application choice) IPv6 only, or IPv4 and IPv6
and then use DNS addresses.
to get host names
using For IPv6, the domain used for reverse lookups is
gethostbyaddr(). ip6.arpa, and if not found then ip6.int

For IPv4, the

domain for reverse
lookups is in-
addr.arpa.
 Description IPv4 IPv6
Dynamic Host Used to The i5/OS implementation of DHCP does not support
Configuration dynamically obtain IPv6.
Protocol an IP address and
(DHCP) other configuration
information. i5/OS
supports a DHCP
server for IPv4.
File Transfer File Transfer The i5/OS implementation of FTP does not support
Protocol (FTP) Protocol allows you IPv6.
to send and receive
files across
networks.
Fragments When a packet is For IPv6, fragmentation can only occur at the source
too big for the next node, and reassembly is only done at the destination
link over which it is node. The fragmentation extension header is used.
to travel, it can be
fragmented by the
sender (host or
router).
IP header Variable length of Fixed length of 40 bytes. There are no IP header
20-60 bytes, options. Generally, the IPv6 header is simpler than
depending on IP the IPv4 header.
options present.
Network Basic firewall Currently, NAT does not support IPv6. More
Address functions integrated generally, IPv6 does not require NAT. The expanded
Translation into TCP/IP, address space of IPv6 eliminates the address shortage
(NAT) configured using problem and enables easier renumbering.
iSeries Navigator.

49. TCP IP and OSI model questions.Explain and differentiate with application point of
view
TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols
standard, acting as a communication around which the Internet has developed. It is a
gateway between the network and end communication protocol, which allows connection of
user. hosts over a network.
2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
2. In OSI model the transport layer
guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
guarantees the delivery of packets.
model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation
layer and Session layer. layer or Session layer.
5. OSI is a reference model around which
5. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
the networks are built. Generally it is
OSI model.
used as a guidance tool.
6. Network layer of OSI model provides
6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and
connectionless service.
connectionless service.
7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the
7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and
are easily replaced as the technology 8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
changes.
9. OSI model defines services, interfaces
and protocols very clearly and makes 9. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are
clear distinction between them. It is not clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
protocol independent.
10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

50. Explain VoIP working and architecture?

VOIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is the technology for voice conversations with Internet
network or any IP . This means that, it sends the voice signal into digital form in packets rather
than send it in digital form or analog circuits using a mobile phone company or conventional
PSTN (acronym for Public Switched Telephone Network).

The protocols used to send voice signals over the IP network protocol is known as Voice over IP
or IP protocols. These can be seen as commercial applications of the “experimental Network
Voice Protocol (1973) invented for the ARPANET.

Voice over IP can drive through any IP network, including those connected to the Internet, such
as local area networks ( LANs ).

It is very important to differentiate between Voice over IP (VOIP) and telephony over IP.

VOIP is a set of standards, devices, protocols, ultimately the technology which enables voice
over IP protocol.

Telephony over IP phone service is available to the public, so numbered I.164 , made with VOIP
technology.
51. How FTP used and working?

When you want to copy files between two computers that are on the same local network, often
you can simply "share" a drive or folder, and copy the files the same way you would copy files
from one place to another on your own PC.

What if you want to copy files from one computer to another that is halfway around the
world? You would probably use your Internet connection. However, for security reasons, it is
very uncommon to share folders over the Internet. File transfers over the Internet use special
techniques, of which one of the oldest and most widely-used is FTP. FTP, short for "File
Transfer Protocol," can transfer files between any computers that have an Internet connection,
and also works between computers using totally different operating systems.

Transferring files from a client computer to a server computer is called "uploading" and
transferring from a server to a client is "downloading".
Requirements for using FTP

1. An FTP client like Auto FTP Manager installed on your computer

2. Certain information about the FTP server you want to connect to:
a. The FTP server address. This looks a lot like the addresses you type to browse web
sites.
Example : Server address is "ftp.videodesk.net".
Sometimes the server address will be given as a numeric address, like "64.185.225.87".
b. A user name and password. Some FTP servers let you connect to them anonymously.
For anonymous connections, you do not need a user name and password.

To transfer files, provide your client software (Auto FTP Manager) with the server address, user
name, and password. After connecting to the FTP server, you can use Auto FTP Manager's File
Manager to upload, download and delete files. Using the File Manager is a lot like working
with Windows Explorer.

52. Explain Subnetting and supernetting.

Subnetting is the process of dividing an IP network in to sub divisions called subnets. Computers
belonging to a sub network have a common group of most-significant bits in their IP addresses.
So, this would break the IP address in to two parts (logically), as the network prefix and the rest
field. Supernetting is the process of combining several sub networks, which have a common
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) routing prefix. Suppernetting is also called route
aggregation or route summarization.
53. Telnet working and application.

Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional
interactive text-oriented communications facility using a virtual terminal connection.

Two common uses for Telnet:

 Configuring network devices: What you see above is a screenshot from my own ADSL
router; this is a thoroughly modern router with a Web interface and all, but it also accepts
incoming Telnet connections from the local LAN. That means if I ever want to configure
it via Telnet, I can.
 Participating in online communities: Telnet’s text-based nature, and the fact that a
Telnet session often looks like something from the early Seventies, actually make it ideal
for online communities.

54. Explain Virtual Lan ? why and where it is used ?

A virtual LAN (Local Area Network) is a logical subnetwork that can group together a collection
of devices from different physical LANs. Larger business computer networks often set up
VLANs to re-partition their network for improved traffic management.
Several different kinds of physical networks support virtual LANs including both Ethernet and
Wi-Fi.
Benefits of a VLAN
When set up correctly, virtual LANs can improve the overall performance of busy networks.
VLANs are intended to group together client devices that communicate with each other most
frequently. The traffic between devices split across two or more physical networks ordinarily
needs to be handled by a network's core routers, but with a VLAN that traffic can be handled
more efficiently by network switches instead.
VLANs also bring additional security benefits on larger networks by allowing greater control
over which devices have local access to each other. Wi-Fi guest networks are often implemented
using wireless access points that support VLANs.
55. TFTP use and working?

Trivial File Transfer Protocol, is a simple high-level protocol for transferring data servers use to
boot diskless workstations, X-terminals, and routers by using User Data Protocol (UDP).

Although it may sound similar, TFTP works differently than FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol). Although TFTP is also based in FTP technology, TFTP is
an entirely different protocol. Among the differences is that TFTP’s transport protocol uses UDP
which is not secure while FTP uses Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to secure
information.

TFTP was primarily designed to read or write files by using a remote server. However, TFTP is a
multi-purpose protocol that can be leveraged for an array of different tasks.

TFTP Configuration Uses

IT pros and Sys Admins typically use TFTP configuration for:

 Transferring files
 Remote-booting without hard drives
 Upgrading codes
 Backing up network configurations
 Backing up router configuration files
 Saving IOS images
 Booting PCs without a disk

56. What are different types of losses in wires? (Core Branch)

57. On which platform GSM works? (Core Branch)
58. On which platform RF works? (Core Branch)
59. TV Remote work on which Frequency? (Core Branch)
60. What is band width of Satellite communication? (Core Branch)
61. What are IR sensors?How do they work? (Core Branch)
62. What is Productivity? (Core Branch)

63. how will you connect printer to your pc ?

1. Locate your printer cable.

2. Plug one end of the cable into your printer.
3. Plug the other end of the cable into your pc.
 4. Install any software that came with the printer.
5. Make sure your printer is plugged into a power source.

64. What are the possible causes if Internet is not working on your device?
1. Issue with router, May be router is not working properly.
2. Issue with ISP.
3. May be the ISP server is down
4. Issue with wi fi port.

65. what is Domain name server ?

Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They
maintain a directory of domain names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses. This is necessary because, although domain names are easy for people to
remember, computers or machines, access websites based on IP addresses. A domain,
such as example.org , is registered and IP addresses need to be assigned to
hostnames under it. An IP address block requires reverse DNS entries ( IP to
hostname). A backup or second name server, called a slave, will reply to queries.

66 How API works?

 APIs act as a doorway that people with the right key can get through. Want to give
specific people—but not everyone—access to your assets? An API acts like a doorway to
your server and database that those with an API key (or a paid subscription) can use to
access whatever assets you choose to reveal. A key could give a user read access, write
access, or both—it’s up to you
 APIs let applications (and devices) seamlessly connect and communicate. An API can
create a seamless flow of data between apps and devices in real time. This not only lets
developers create apps for any format—a mobile app, a wearable, or a website—it allows
apps to “talk to” one another. This is the heart of how APIs create rich user experiences
in apps.
 APIs let you build one app off another app. Entire businesses and popular web
applications like Hootsuite, Zapier, and IFTT (If This Then That) have been built solely
on creative ways to leverage APIs. APIs allow you to write applications that use other
applications as part of their core functionality. Not only can developers get access to
reusable code and technology, they can leverage other technology for their own apps.
 APIs act like a “universal plug.” What if all of those people with keys to your door
speak different languages? With an API, it doesn’t matter—everyone, no matter what
machine, operating system, or mobile device they’re using—gets the same access. Think
about those universal outlet plugs that let you use an appliance in any country’s socket.
An API is a lot like that; it standardizes access.
  APIs act as a filter. Security is a big concern with APIs—after all, you’re giving
outsiders access to your servers and all they contain—which is why they have to be
carefully constructed. APIs should give controlled access to assets, with permissions and
other measures that keep too much traffic—or malicious traffic—from bringing down
your server. This is a very important API design consideration for industries that are
heavily regulated, like healthcare and finance.

67. What is a security system?

The most basic definition of any security system is found in its name. It is literally a means or
method by which something is secured through a system of interworking components and
devices.

In this instance, we're talking about home security systems, which are networks of integrated
electronic devices working together with a central control panel to protect against burglars and
other potential home intruders.

A typical home security system includes:

 A control panel, which is the primary controller of a home's security system

 Door and window sensors
 Motion sensors, both interior and exterior
 Wired or wireless security cameras
 A high-decibel siren or alarm
 A yard sign and window stickers

How does a security system work?

Home security systems work on the simple concept of securing entry points into a home with
sensors that communicate with a control panel or command center installed in a convenient
location somewhere in the home.

The sensors are typically placed in doors that lead to and from a house as well as easily
accessible windows, particularly any that open, especially those at ground level. Open spaces
inside of homes can be secured with motion sensors.

Control Panel: The control panel is the computer that arms and disarms the security systems,
communicates with each installed component, sounds the alarm when a security zone is
breached, and communicates with an alarm monitoring company.

They typically feature a touchpad for easy programming and interaction, is where pass codes are
entered to arm and disarm the system, can work on voice commands, and can be programmed to
work with wireless remote controls called key fobs.

Door and Window Sensors: Door and window sensors are comprised of two parts installed
adjacent to each other. One part of the device is installed on the door or window and the other on
the door frame or window sill. When a door or window is closed, the two parts of the sensor are
joined together, creating a security circuit.

When the security system is armed at the control panel, these sensors communicate with it by
reporting that the point of entry is secure. Should a monitored door or window suddenly be
opened, the security circuit is broken and the control panel interprets this as a breach of a secured
zone. A high-decibel alarm is sounded and in most instances the alarm monitoring company is
automatically notified.

Motion Sensors: These security components, when armed, protect a given space by creating an
invisible zone that cannot be breached without sounding an alarm. These are typically used to
protect rooms containing valuables, as well as areas less frequented in larger homes.

Surveillance Cameras: Available in both wired and wireless configurations, surveillance

cameras can be used in several different ways as part of an overall security system.

Typical uses include monitoring:

 Hard to see or distant areas of your property

 Remote buildings like garages, barns, and workshops
 Entry points, both exterior and interior, like garage doors and front doors

Surveillance cameras can be accessed remotely on computers, smartphones, and tablets. They are
often used in this method when homeowners are out of town, to watch for deliveries and other
service personnel like caregivers and landscapers, and to monitor the arrival of children after
school. They can also be used to record any security breaches, which could result in having
footage of a home invasion, including a good look at the burglars and perhaps even the vehicle
they drove.
High-decibel Alarm: Loud enough for neighbors to hear, home security alarms serve a few
different purposes. First, they alert the people inside the house that a problem occurred. They're
also shrill enough to send a burglar running while also notifying nearby neighbors to the
situation.

Yard Sign and Window Stickers: On the surface, these items might seem like nothing more
than marketing tools for alarm companies, but they play important roles in home security. When
you place a security company's sticker in a front window and plant their sign in your front yard,
you are telling burglars you home is professionally protected and not a wise choice for an
attempted burglary. They are effective at conveying this message and should be used as
recommended by the security company.

68. What is Server Security?

Server security is the protection of information assets that can be accessed from a server.

Server security is important for any organization that has a physical or virtual Web server
connected to the Internet. It requires a layered defense and is especially important for
organizations with customer-facing websites.

User Level Security

We describe user-level security first because its simpler. In user-level security, the client sends a
session setup request directly following protocol negotiation. This request provides a username
and password. The server can either accept or reject that username/password combination. At
this stage the server has no idea what share the client will eventually try to connect to, so it can't
base the accept/reject on anything other than:

1. the username/password.
2. the name of the client machine.

If the server accepts the username/password credentials, the client expects to be able to mount
shares (using a tree connection) without further specifying a password. It expects that all access
rights will be as the username/password credentials set that was specified in the initial session
setup.

It is also possible for a client to send multiple session setup requests. When the server responds,
it gives the client a uid to use as an authentication tag for that username/password. The client can
maintain multiple authentication contexts in this way (WinDD is an example of an application
that does this).

Windows networking user account names are case-insensitive, meaning that upper-case and
lower-case characters in the account name are considered equivalent. They are said to be case-
preserving, but not case significant. Windows and LanManager systems previous to Windows
NT version 3.10 have case-insensitive passwords that were not necessarily case-preserving. All
Windows NT family systems treat passwords as case-preserving and case-sensitive.
Example Configuration

The smb.conf parameter that sets user-level security is:

security = user

This is the default setting since Samba-2.2.x.

Share-Level Security

In share-level security, the client authenticates itself separately for each share. It sends a
password along with each tree connection request (share mount), but it does not explicitly send a
username with this operation. The client expects a password to be associated with each share,
independent of the user. This means that Samba has to work out what username the client
probably wants to use, because the username is not explicitly sent to the SMB server. Some
commercial SMB servers such as NT actually associate passwords directly with shares in share-
level security, but Samba always uses the UNIX authentication scheme where it is a
username/password pair that is authenticated, not a share/password pair.

To understand the MS Windows networking parallels, think in terms of MS Windows 9x/Me

where you can create a shared folder that provides read-only or full access, with or without a
password.

Many clients send a session setup request even if the server is in share-level security. They
normally send a valid username but no password. Samba records this username in a list of
possible usernames. When the client then issues a tree connection request, it also adds to this list
the name of the share they try to connect to (useful for home directories) and any users listed in
the user parameter in the smb.conf file. The password is then checked in turn against these
possible usernames. If a match is found, then the client is authenticated as that user.

Where the list of possible user names is not provided, Samba makes a UNIX system call to find
the user account that has a password that matches the one provided from the standard account
database. On a system that has no name service switch (NSS) facility, such lookups will be from
the /etc/passwd database. On NSS enabled systems, the lookup will go to the libraries that have
been specified in the nsswitch.conf file. The entries in that file in which the libraries are specified
are:

passwd: files nis ldap

shadow: files nis ldap
group: files nis ldap

In the example shown here (not likely to be used in practice) the lookup will check /etc/passwd
and /etc/group, if not found it will check NIS, then LDAP.
Example Configuration

The smb.conf parameter that sets share-level security is:

security = share