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CHEMISTRY!STAGE!3!–!UNITS!3!A/B!
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IN$DEPTH!COMPENDIUM!
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BY!
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DANIEL!PALETZ!AND!CO.!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

FOREWORD'
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The! following! abridgement! of! the! Chemistry! for! Western! Australia! textbook,! was! prepared! with!
mindful!intent,!as!a!means!of!assisting!students!in!their!studies!over!the!yearQ12!Chemistry!Stage!3!
course.!Acknowledgment!must!be!give!to!Mr!and!Mrs!Lewis!for!their!efforts!in!curating!their!textbook!
in!accordance!with!the!Chemistry!Syllabus!and!for!their!continued!contribution!to!education!in!Western!
Australia.!Furthermore,!I’d!like!to!acknowledge!Mrs.!F!Paioff!for!her!laudable!teaching!and!advice!over!
the!past!years,!as!well!as!my!conversant!cohort!for!their!numerous!contributions!over!the!semesters.!!!
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TABLE'OF'CONTENTS'
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Atomic'Structure'' ! ! ! Page!3!
Solutions'' ! ! ! Page!18!
Reactions' ! ! ! Page!25!
Rates'Of'Reaction'' ! ! ! Page!31!
Equilibrium'' ! ! ! Page!34!
Acids'and'Bases'' ! ! ! Page!47!
Volumetric'Analysis' ! ! ! Page!58!
Redox'Chemistry' ! ! ! Page!64!
Redox'Applied'' ! ! ! Page!75!
Organic'Chemistry' ! ! ! Page!77!
Organic'–'Functional'Groups' ! ! ! Page!85!
Standard'Reduction'Potentials' ! ! ! Page!96!
Periodic'Table'and'Data'Sheet' ! ! ! Page!97!
Ion'Revision'' ! ! ! Page!98!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

ATOMIC'STRUCTURE''
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Subatomic'Particle' Position'in'the'atom' Relative'Charge'' Relative'Mass'
Proton! Nucleus! +1! 1!
Neutron! Nucleus! 0! 1!
Electron! Moving! rapidly! $1! 1/1836!
around!nucleus!
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•! Note!that!the!nucleus!is!nearly!100,000!times!smaller!than!the!volume!of!the!atom,!yet!makes!
up!the!majority!of!its!mass.!Therefor!a!large!proportion!of!the!atom!is!empty!space.!!!
o! The!Proton!represents!the!atomic!number!(Z)!
o! The!Protons+Neutrons!represent!the!mass!number!(A)!
•! Isotopes' are! atoms! of! the! same! element! that! have! a! different! numbers! of! neutrons,! and!
therefor!have!different!mass!numbers.!!
•! Neutral'atoms'have!their!protons!=!electrons!!
•! Charged!atoms,!called!Ions!either!have!lost!or!gained!electrons.!When!this!happens!we!attach!
a!+!or!–!subscript!to!their!symbol.!!
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ELECTRON'ARRANGEMENT''
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•! Unique!chemical!properties!of!elements!result!from!the!number!of!electrons!they!have!and!
in!what!arrangement.!!
•! Depending!on!the!amount!of!energy!the!electrons!have,!the!occupy!regions!of!space!around!
the!nucleus!in!an!orderly!(1!2!3..)!manner.!These!regions!of!space!are!called!energy!levels!
or!shells.!
! Shell!number! Maximum!electrons!in!the!shell!
1! 2!
! 2! 8!
! 3! 18!!!We!assume&8!for!purpose!of!ease.!!
2
! nth!shell! 2n !
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•! Electron! shells! are! depicted! using! the! Bohr! model! however! this! inaccuracy! suggests! that!
electrons!travel!is!specific!circular!paths.!!
•! In! reality! it! is! not! possible! to! determine! the! exact! location! or! path! of! an! electron,! only! he!
probability!of!location!an!electron!in!a!given!religion!can!be!predicted.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

IONISATION'ENERGY'
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•! Ionisation'energy!is!the!energy!required!to!remove!an!electron!from!an!atom!or!ion.!!
o! First!ionisation!energy!–!energy!required!to!remove!the!outermost!electron!from!1!
mole!of!atoms!of!an!element!in!gaseous!state.!!
"! Example:!Mg!gas!a!first!ionisation!energy!of!744kJ!mol$1,!!!requires!744kJ!of!
energy!to!remove!the!outermost!electron!from!1mole!of!Mg(g)!atoms.!!
o! Second! ionization! energy! –! Energy! required! to! move! the! outermost! electron! from!
1mole!of!+1!ions,!and!so!on..!
o! Successive! ionisation! energies! increase,! as! there! is! a! stronger! force! of! attraction!
between!the!outer!electrons!and!the!positive!charge!of!the!nucleus.!!
"! Electrons! being! removed! from! ions! with!
successively!larger!positive!chargers.!!
"! Outer! shell! electrons! and! consecutively!
becoming!closer!to!the!nucleus.!!
o! Successive!Ionisation!energies!presented!on!a!graph!
depict! the! dramatic! change! in! energy! required! to!
remove! an! electron! from! two! different! electron!
shells.!!
•! Periodic'table'trends'for!Ionisation!Energy!!
o! Increases! when! moving! across' a' period.! Due! to! the! core! charge! increases! as! the!
number!of!protons!increase,!while!the!number!of!inner!shell!electrons!remaining!the!
same.!!
o! Decreases!when!moving!down'a'group.!Due!to!there!being!greater!distance!between!
the!valance!electrons!and!the!nucleus,!as!well!as!an!increase!in!the!number!of!inner!
shell!electrons!shielding!the!valance!electrons.!!
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Periodic'Table'Trends''
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•! The!atomic!radius,!ionisation!energy!and!electronegativity!of!an!element!each!depend!on!two!
opposing!factors:!!
o! The!number!of!electrons!in!an!atom,!and!the!shells!occupied!by!these!electrons.!!!
The!more!shells!occupied,!the!further!the!outmost!electrons!will!be!from!the!nucleus.!!
o! The!positive!charge!of!the!nucleus.!The!larger!the!positive!charge!of!the!nucleus!(due!
to! either! the! no.! of! protons! or! loss! of! relative! electrons)! the! greater! the! force! of!
attraction!between!it!and!the!outermost!valence!electrons.!!
"! However,!the!valence!electrons!do!no!experience!the!full!nuclear!charge!of!
the!nucleus,!as!the!inner!shell!electrons!shield!the!attractive!forces.!!
"! Instead!we!use!a!concept!called!core!charge!to!represent!the!force!felt!by!the!
outermost!electrons.!
"! Core'charge!=!no.!of!protons!–!no.!of!inner!shell!electrons.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

ATOMIC'RADIUS''
•! The! atomic! radius! or! size! of! an! atom! is! depended! upon! the! number! of! electrons,! shells! in!
which!these!are!located!and!the!charge!of!the!atom.!!
•! Increases!going!down'a'group.!Due!to!increasing!number!of!electrons.!Going!down!a!group,!
successively! the! valance! electrons! are! in! a! shell! further! from! the! nucleus,! thus! atomic! size!
increases!down!a!group.!!!
o! Despite!the!apparent!increase!in!positive!charge!down!a!group!(increased!protons),!
this!does!not!“pull”!the!electrons!closer!to!the!nucleus!as!the!inner!shell!electrons!
“block”!its!force.!!
•! Decreases! going! across' a' period,! except! for! period! 1.! Due! to! the! positive! charge! (no.! of!
protons)!increasing!across!a!period,!and!because!the!valance!electrons!are!in!the!same!shell,!
a!greater!attractive!force!is!“felt”!and!atoms!are!pulled!closer!to!the!nucleus.!!
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IONISATION'ENERGY''
•! Ionisation'energies!decrease'down'a'group!because!the!distance!between!the!nucleus!and!
the!electron!being!removed!is!greater.!!
o! Outermost!electron!will!not!be!as!strongly!attracted!to!the!nucleus!and!thus!requires!
less!energy!to!be!removed.!!
o! Because!the!core!charge!remains!the!same!down!a!group,!the!number!of!protons!in!
an!atom!has!little!effect!on!the!forces!felt!by!the!outermost!electrons.!!
•! Ionisation'energies'increase'across'a'period'because!as!like!in!atomic!radius,!the!core!charge!
increases!across!a!period,!this!increasing!the!“pull”!felt!by!the!outermost!electrons.!Therefor!
atoms!are!pulled!closer!to!the!nucleus.'
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ELECTRONEGATIVITY''
•! Electronegativity!is!defined!as!the!electron'attracting'power!of!an!atom!in!a!molecule.!!
•! Note!that!if!two!atoms!have!the!same!core!charger(attraction!force),!the!smaller!atom!will!be!
more!electronegative.!!
•! Common!trends!in!electronegativity!include:!!
o! Metals!have!low!electronegativity!values!!!have!few!relativity!loosely!held!valance!
electron.!!
o! Non$metals! have! high! electronegativity! values! as! they! generally! have! stronger!
attraction!for!electrons.!This!is!observed!in!the!formation!of!negative!ions!(eg:!O2$)!
•! Electronegativity'increase'across'a'period.!Across!a!period,!atomic!radius!decreases!and!the!
core! charge! increases,! which! leads! to! an! increase! in! the! electron! attracting! power! of! the!
atoms.!!
o! The!extra!electron!in!the!outer!shell!for!each!successive!element!does!not!“shield”!the!
progressive!increase!in!positive!nuclear!charge.!!
! Atom! Elec.!Config.! Core!charge!!
! Nitrogen! 2,5! (7$2)!=!+5!
"! Example:!! Oxygen! 2,6! (8$2)!=!+6!
Oxygen!has!a!greater!core!charge,!and!is!smaller,!and!therefore!an!
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incoming!electron!will!be!more!strongly!attracted!to!it.!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Electronegativity'decreases'down'a'group'because!there!is!a!greater!distance!between!the!
nucleus!and!an!incoming!electron,!as!the!atom!becomes!larger.!'
o! The!increasing!nuclear!charge!is!“cancelled!out”!by!the!proportional!increase!in!full!
shells!between!the!nucleus!and!incoming!electrons.!Therefor!the!core!charge!is!the!
same!for!all!elements!down!a!group.!'
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Oxygen! (2,6),!core!charge!of!(8$2)!=!+6!
! Sulfur! (2,8,6),!core!charge!of!(16$10)!=!+6!
! Example' An!incoming!electron!would!experience!a!force!of!+6!from!both!atoms,!
! however!because!oxygen!is!a!smaller!atom,!the!electron!can!approach!
the!charge!more!closely!and!this!makes!oxygen!more!electronegative.!!
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Summarizing&Figure& !
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STRONG'BONDING''
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METALLIC'BONDING''
•! Defined!as!the!electrostatic'attraction!between!positive'ions!in!a!sea!of!delocalized'electrons!
that!holds!the!positive!ions!together.!!
o! Metal!atoms!release!their!outer!shell!electrons!so!they!are!free!to!move!among!the!
positive!ions!produced!in!this!ionisation!process.!!
"! In!a!solid!state,!positive!ions!are!arranged!in!a!orderly!lattice,!yet!in!a!liquid!
state!ions!are!free!to!move!randomly.!!
o! Because!the!delocalised!electrons!are!not!attracted!to!just!one!particular!ion,!metallic!
bonds!are!said!to!be!nonKdirectional.!!
•! The! strength! of! the! bond! depends! on! the! charge! of! positive! ions! and! the! number! of!
delocalised!electrons.!!
o! Eg:!Na+!has!1!electron!per!positive!ion,!while!Mg2+!has!2!electrons!per!positive!ion,!
therefore!Mg2+!will!have!stronger!metallic!bonding.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

PHYSICAL'PROPERTIES''
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Property'' Explanation''
High' electrical' •! Delocalised!electrons!are!free!to!move!under!the!influence!of!an!electric!
conductivity' in' field.!!
solid' and' liquid' •! Electrons! flow! away! from! the! negative! end! of! the! metal! towards! the!
states'' positive!end.!

Good' heat' •! Kinetic! energy! is! transferred! when! one! particle! collides! with! a!
conductivity' in' neighbouring!particle!and!so!on!through!the!lattice.!!
solid' and' liquid' •! Delocalised!electrons!are!free!to!move!through!the!lattice!of!positive!
states' ions,!they!can!transfer!kinetic!energy!with!ease.!!

Malleability' and' •! Due!to!the!non$directional!bonding.!!

ductility'' •! As! delocalised! electrons! are! free! to! move! in! the! region! between! the!
ions,! when! positive! ions! are! shifted,! the! electrostatic! attractions! still!
' exist,!thus!holding!the!structure!together.!!!

Generally' high' •! Strong!electrostatic!attractions!between!the!delocalised!electrons!and!

melting' points,' positive!ions.!Varies!between!metals!with!different!number!of!valence!
boiling'points'' electrons.!
•! Going!down'a'group!in!the!periodic!table,!the!melting'points'decrease'
' because! the! positive! ions! increase! in! size.! While! the! charge! on! each!
positive! ion! stays! the! same! (and! the! number! of! delocalised! electrons!
per!positive!ion),!the!ion’s!surface!area!over!which!this!positive!charge!
is! spread! becomes! larger.! Therefor! the! forces! of! attraction! are! more!
spread!out,!and!thus!weaker.!!

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CHEMICAL'PROPERTIES'
•! Metals!have!lower'ionisation'energies!than!non$metals,!and!so!when!a!metal!reacts!with!a!
non$metal!it!loses!its!outermost!electrons!to!form!positive!ions.!In!this!reaction,!the!metal'is'
oxidised!and!thus!acts!as!the!reductant.!!
o! Example:!Na!forms!Na+!as!it!only!has!1!valance!electron!its!outer!shell!(2,8,1),!and!thus!
its!first!ionisation!energy!is!relativity!small.''
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Main'Group'metals'and'Transition'Metals''
•! Metals! in! groups! 1$2,13$16! are! main' group' metals' –! moderate! MP! and! BP,! relatively! soft,!
form!+1/+2/+3!ions!respectively,!form!colourless!(white)!compounds!
•! Metals! in! groups! 3$12! are!transition' metals' –! high! MP! and! BP,! hard,! form! positive! ions! of!
variable!charge,!often!form!coloured!compounds.!!
Alloys'
•! By!mixing!a!metal!with!other!metals!or!non$metals,!the!properties!of!metals!can!be!altered!to!
make!it!more!suitable!for!a!particular!use.!!
•! Alloys!have!the!same!basic!metallic!structure!of!pure!metals,!though!the!atoms!of!impurity!tend!to!
disrupt!the!orderly!nature!of!the!metallic'lattice!making!it!difficult!for!layers!of!positive!ions!to!slide!
over!one!another,!hence!alloys!tend!to!be!harder'and'stronger!than!the!pure!metal.!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

IONIC'BONDING''
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•! Defined!as!the!strong!electrostatic'attraction!that!occurs!between!positive'and'negative'ions.!!
o! In!the!solid'state!these!oppositely!charged!ions!are!arranged!in!orderly'lattice!so!that!
each! positive! ion! is! surround! by! a! negative! ion.! In! liquid' state! the! positive! and!
negative!ions!are!free'to'move!through!the!solution.!(Ie:!can!transfer!current,!ect..)!!
o! Bonding! is! nonKdirectional! meaning! that! when! like! charged! layers! come! into! close!
proximity!they!repel!one!another!causing!the!lattice!to!shatter.!!
o! Bond'Strength!is!determined!by!the!difference!between!electronegativities.!!
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Writing'Ionic'Formula''
•! Ions! can! be! monatomic! ions! (composed! of! only! one! type! of! atom)! or! polyatomic! ions!
(composed!of!more!than!one!type!of!atom)!–!atoms!held!together!by!covalent!bonds.!
•! Positive!and!negative!ions!combine!in!a!ratio!that!ensures!the!compound!is!neutral.(+=$)!
•! Conventions!when!naming!ions!and!ionic!compounds;!
o! Name!of!positive!ion!is!written!first!–!positive!ions!name!is!same!as!elements!name,!
charge!of!ion!is!placed!in!brackets!after!name!for!transition!metals!
o! Monatomic'negative'ions!are!named!by!adding!'ide'!to!the!end.!
o! Polyatomic'negative'ions!containing!oxygen,!the!name!often!ends!in!'ite'!or!'ate'.!For!
elements! with! 2! ions! containing! oxygen,! ion! with! less! oxygens! is! 'ite'! and! ion! with!
more!is!'ate'!!
o! For!compounds'containing'water!of!crystallisation,!number!of!water!molecules!and!
word!water!are!written!after!name!e.g.!copper!sulfate$5$water!
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PHYSICAL'PROPERTIES'
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Property'' Explanation''
NonKconductors' of' •! Ions!are!not!free!to!move!as!they!are!held!in!rigid!lattices!!
electricity'in'solid'state' !
Good' •! Ions!break!away!from!rigid!lattice!and!are!free!to!move!under!the!influence!of!
conductors'of'electricity' an!electrical!potential.!Positive!ions!move!towards!negative!end!and!visa!versa.!!!
in' molten/aqueous' !
state'
Hard/Brittle'' •! Electrostatic!attractions!holding!ions!in!the!lattice!is!strong!!
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•! Brittleness!is!due!to!directional'bonding.!When!layers!of!ions!are!pushed!in!a!
manner!that!causes!like$charged!ions!to!come!in!close!proximity,!they!repel!and!
shatter.!
High' melting' point' and' •! Strength! of! electrostatic! attractions! ensures! that! much! energy! is! required! to!
boiling'point'' overcome!these!forces.!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

CHEMICAL'PROPERTIES''
•! The!most!stable!electron!configuration!normally!entails!having!8!electrons!(or!2!in!some!cases)!
in! the! outermost! shell! (full! octet).! This! is! evident! by! noble! gases! being! the! most! stable!
elements.!!
•! When!a!metal!reacts!with!a!non$metal!there!is!a!transfer!of!one!or!more!electrons!from!each!
of!the!metal!atoms!to!each!of!the!non$metal!atoms,!in!order!for!all!atoms!to!achieve!a!stable!
electron!configuration.!!
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COVALENT'BONDING''
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•! Defined!as!the!Electrostatic'attraction!between!the!shared'electrons!and!positive'nuclei!that!
holds!atoms!together.!!
o! Exist!between!two!non$metals.!!
•! Covalent!Bonding!is'directional,!meaning!that!forces!that!disrupt!the!lattice!will!cause!it!to!
shatter!and!break.!!
•! Covalent!bonds!form!in!the!following!way:!!
o! As!two!atoms!approach!one!another,!the!electrons!that!are!to!be!shared!experience!
an!attraction!towards!the!two!nuclei!of!the!atoms!
o! Electron! clouds! occupied! by! these! electrons! shift! and! combine! so! that! the! most!
probable!place!to!find!the!shared!electrons!is!between!the!two!nuclei!!
o! Electrostatic! attraction! between! the! shared! electrons! and! positive! nuclei! holds! the!
atoms!together.!!
•! When!atoms!form!covalent!bonds!they!usually!gain'a'share!in!sufficient!electrons'to'achieve!
a!noble!gas!configuration!(full'octet).!Different!numbers!of!electrons!can!be!shared!between!
two!atoms:!!
o! Single'covalent'bond!–!two!atoms!share!one!pair!(2!electrons)!of!electrons!!
o! Double'covalent'bond$!two!atoms!share!two!pairs!(4!electrons)!of!electrons!
o! Triple'covalent'bond$!two!atoms!share!three!pairs!(6!electrons)!of!electrons!
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•! In! many! molecules! not! all! valence! electrons! are! involved! in! the! covalent! bonding.! These!
valence! electrons! not! apart! of! a! covalent! bond! are! lone' pairs! or! nonIbonding' electron.'
Electrons!involved!in!a!covalent!bond!are!bonding'electrons.!!
o! Lone!electron!pairs!and!bonding!electron!pairs!can!be!shown!using!lines,!with!a!single!
line!representing!one!electron!pair,!two!lines!representing!two!electron!pairs!etc.!!
•! Covalent! Coordinate! Bonds! –! Those! bonds! between! an! atom! that! does! not! contribute! any!
electrons,!while!using!another!atoms!electrons!to!gain!a!full!octet.!!
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COVALENT'MOLECULAR'SUBSTANCES''
•! Substances!composed!of!atoms!covalently'bonded!together!in!small!groups.!!
•! Atoms!are!strongly'bonded!in!the!molecules!(intramolecular!forces),!but!between!the!neutral!
molecules!there!are!only!weak'bonds'(intermolecular!forces).!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

PHYSICAL'PROPERTIES''
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Property'' Explanation''
Low'Melting'and'Boiling' •! Bonds!between!molecules!are!weak!and!therefore!little!
Point'' heat! is! required! to! disrupt! or! break! the! intermolecular!
bonds.!!
Solids'are'often'soft' •! Bonds! between! molecules! are! weak! and! little! force! is!
required!to!push!molecules!past!others!in!the!solid!
Do' not' conduct' •! Conduction! of! electricity! requires! mobile! charged!
electricity' in' both' the' particles.! Molecules! of! Covalent! Molecular! Substances!
solid'and'liquid'state' are! neutral! as! the! electrons! and! protons! are! localised!
within!each!molecule.!
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Drawing'Electron'Dot'Diagrams''
•! Write!down!symbols!of!atoms!present!in!correct!arrangement!
o! If!there!are!more!than!2!atoms,!single!atom!is!central!atom!!
o! Tend!to!be!symmetrically!arranged!!
o! O!and!H!atom!are!often!attached!as!an!OH!group!!
o! In!organic!molecules,!carbon!atoms!are!arranged!in!a!chain!
•! Determine!the!total!number!of!valence!electrons!that!should!be!shown!
•! Add! or! subtract! appropriate! number! of! electrons! to! compensate! if! species! is! a! positive! or!
negative!ion!!
•! Position!electrons!around!atoms!(start!with!single!bond!between!each!atom)!!
•! Rearrange!electrons!so!that!each!atom!has!share!of!eight!electrons!
•! If!species!is!an!ion,!draw!square!brackets!around!ion!and!include!its!charge!
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Example:''
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 Chemistry!3AB!

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•! NonKoctet'molecular'compounds!–!there!are!some!molecules!in!which!atoms!have!fewer!or!
more!than!eight!electrons!in!their!outermost!shell.!
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COVALENT'NETWORK'SUBSTANCES''
•! Atoms!are!bonded!together!by!shared!electron!pairs!in!vast!lattice!arrays!!
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PHYSICAL'PROPERTIES'
'
Property!! Explanation!!
Very! high! melting! •! Each! atom! held! to! other! atoms! by! multiple! strong! covalent!
and! boiling! points,! bonds,!much!heat!is!required!to!disrupt!these!forces.!!
hard!!
Brittle!if!broken! •! Once!the!lattice!is!disrupted!in!one!area,!this!will!put!strain!on!
rest!of!lattice!and!it!will!break!apart.!!
Do! not! conduct! •! There!are!no!mobile!charged!particles!able!to!move!in!a!fixed!
electricity! in! solid! or! lattice,! thus! no! charge! can! be! transferred! through! the!
liquid! states! (Except! substance.!!
Graphite)!! !
!
'
Key'Covalent'Network'Examples''
Graphite' Diamond''
$!Carbon!atoms!are!strongly!bonded!in!2$D!layers,!with!weak' I' Each! atom! held! to! other! atoms! by! multiple! strong! covalent!
attractive'forces'present'between'layers,!hence!graphite!is! bonds,!much!heat!is!required!to!disrupt!these!forces.!
soft! and! has! a! slippery! feel! because! layers! can! easily! slide! $!There!are!no!mobile!charged!particles!able!to!move!in!a!fixed!
over!one!another.! lattice,!thus!no!charge!can!be!transferred!through!the!substance.!!
$!Within!layers,!only!three!of!the!valence!electrons!of!each! Extremely!hard!and!Strong!due!to!vast!lattice!of!atoms!!
carbon! atom! are! shared! in! covalent! bonds,! with! the! '
remaining!fourth!electron!being!delocalised!between!layers,!
thus!graphite!is!a!good'conductor'of'electricity.'
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$!11!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

INTERMOLECULAR'BONDING''
'
VAN'DER'WALLS'FORCES!
•! Weak!intermolecular!(between!the!molecules)!forces!that!are!found!in!all!compounds.!!
o! Evidence! is! given! using! the! gas! example,! even!
though! the! molecules! of! Hydrogen! are! neutral,!
there! are! weak! attractive! forces! and! these! allow!
the!gas!to!liquefy!at!low!temperatures.!!
•! Extremely!weak!in!relative!terms,!have!less!than!10%!of!the!
strength!of!the!three!strong!bonding!types.!!
!
Differences'between'Strong'Bonds'and'Intermolecular'Bonds''
Strong'Bonds' •! Attraction! between! positive! and! negative! ions! in! a! lattice—ionic'
bonding' !
•! Attraction! between! positive! metal! ions! and! delocalised! valence!
electrons—! metallic'bonding! !
•! Attraction! between! two! nuclei! and! one! or! more! shared! electron!
pairs—! covalent'bonding!between!atoms!in!molecules!or!in!infinite!
lattices! !
!
Intermolecular' •! Attraction!between!all!types!of!particles!resulting!from!the!particles!
Forces' being!instantaneous!dipoles—dispersion'forces' !
•! Attraction!between!polar!molecules—dipole–dipole'forces' '
•! Attraction! between! polar! molecules! containing! OH,! NH! or! FH!
groups—! hydrogen'bonds! !
•! Attraction! between! polar! solvent! water! molecules! and! dissolved!
ions—! ion–dipole'attractions '
!
!
SHAPES'OF'MOLECULES''
'
Symmetrical!! Linear! $! All! diatomic! Examples:''
! ! molecules!are!linear.!! H 2!
! $! 2! areas! of! negative! HCl!
Symmetrical! charge! BeF2!
! $!Bond'angle'of'180*! !
! !!
! !!
! !
Symmetrical! Trigonal!planar! !! $! Three! areas! of! BCl3!
! negative! charge!
! around!central!atom.!
! $!Bond'angle'of'120*!
!
Symmetrical!
!
!
Tetrahedral! !! $! Four! areas! of! CH4!
!
negative! charge! SiF4!
Symmetrical!
around! the! central!
atom.!
K' Bond' angles' of'
109.5*'

$!12!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

Asymmetrical!! Pyramidal! !! $! 4! areas! of! negative! NH3!

! !! charge,! however! only! PCl3!
! 3! will! be! bonding!
Asymmetrical! pairs.!!
! $! lone! pair! pushes!
! bonding! pairs! closer!
Asymmetrical! together.!!
! $!Bond'angle'of'107*!
! V$Shaped!! $!Either!4!or!3!areas!of! H2O!
2!
! negative! charge! SBr
Asymmetrical! around! the! central! SO2!
! atom.!! !
! !! $!Either!1!or!2!pairs!of! !
! ! lone!electrons.!!
Asymmetrical! ! $!Bond'angle'is'104.5*!
! !!!
!
Asymmetrical!!
! !
!
Asymmetrical!
!
•! Molecules!with!double!or!triple!bonds!still!use!the!VSEPR'principles.''
o! A!double!or!triple!bond!is!considered!as!if!it!is!one!region!of!negative!charge!exerting!
repulsion!on!other!bonding!and!non$bonding!pairs!of!electrons.!!
"! A!multiple!bond!will!have!greater!repulsion!forces!than!a!single!bond.!!
!
BOND'POLARITY''
!
•! NonIPolar'Bonds'–!Covalent!bond!formed!between!two!identical!atoms.!
(eg;!Cl2)!
o! The! two$shared! electrons! between! the! atoms! will! be! evenly'
shared'moving!around!each!atom.!'
o! Pure!covalent!bond.!!'
'
!
•! Polar' Bonds! –! Covalent! bond! formed! between! two! different! atoms,! the!
electrons!are!not!equally!shared.!!
o! Electrons! will! spend! more! time! moving! around! the! atom! with! a!
higher!electronegativity.!!
!
"! Leads!to!an!uneven'distribution'of'charge!in!the!bond,!with!
the!more!electronegative!side!having!a!slight'negative!charge,!and!the!less!
electronegative!side!having!a!slightly'positive!charge.!!
!
•! Electronegativity! in! a! sense! determines' bond' polarity,! the! greater! the! difference! in!
electronegativities!between!the!two!atoms,!the!more!or!less!polar!a!bond!will!be.!!
!
!
!

$!13!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Extreme'Polar'Bonds!$!Two!atoms!with!a!large!difference!in!electronegativities!combine,!such!
as!sodium!and!fluorine,!both!positive!and!negative!ions!are!formed.!!
o! This! bond! is! not! might! not! be! “fully! ionic”! yet! poses! ionic! qualities.! Sometimes!
referred!to!as!distorted!ions!Example!shown:!!
!
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POLARITY'OF'MOLECULES''
!
•! Polar'Molecules!–!Have!an!uneven'charge'distribution,!refers!to!the!molecule!as!a!whole!and!
not!individual!bonds.!!
o! Polar!Molecules!can!also!be!called!electric'dipoles,!which!comprise!of!a!negatively!
charged!region!separated!by!distance!from!a!positively!charged!religion.!!
o! Diatomic!molecules!with!a!single!polar!covalent!bond!(between!2!different!atoms)!are!
only!obviously!polar.!!
"! Therefor! diatomic! molecules! comprising! of! one! type! of! atom! such! as! Cl2,!
where!there!is!an!equal!sharing!of!electrons,!are!non$polar!molecules.!!
o! If!there!is!more!than!one!than!one!polar!covalent!bond!in!the!molecule,!the!overall'
polarity'depends'not!only!on!the!presence!of!polar!bonds!but!also!on!the!symmetry!
of!the!molecule.!!
"! Polar'molecules!are!asymmetrical.!!
•! NonIPolar'Molecules!–!Have!an!even!charge!distribution,!refers!to!the!molecule!as!a!whole!
and!no!individual!bonds.!!
o! Diatomic!molecules!with!identical!atoms!are!obviously!non$polar.!!
o! NonKpolar'molecules'are!symmetrical!in!shape.!!
"! Symmetrical!molecules!are!those!whose!individual!bond!dipoles!cancel!out.!!
o! A!molecule!can!have!individual!polar!bonds!within!the!atom,!but!if!the!molecule!is!
symmetrical!and!its!dipoles!add!to!zero,!overall!the!molecule!will!be!non$polar.!!
Example:''
! $!Symmetrical!arrangement!of!the!! !
! C$H!bonds!around!the!central!atom.!!
! $!The!center!of!the!positive!charge!will!be!
! in!the!same!place!as!the!negatively!
! charged!carbon!atom.!!
! $!Therefor!not!a!dipole!and!thus!is!a!non$
polar!molecule!despite!its!polar!bonds.!
!
!
! !
! $!Lack!of!polarity!can!be!expressed!using! Vectors!facing!the!
! vectors.!! same'way!will!cancel!
$!A!vector!represents!each!individual! and!thus!the!
! !
dipole.! molecule!will!be!non$
' $!To!determine!the!polarity,!all!vectors!are! polar.!
' added!together,!head!to!tale.!! Vectors!facing!
' $!If!it!equals!to!zero,!the!molecule!is!non$ different'ways'will!
' !
! polar.!! be!polar!molecules.!!
' !
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!

$!14!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

DIPOLEKDIPOLE'FORCES''
!
•! Weak! attractive! forces! that! occur! between! polar' covalent' molecules,! that! is,! between!
molecular!dipoles.!!
o! The!positive!end!of!one!Dipole!attracts!the!negative!end!of!another!dipole.!!
o! The!strength!of!dipole$dipole!forces!is!dependent!upon!the!polarity'of'a'molecule,!
and!thus!the!difference!between!the!atoms!electronegativities.!!
o! Thermal!change!disrupts!the!orderly!arrangement!of!molecules!and!thus!disrupts!the!
forces!of!attraction!between!them.!(Dipole$dipole!forces)!
"! As!freezing!point!approaches,!there!is!less!energy!and!
movement,! the! particles! move! closer! together! and!
dipole$dipole!forces!take!effect!again.!!
!
'
DISPERSION'FORCES''
'
•! Dispersion!forces!arise!as!a!result!from!the!random!movement!of!electrons!within!a!molecule,!
which!create!temporary!dipoles.!!
•! NonKpolar'molecules!have!only'dispersion'forces,!while!all'molecules!have!dispersion'forces.!!
o! Only!the!bonding'electrons'in!a!molecule!are!fixed!while!the!rest!are!free!to!move!
about!the!molecule.!!
o! When! the! electrons! are! not' distributed' symmetrically! for! a! temporary! moment!
within!the!molecule,!this!causes!one!side!to!be!slightly!positive!and!the!other!slightly!
negative.!!
•! If!a!molecule!with!an!instantaneous!polarity!comes!into!close!proximity!to!another! atom!or!
molecule,!then!the!instantaneous!dipole!will!induce'polarity!in!this!molecule,!thus!the!two!
temporary!dipoles!will!have!an!attractive!force!between!each!other.!!
o! This!process!of!induction!of!polarity!can!happen!throughout!the!sample,!though!the!
dispersion!forces!dissipate!between!molecules! .!!
•! The!strength'of'dispersion'forces!depends!on!the!size!of!the'electron'cloud.''
o! Therefor! those! molecules! with! a! larger' number' of' electrons' will! have! greater!
dispersion!forces.!!
"! Ie:!Cl2(34e$)!is!a!gas!at!room!temp,!while!Br2(70e$)!is!a!liquid!at!room!temp,!
therefor!Br!would!have!stronger!dispersion!forces!due!to!its!greater!number!
of!electrons.!!
o! Molecular'shape'also!influences!the!strength!of!dispersion!forces.!!
"! The! larger' the' surface' area! over! which! the! electrons! can! develop! an!
instantaneous! dipole,!the!stronger'the'dispersion'force.' '
"! The! closer' the' molecules' can! fit! next! to! one! another,! the! stronger! the'
dispersion!force' !
!
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$!15!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

HYDROGEN'BONDING'
!
•! A! stronger! form! of! dipole$dipole! forces! that! exist! when! hydrogen! is! bonded! to! extremely'
electronegative'atoms,!specifically!N',!O',!F.(!Have!high!electronegativities)!!
o! These!atoms!(N,O,F)!only!have!two!shells!and!thus!their!valence!electrons!are!closer!
to!the!nucleus.!!
•! Requirements!for!hydrogen!bonding:!!
o! Presence!of!one'molecule!of!at!least!one'NH,'OH,'HF!covalent!bond! !
o! Presence!of!another!polar!molecule!containing!at!least!one!N,'
O'or'F!atom!with'a! nonKbonding'pair'of'electrons!attached!
to!this!atom! !
•! Therefore,! hydrogen' bonding' can! be! said! to! be! the! attraction!
between!the'lone'pair!of! electrons!on!the!N,'O'or'F'atom!of!one!polar!
molecule! and! the! partial' positively' charged' hydrogen,! which! is!
bonded!to!the!N,'O'or'F,!on!the!second!polar!molecule.!! !

!Evidence'of'Intermolecular'Bonding'through'Periodic'Trends'
!
!
!
!
!
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!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
•! It! would! be! expected! that! going' down' groups' 15$17(N,O,F)! that! the! strength! of'
intermolecular! forces! would! decrease,! as! their! polarity! (difference! in! electro$negativities)!
would! decrease.! Though! the! influence! of! stronger' dispersion' forces! as! a! result! of! more!
electrons!proves!contrary,!as!there!is!a!clear!steady!increase!in!their!MP!and!BP.!
!
•! Thus! with! this! in! mind,! it! would! be! expected! that! going! down! groups! 15$17(N,O,F),! the!
strength! of! the! intermolecular! forces! would! increase,! though! the! presence' of' hydrogen'
bonding'in!N,!O,!F!hydrides!acts!as!an!outlier'.!!
o! All! hydrides! contain! N,O,F! have! hydrogen! bonding,! making! their! BP! and! MP!
significantly!higher!than!other!compounds!with!the!same!molecular!weight.!!
!
•! Evidence!of!hydrogen!bonding!can!be!found!by!comparing!the!boiling'points!of!hydrogenK
bonded'molecules!consisting!of!Hydrogen!and!atoms!from!the!2nd,!3rd!and!4th!periods.!Those!
molecules!made!up!of!period'2'elements!have!significantly!higher'boiling'points!and!this!is!
due!to!the!stronger!intermolecular!forces!of!hydrogen!bonding.!!
'
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$!16!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Evidence! of! hydrogen! bonding! can! be! found! in! water' (H2O)! due! to! the! higher' than' usual'
boiling'point!as!well!as!the!fact!that!its!hydrogen!bonding!disrupts'the'molecules!and!causes!
them!to!align!in!an!inefficient!way!as!it!freezes.!This!is!why!ice!is!less'dense!than!water.!Most!
substances’!solids!are!denser!than!their!liquids,!however!this!does!not!apply!to!water!due!to!
its!hydrogen!bonding.!!
!
!
!
REAL'BONDING''
!
•! All!bonding!is!electrostatic'in'origin.!The!three!strong!bond!types!covalent,!metallic!and!ionic!
are!all!electrostatic!related.!!
•! With! the! exception! of! pure! metals! and! covalent! bonds! where! the! atoms! involved! are! the!
same,!all!bonding!involves!some!mix!of!these!three!types.! !
•! One!way!of!summarising!these!ideas!is!through!a!bonding'triangle' !
!
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PERIOD'PROPERTY'TRENDS''
'
•! Going!across'a'period,!the!general!trend!for!the!melting'points!is!a!rise!up!until'the'group'14!
elements,!and!then!a!decrease'for'groups'15K18.!This!is!explained!by:!!
o! Groups! 1$2,13! are! metals,! with! an! increasing! number! of! valence! electrons,! thus!
increasing!strength!of!metallic!bonds! !
o! Group!14!elements!are!covalent!network!substances!which!have!very!high!MP's! !
o! Groups!15$18!are!molecular!or!monatomic,!with!only!weak!forces!between! particles!
•! Acid$base! properties! of! oxides! and! hydroxides! change! from! basic! to! amphoteric! to! acidic!
across'a'period!!
!
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$!17!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

&
FORMATION&OF&SOLUTIONS&&
'
A'SOLUTION'DEFINED''
•! A!solution!is!when!two!substances!are!mixed!together!creating!a!homogenous!(uniform!
throughout)!mixture,!in!which!one!substance!has!dissolved!in!the!other.!'
•! When!a!substance!dissolves!in!water,!the!molecules!separate!and!spread!out!amongst!the!
water!molecules.!!
o! If!an!insoluble'substance!such!as!oil!is!added!to!water,!a!heterogeneous'mixture!is!
formed,!in!which!there!are!two!phases!or!a!separation!of!substances.!!
•! Solute!is!the!substance!that!is!being'dissolved'$!present!in!smaller!quantity!!
•! Solvent!is!the!substance!in!which!the!solute'is'dissolved'–!present!in!greater!amount.!!
•! Solutions!can!exist!between!different!phases!of!matter.!!
o! Solid!in!Solid!–!Coins!!
o! Solid!in!liquid!–!Seawater!!
o! Liquid!in!Liquid!–!Beer!(alcohol!and!water)!
o! Gas!in!liquid!–!Fizzy!drink!!
o! Gas!in!Gas!–!Air!(Nitrogen,!CO2!and!others)!
!
THE'SOLUTION'PROCESS''
•! Formation!of!a!solution!involves!the!rearrangement!of!bonds.!!
o! The!bonds!between!the!solute!molecules!need!to!be!broken!
"! The!solute!molecule!disrupt!the!solvent!molecules.!!
"! The!energy!required!to!break!these!bonds!is!taken!from!the!surrounding.!!
o! The!bonds!between!the!solvent!molecules!need!to!be!disrupted!and!thus!broken.!!
o! New!bonds!must!be!formed!between!the!solute!and!solvent!particles.!!
•! The!relative'strength'of!the!bonds!that!need!be!broken!and!the!new!bonds!formed!is!what!
determines'whether!a!solution'will'form.''
o! Energy!is!required!to!break!a!bond!(Endothermic),!thus!the!stronger!the!bond!the!
more!energy!is!required.!
o! Energy!is!released!when!a!new!bond!is!formed!(Exothermic),!thus!the!stronger!the!
bond!formed,!the!grater!the!amount!of!energy!released.!!
o! Because!energy'is'taken'from!the!surroundings!to!brake!the!initial!bonds!of!the!
solvent!and!solute,!therefor!when!new!bonds!form,!if!the!energy!that!is!given!off!is!
more!than!the!original!energy!taken!from!the!surroundings,!than!the!process!with!
be!exothermic,!yet!if!the!energy!given!off!by!the!formation!of!bonds!is!less!than!that!
originally!taken!from!the!surroundings,!than!the!process!will!be!an!endothermic!
one.!!
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$!18!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Therefore,!if!the!bonds!being!broken!are!of!similar!strength!or!stronger!than!the!bonds!
being!formed,!than!the!solute!should!dissolved!in!the!solvent.!!
o! This!can!be!understood!as!a!general!rule!but!other!factors!such!as!entropy(tendency!
of!a!system!to!move!towards!a!state!of!disorder)!also!influence!the!dissolving!
process.!!
'
MIXING'POLAR'SOLUTES'AND'POLAR'SOLVENTS''
•! “like!dissolves!like”!therefor!polar!solute!should!dissolve!in!polar!solvent.!!
•! This!rule!can!be!rationalized!in!terms!of!the!bonds!that!are!broken!and!formed!during!this!
dissolving!process.!!
o! If!the!bonds!that!are!being!broken!are!of!a!similar'type!to!those!being!formed,!then!
it!is!likely!that!the!solute'will'dissolve!in!the!solvent.!!
Example:!!
CH3OH&dissolving&in&water&
;!Bonds!that!need!to!be!broken!are!
the!hydrogen&bonds!between!the!
methanol!molecules!and!the!water!
molecules.!!
;!Bonds!that!need!to!be!formed!
between!the!methanol!and!water!will!
be!hydrogen&bonds.!!

!
o! When!there!is!a!difference'between'the'strength!of!the!bonds!that!need!to!be!
broken,!this!between!the!solute!and!solvent!(One!is!weaker!than!the!other),!than!
the!bonds'being'formed!need!to!be!of!equal'strength!to!at'least'one!of!the!bond!
types!being'broken.''
!
Example(2):!!

Propanone&dissolving&in&water&&
;!The!bonds!that!need!to!be!broken!
are!the!dipole;dipole!forces!between!
the!propanone!molecules!and!the!
hydrogen!bonds!between!water!
molecules.!!
;!The!bonds!that!will!be!formed!
between!the!solute(Propanone)!and!
solvent(Water)!are!hydrogen!bonds.!!
;!Because!at!least!one!component,!the!water!has!similar!strength! !
bonding!to!those!being!formed,!the!solute!will!dissolve!in!the!
solvent.!! !
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$!19!$! !
 Chemistry!3AB!

MIXING'A'NONKPOLAR'SOLUTE'WITH'A'POLAR'SOLVENT'
•! When!a!non$polar!solute!is!added!to!a!polar!solvent,!the!solute!becomes!immiscible!(does!
not!dissolve)!in!the!solvent.!!
o! As!a!result,!two!separate!layers!form,!with!the!more!dense!substance!on!the!
bottom.!!
•! This!lack!of!solubility!can!be!explained!in!terms!of!the!bonds!being!broken!those!that!need!
to!form!for!a!solute!to!dissolve!in!a!solvent.!!
o! If!the!bonds!being!broken!are!stronger!than!the!bonds!being!formed,!than!the!solute!
will!not!dissolve!in!the!solvent!!
Example:!!

CCl4&dissolving&in&water&&
;!Bonds!that!need!to!be!broken!are!the!
dispersion!forces!between!the!CCl4!
molecules!and!the!hydrogen!bonds!
between!water!molecules.!!
;!The!only!bonds!that!can!form!between!
the!CCl4!and!water!molecules!are!
dispersion!forces.!!
!
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MIXING'A'NONKPOLAR'SOLUTE'WITH'A'NONKPOLAR'SOLVENT'
!
•! “like!dissolves!like”!therefor!a!non$polar!solute!should!dissolve!in!a!!polar!solvent.!!
•! This!can!be!explained!in!terms!of!the!bonds!being!broken!and!formed!in!the!dissolving!
process.!!
o! The!bonds!that!need!to!be!broken!and!that!will!form!are!both!dispersion!forces.!
o! Therefore!if!the!bonds!that!are!to!be!broken!and!formed!are!of!the!same!type,!the!
solute!will!be!soluble!in!the!solvent.!!
Example:!!
!
!
'
The!bonds!being!broken!and!
those!forming!are!of!a!similar!
type!(dispersion!forces)!so!it!is!
likely!that!the!solute!will!be!
soluble!in!the!solvent.!!!
!
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The!dispersion!forces!that!could!form!between!the!solvent!and!solute!molecules!are!weaker!than!the!
hydrogen!bonds!that!need!to!break!between!the!water!molecules,!it!is!unlikely!that!solute!will!dissolve!in!the!
solvent!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

SOLUBILITY'OF'ALL'POLAR'SUBSTANCES'IN'WATER'
•! Some!molecules!contain!a!polar!group,!however!the!rest!of!the!molecule!is!essentially!non$
polar.!!
o! An!example!is!butan$1$ol!CH3CH2CH2CH2OH,!although!the!OH!group!is!polar,!and!
therefore!the!molecule!has!some!polarity,!the!long!carbon!chain!does!influence!its!
solubility!in!water.!!
o! In!terms!of!bonds,!although!hydrogen!bonds!would!exist!between!the!water!and!OH!
group,!the!carbon!chain!component!would!have!to!disrupt!the!hydrogen!bonding!of!
the!water,!to!form!dispersion!forces,!this!highlighting!the!difference!in!bond!
strength!and!thus!the!lack!of!solubility.!!
"! Therefor,!the!longer'the'carbon'chain!or!“non$polar”!component!of!a!
molecule,!the!less'soluble!it!will!be!in!water.!!
"! Opposite!to!this,!the!longer!the!carbon!chain,!the!more!soluble!the!
substance!becomes!in!a!non$polar!solvent.!!
!
Summarising'Ideas'
•! Polar!(and!ionic)!solutes!will!dissolve!in!polar!solvents! !
•! Non$polar!solutes!will!dissolve!in!non$polar!solvents! !
•! The!solubility!of!a!polar!solute,!and!an!ionic!compound,!decreases!as!the! polarity!of!the!
solvent!decreases! !
•! The!solubility!of!a!non$polar!solute!increases!as!the!polarity!of!the!solvent! decreases.! !
!
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DISSOLVING'IONIC'COMPOUNDS'IN'WATER'
•! Bonds!will!be!broken!and!new!bonds!will!form.!!
o! When!the!ionic!compound!dissolves,!the!hydrogen'bonds!between!the!water'
molecules'must!be!disturbed!and!the!ionic'bonds!holding!the!ions!in!the!lattice!
must!also!be'broken.!!
o! To!provide!the!energy!required!for!these!bond$breaking!processes,!there!must!be!
new!bonds!formed!between!the!separated!ions!and!the!water!molecules(!or!any!
polar!molecules)!in!the!solution.!!
•! Attractive'forces!do!exist!between!ions'and'polar'molecules!such!as!water.!This!type!of!
attractive!force!is!called!an!ion–dipole'force!and!it!can!be!stronger!than!hydrogen!bonds!but!
not!as!strong!as!strong!bonding.!!
!
Positive&ions!attract!the!partial&
! negatively!charged!‘end’!of!the!water!
! molecule,!the!lone!pairs!of!the!oxygen!
! atoms.!Negative&ions!attract!the!partial&
! positively!charged!‘end’!of!the!water!
! molecule,!the!hydrogen!atoms.!
! !
Water!molecules!cluster!around!each!ion!in!
! layersL&6&water&or&polar&molecules!are!
! drawn!around&a&single&ion!when!depicting!
! the!diagram!
!
! !
•! For!some!ions,!these!water!molecules!remain!
bonded!to!the!ion!even!when!the!solvent!is!evaporated!to!leave!the!solid!ionic!compound.!
•! Complex!ions,!and!their!formula!show!the!number!of!ions!in!the!first!hydration!layer.!For!
example,!in!solution!the!copper!ion!has!six'water'molecules!in!its!first'hydration'layer!and!
so!its!formula!is'[Cu(H2O)6]2+!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! The!Polar!Molecules!surrounding!the!ion!are!sometimes!called!Ligands.!!
•! Ionic'compounds!are!not'soluble!in!nonKpolar'solvents.!The!only!bonds!that!could!form!
between!the!ions!and!the!non$polar!solvent!molecules!are!dispersion!forces,!which!
presumably!are!not!sufficiently!strong!to!cause!disruption!of!the!ionic!lattice.!!
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THE'MOLE'CONCEPT''
!
•! One!mole!(mol)!is!the!amount!of!substance!that!contains'6.022'×'1023'particles'of!that!
substance.!!
o! The!number!of!particles!in!one!mole!of!a!substance!(6.02x1023)!is!known!as!
Avogadro’s'Constant.!!
•! Relative!atomic!mass(Mass!of!compound!compared!to!C12)!does!not!have!a!unit.!However,!
the!molar!mass!of!a!substance,!which!is!the!mass!of!one!mole!of!the!substance,!has!a!unit!of!
g!mol$1(per!mol).!Both!the!relative!atomic!mass!and!the!molar!mass!of!an!element!have!the!
same!numerical!value.! !
!
Formulas'applied'to'the'mole'concept''
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Note&–!mass!and!volume!have!the!same!units!as!those!expressed!in!the!density.!
;1
o That!is!if!a!solution!has!a!density!of!1.2!g!mL ,!it!follows!that!1!mL!of!the!solution!
has!a!mass!of!1.2!g.!!

!
Sometimes!the!mole!of!a!specific!“part”!or!“component”!of!a!molecule!or!compound!is!required!and!
as!a!result!attention!must!be!given!to!the!subscripts!as!well!as!the!number'of'an'element'or'ion.!!
•! Example!–!1mol!of!(NH4NO3)!
o! 1!mole!of!NH4+!ions!and!1!mole!of!NO3$!ions.!!
o! 2(N)!atoms,!4(H)!atoms,!3(O)!atoms!!
o! Therefore$!2!mole!of!(N)!atoms,!or!4!mole!of!(H)!atoms!or!3!mole!of!(O)!atoms!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

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Summarising' !
Figure'' !
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SOLUTION'CONCENTRATIONS'
''
•! Concentration!is!the!quantity!of!solute!dissolved!in!a!quantity!of!solution.!!
!
Concentration'In'Mole'Per'Litre,'mol'LK1'(Molarity)''
o! Amount!of!solute!in!mole,!dissolved!in!a!litre!of!solution'
"! Eg.!2M(Molar)!HCl!as!a!concentrail!of!2mol!L$1'
Formula'–''
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Mole!of!solute!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!n!
Concentration!in!mol!L;1!=!!!!!Volume!of!solution(L)!!!!!!!!!!OR!!!!C!!!=!!!!v(L)!
'
o! Note'K'!to!convert!from!(mol!L$1)!!!(grams!L$1)!the!mol!is!multiplied!by!Molar!mass.!
(!mol!x!M)!!
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Concentration'in'gram'per'Litre,'g''LK1'
o! Mass!of!solute!in!grams,!dissolved!in!a!litre!of!solution!
"! Eg.!NaCL!has!a!concentration!of!.05g!L$1!
Formula'–''

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!mass!of!solute!(g)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Concentration!in!grams!L;1!=!!!!!!!Volume!of!solution(L)!!!!!!

o Note'K'!to!convert!from(grams!L$1)!!!(mol!L$1)!!the!grams!are!divided!
by!Molar!mass.!(!grams/M)!
! !
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Concentration'in'Parts'per'Million'(ppm)'
o! Thought!of!as!mass!of!solute!in!grams!dissolved!in!100,000g!of!solution.!'
o! Usually!expressed!as!mass!of!solute!in!(mg)!dissolved!in!1(kg)!of!solution'
"! Concentration!of!154ppm!has!a!154mg!solute!in!1kg!of!solution.!'
Formula'–''
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!mass!of!solute!(mg)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Concentration!in!ppm!!=!!!!!!!mass!of!solution(kg)!!!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Concentration'expressed'as'percentage'composition''
o! Provides!information!about!the!mass!or!volume!of!a!solute!dissolved!in!100!‘masses’!
or!‘volumes’!of!solution.!!
o! Mass!example:!1.5%!=!1.5g!of!solute!in!100g!of!solution!!
o! Volume!example:!12%!=!12ml!of!alcohol!in!100ml!of!wine!
Formulas'–''
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Diluting'and'Mixing'Solutions''
'
•! When!a!solution!is!diluted!water!is!added!!
•! When!diluted,!the!volume!of!the!solution!increases!however!the!amount!of!solute!stays!the!
same.!!
o! Meaning!mole!of!solute!in!concentrated!solution!is!equal!to!mole!of!solute!in!diluted!
solution.!!
•! Allows!us!to!use!the!rule!C1V1=C2V2'
o! Concentration!of!initial!solution!×!initial!volume =!concentration!of!final!solution!×!
final!volume!!
"! This!is!used!to!find!missing!quantities.!!

Example:&& !

•! Note!$!this!method!is!only!useful!when!the!amount!of!solute!in!the!solution!does!not!
change.!!

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Addition'of'two'solutions'(Ratio)'
Sometimes!an!!“aliquot”!of!the!original!known!substance!and!thus!a!ratio!must!be!used!when!
calculating!the!real!total!amount!or!moles.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!I.E.!!nT!=!n(aliquot)!x!Total!Volume!/!Aliquot!volume!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

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REACTIONS''
!
CHEMICAL'EQUATIONS''
•! Molecular!equation!$!4NH3(g)'+'5O2(g)'→!4NO(g)'+'6H2O(g)'!
o! Expresses!reaction!and!shows!all!substances!involved!
"! State!of!substance!is!shown!in!subscript!!
•! Ionic!equation!$!Pb2+(aq)'+'2IK(aq)'→'PbI2(s)!!
o! Expresses!only!the!species!consumed!and!produced!in!the!reaction!
"! That!is!anything!that!changes!its!state!eg:!(S)!!!(AQ)!
•! How'to'write'Ionic'equations''
o! Write!the!formulas!of!the!reactants!and!products!with!their!states!as!a!subscript.!
o! Determine!which!species!have!not!changed!state!during!the!reaction,!and!‘cancel!
out’!these!spectator!ions.!!
o! Rewrite!the!formulas!remaining!and!balance!the!equation!in!terms!of!both!atoms!
and!charge.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

REACTION'OBSERVATIONS''

•! Learn!the!General!Reactions!types!(Worksheet)!'
o! Also!note!the!laboratory!test!for!oxygen,!hydrogen!and!carbon!dioxide.!'
•! Some'common'observations'include'–''
o! The!colour!and!odour!of!any!gas!produced! !
o! The!change!in!colour!of!the!reaction!solution! !
o! Whether!or!not!a!solid!dissolves!or!is!produced!during!the!reaction! !
o! The!colour!of!an!insoluble!substance!produced! !
o! The!disappearance!or!appearance!of!a!smell!during!the!reaction.! !
o! The!change!in!appearance!of!the!reactants! !
o! An!increase!or!decrease!in!temperature!during!the!reaction.! !
"! Make!use!of!the!solubility!table!and!ion!colour!key!on!the!data!sheet.!!
!
•! Sometimes!a!reaction!does!not!take!place!and!therefore!“no!reaction”!is!stated!as!an!
observation.!!
o! Using!reduction!potentials!to!predict!whether!or!not!a!reaction!will!occur!–!!
"! Metals!lower!on!the!potentials!will!displace!metal!ions!above!!
"! Halogens!higher!on!the!potentials!will!displace!halogen!ions!below!
"! Metals!above!Hydrogen!are!considered!to!be!“non!reactive”!under!normal!
conditions!!
"! Note!–!reactions!are!expressed!from!left!to!right!and!thus!a!‘reverse’!
reaction!would!have!the!opposite!charge.(i.e.!($0.13)!would!be!(+0.13)!
when!reversed)!!
!
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STOICHIOMETRY''
!
•! Stoichiometric!ratios!define!mole!ratios!between!different!substances!in!a!balanced!
chemical!equation.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!C3H8(g)'+'5O2(g)'→'3CO2(g)'+'4H2O(l) '
•! Shows!that!1!molecule!of!propane!(C3H8)!will!react!with!5!molecules!of!oxygen!to!form!3!
molecules!of!carbon!dioxide!and!4!molecules!of!water.!!
•! This!stoichiometric!ratio!is!also!correct!if!the!amount!of!each!substance!is!expressed!in!mole.!
That!is:!!
o! 1!mol!of!(C3H8)!reacts!with!5!mol!of!(O2)!to!form!3!mol!of!(CO2)!and!4!mol!of!(H2O)!!or!!
o! 2!mol!of!(C3H8)!!reacts!with!10!mol!of!(O2)!!to!form!6!mol!of!(CO2)!and!8!mol!of!(H2O)!!!
•! When!given!the!mole!or!values!needed!to!calculate!the!mole!of!a!substance!within!the!
reaction,!we!can!calculate!the!mole!of!other!substances.!!
•! This!is!done!by!multiplying!the!known!mole!by!the!stoichiometric!ratio.!!
o! That!is!known!(mol)!x!Unknown!coefficient!/!known!coefficient!=!unknown!mole.!!
•! Note!–!in!reactions!involving!2!or!more!reactants!than!the!limiting!reagent!is!used!as!the!
‘known’!mole.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

LIMITING'REAGENTS''

•! Limiting!Reagent!–!Will!be!fully!consumed!in!the!reaction.!
•! Excess!Reagent!–!Will!not!be!fully!consumed!in!the!reaction.!!
o! When!Asked!to!find!the!mole/mass!of!a!product,!the!limiting!reagent!will!be!used!as!
the!(known!mole!x!unknown/known).!!
•! Note!–!when!a!question!refers!to!the!amount!left!of!a!reactant!that!‘appears!to!break!apart’!
in!the!equation,!it!can!be!assumed!that!this!reactant!is!in!excess.!!

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PERCENTAGE'PURITY''
'
•! The!percentage'purity,!by!mass,!of!a!substance!can!be!calculated!using!the!formula:!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!mass!of!pure!substance!or!“component”!!
Percentage!Purity!of!material!=!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!mass!of!impure!substance!or!“total!mass”!!

Example'–!A!metal!reacts!and!produces!x(mole)!of!gas,!!

•! From!this!we!use!the!stoichiometric!ratio!(unknown/known)!to!calculate!the!(mole)!of!the!
metal.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
o! This!(mole)!accounts!for!the!pure!mass.!From!this!was!can!calculate!the!pure!mass!
(nxM)!of!the!metal!and!use!the!formula!above!to!calculate!the!percentage!
purity.(Impure!mass!is!mass!given!in!info)!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

PERCENTAGE'YIELD''

•! The!percentage'yield!of!a!reaction!is!a!measure!of!how!much!product!was!actually! Further!
produced!compared!to!the!theoretical!amount!expected!to!be!produced.!! notes!
o! The!theoretical!amount!is!calculated!using!the!stoichiometric!ratio.!(Known! found!in!
mole!x!unknown/known)!! hand!out!
Formula'K''

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!mass!of!product!actually!obtained!(given)!
Percentage!yield!of!reaction!!=!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!theoretical!mass!of!product!expected!!!

•! Other!equations!for!calculating!the!percentage!yield!include!$!!
o! The!amount!in!mole!of!the!product!formed,!divided!by!the!theoretical!amount!in!
mole.!!
o! The!actual!and!theoretical!volumes!(measured!at!the!same!temperature!and!
pressure)!of!a!gaseous!product.!!

EMPIRICAL'FORMULA'
!
•! Empirical!Formulae!give!the!lowest!whole$number!ratio!of!atoms!in!a!compound.!
•! Molecular!formula!=!multiple!of!empirical!formula.!!
•! NOTE!–!If!there!are!two!or!more!reactions/substances!!!use!percentages!!
o! I.e.!How!much!%!of!HCO!does!(o)!account!for!!
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'Molecular'Formula''
•! The!molecular!formula!specifies!the!exact!number!of!each!type!of!atom!in!each!molecule!of!
the!substance.!
•! For!some!molecular!compounds!the!empirical!formula!and!the!molecular!formula!are!the!
same,!but!for!others,!the!molecular!formula!will!be!a!whole$number!multiple!of!the!
empirical!formula!
•! To!find!the!whole!number!multiple,!divide!the!given!mass!by!the!empirical!mass.!!
o! That!is,!(given!mass!/!Molecular!mass!of!empirical!compound!)!

GASES'AND'STOICHIOMETRY''

•! Kinetic'Theory!–!All!gasses!consist!of!small!particles!that!'
o! Move!rapidly!in!straight!lines!
o! Have!elastic!collisions!
o! Are!very!far!apart!
o! Have!no!attractive!or!repulsive!forces!
o! Have!kinetic!energies!that!are!directly!proportional!to!temperature.!!
•! Boyles'law!–!If!the!temperature!of!a!gas!is!kept!constant,!the!volume(L)!is!inversely!
proportional!to!its!pressure.!!
o! That!is,!if!the!volume!increases!the!pressure!will!decrease.!(Opposite'directions)!!
"! Expressed!as!V! !1/P!where!V!and!P!are!measured!at!constant!temperature!
and!pressure.!!
•! Charles’'law!–!At!constant!pressure,!the!volume(L)!of!a!gas!is!directly!proportional!to!its!
temperature(K).!!
o! That!is,!if!the!volume!increases!than!the!temperature!will!increase.!(Same'
Directions)!!
"! Expressed!as!V! !T!for!a!constant!mass!at!a!constant!pressure.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Avogadro’s'Hypothesis!–!Equal!volumes!of!all!gases,!measured!at!the!same!temperature!
and!pressure,!contain!equal!numbers!of!particles!or!amount!in!mole!of!particles.!!
o! That!is,!when!all!substances!are!gases,!the!assumption!that!22.71L!of!gas!contains!
1mol!of!molecules!can!be!used.!!
"! Expressed!as!n!=!L!/!22.71L!!
•! The!above!laws!can!be!summarized!by!the!ideal'gas'law:!
!
PV'='nRT'
o! P!(pressure!in!Kilopascals)!!
o! V!(volume!in!liters)!
o! n!(the!amount!in!mole)!
o! R!(universal!gas!constant)!
o! T!(temperature!in!kelvin)!
!
Necessary'Conversions'include'K'''
•! Pressure!where,!!
o! 1!atmosphere!=!760mmHg!=!100kPa'!
"! Eg.!260mmHg!=!270/760!x!100kPa!=!34.21kPa!!
•! Temperature!where,!!
o! Kelvin'temperature!=!Celsius!temperature!+!273.1\!
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Stoichiometric!ratios!applied!to!gases!including!the!use!of!the!Ideal!gas!law!!

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RATES'OF'REACTION''
! !
•! Measured!through!the!change!in!amount!of!products!or!reactants!over!a!given!time!interval.!!
o! Often!the!change!in!mass,!volume!or!concentration!is!used.!!
•! Reaction!Rate!Formula:!!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Change!in!Quantity!of!reactant!(or!product)!in!the!time!interval!!
Reaction'Rate!=!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Time!Interval!
!
•! Reaction!rate!graph!–!shows!the!change!in!quantity!on!the!Y$axis!and!the!timer!interval!on!
the!X$axis!!

CaCO3(s)!+!2H+(aq)!2CO2(g)!+!H2O(l)!+!Ca2+(aq)!!

The!slope!of!the!graph!at!any!particular!time!gives!
the!reaction!rate!for!this!reaction!at!that!time.!
(Tangent)!!

The!graph!shows!that!the!reaction!begins!very!
quickly!(steepest!slope)!and!the!rate!then!decreases!
until!it!becomes!zero!and!no!more!CO2!is!formed.!!

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COLLISION'THEORY'AN'ACTIVATION'ENERGY'!
!
'In'order'for'a'reaction'to'occur:''
•! The!reactant!particles!must!collide! !
•! The!reacting!particles!must!collide!with!sufficient'energy!to!react;!there!must!be!sufficient!
energy!in!the!collision!to'disrupt'the'bonds!in!the! reactant!particles.!
•! On!collision,!the!particles!must!have!the!correct'orientation!(for!the!breaking! of!bonds!and!
the!forming!of!new!bonds).! !
!
Reaction!Example:!!!NO(g)!+!O3(g)!→!NO2(g)!+!O2(g)!
o! Bonds'must'be'broken'and'new'bonds'formed.!In!this!example,!an!O–O!bond!in!O3!
must!be!broken,!and!a!new!N–O!bond!must!be!formed.!!
"! Energy'is'required'to'break'bonds,!and!this!energy!comes!from!the!kinetic!
energy!possessed!by!the!colliding!molecules.! !
o! When!particles!collide,!the!kinetic!energy!they!carry!is!transformed!into!potential!
energy!as!bonds!begin!to!break!in!the!reacting!particles.!(As!a!result,!the!potential!
energy!of!the!system!increases)!!
"! As!the!new!bonds!form,!the!potential!energy!of!the!system!decreases.!In!
each!reaction,!there!is!therefore!a!maximum!potential!energy!stage!
reached.! !

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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! This!point!of!maximum!potential!energy!is!called!transition'state,'or'activated'complex,!in!a!
reaction:!
o! Is!the!highest!potential!energy!state!for!the!reacting!system!
o! Corresponds!to!some!stage!in!the!reaction!at!which!bond!breaking!and!bond!
formation!is!taking!place!
o! Is!unstable,!having!no!more!than!a!temporary!existence.!
!
•! If!a!reaction!is!to!occur,!the!colliding!reactant!particles!must!have!sufficient!kinetic!energy!
and!this!minimum'amount'of'energy'required!is!called!the!activation'energy.!!
•! Typical!potential!energy!graphs!(or!energy!profile!diagrams)!for!an!exothermic!and!an!
endothermic!reaction!are!shown:!!

• The!products!have!less!potential!energy!than!the!
reactants! !
• Heat!energy!is!released!during!the!reaction!and!an!
increase!in!the!temperature!of!the!surroundings!occurs.!!
• The!heat!of!reaction!(ΔH)!is!the!difference!between!the!
energy!of!the!products!and!the! energy!of!the!
reactants.!!
o For!an!exothermic!reaction,!ΔH"has&a&
negative&value!(energy!of!products!–!energy!
of!reactants)! !
• The!activation&energy&(Ea)&for&the&forward&reaction!
is!the!difference!between!the!energy!of!the!transition!
state!and!the!energy!of!the!reactants.! !
o The!Ea&for&the&reverse&reaction!is!the!
difference!between!the!energy!of!the!products!
! and!the!transition!state!
•! !
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• The!products!have!more!potential!energy!than!the!
reactants !
o ΔH"is!positive!(energy!of!products!–!energy!of!
reactants) !
• Heat!energy!is!absorbed!from!the!surroundings!during!
the!reaction!and!as!a!result!a!decrease!in!the!
temperature!of!the!surroundings!occurs!!
• The!activation&energy&(Ea)&for&the&forward&reaction!
is!the!difference!between!the!energy!of!the!transition!
state!and!the!energy!of!the!reactants.!!
o The!Ea&for&the&reverse&reaction!is!the!
difference!between!the!energy!of!the!products!
and!the!transition!state!!
!
!

!
•! The!size'of'the'activation'energy!has!an!effect!on!the!reaction!rate.!!
o! In!general,!if!a!reaction!has!a!large!activation!energy,!it!will!probably!be!a!very!slow!
reaction,!particularly!at!room!temperature.!
o! However,!if!it!has!a!small!activation!energy,!it!will!most!likely!be!a!fast!reaction!at!
room!temperature.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

FACTORS'THAT'AFFECT'REACTION!RATE!

•! Nature'of'reactants'I'Reactions!with!smaller!activation!energies!will!have!faster!reaction!
rates!(e.g.!ions),!with!slow!reactions!(e.g.!combustion)!often!need!additional!energy!to!react!
•! Concentration'of'reactants!(partial!pressure!for!gases)!–!When!concentration!increases,!
there!is!a!greater!chance!that!reactant!particles!will!collide!and!hence!react!
•! State'of'subdivision'of'reactants!–!When!surface!area!of!reactant!increases,!then!more!of!it!
is!exposed!to!collision!with!particles!of!other!reactants,!thus!increasing!reaction!rate!
•! Temperature!–!When!temperature!increases,!average!kinetic!energy!of!particles!increases,!
hence!a!greater!proportion!of!reactant!particles!have!required!activation!energy,!and!so!
reaction!rate!will!increase!

!!
o! Temperature!also!increases!number!of!collisions!(thought!this!is!minor)!!
!
•! Catalysts!–!provides!alternative!reaction!pathway!that!has!a!smaller!activation!energy!than!
for!uncatalysed!reaction,!hence!more!collisions!will!result!in!reaction!as!more!have!sufficient!
energy!to!react.!!
!!!
!
!
!

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EQUILIBRIUM''
•! Not!all!reactions!go!to!completion;!some!systems!remain!a!mixture!of!reactants!and!
products.!
o! This!is!because!reactions!are!reversible!reactants!#!products.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Example:''H2'+'I2'#!'2HI''

o! The!Forward!reaction!rate!is!initially!fast,!but!as!the!concentrations!of!the!reactants!
decrease,!the!forward!reaction!rate!also!decreases.!!
"! However,!as!(HI)!forms!it!can!react!via!the!reverse!reaction,!to!re$!form!
hydrogen!and!iodine.!The!rate!of!this!reverse!reaction!is!initially!zero,!but!it!
increases!as!the!amount!of!hydrogen!iodide!formed!increases.!!

"! A!stage!is!finally!reached!where!the!rate'of'the'forward'reaction'is'equal'to'
the'rate'of'the'reverse'reaction!and!the!system!is!said!to!be!at!equilibrium.!!
!
•! When!a!chemical!reaction!system'is'at'equilibrium:!!
o! The!amounts,!or!concentrations,!of!the!reactants!and!products!present!remain'
constant!with!time!and!as!a!result!the!macroscopic!properties,!such!as!colour,!of!the!
system!remain!unchanged!with!time! !
o! The!rates'of'the'forward'and'reverse'reactions'are!equal.!This!means!chemical!
equilibrium!is!dynamic!because!the!reactions!have!not!stopped.!At!equilibrium,!the!
reverse'and'forward'reactions!are!still'occurring,!but!at!the!same'rate.! \!
!
•! A!graph!expressing!the!change'in'concentration!for!the!above!reaction!is!seen.!
Below:!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! The!reaction!mixture!at!the!beginning!of!the!experiment!is!composed!of!only!H2!and!
I2!with!concentrations!of!0.10!mol!L$1.!
"! No!HI!is!present.!As!the!reaction!begins,!the!concentrations!of!H2!and!I2!
decrease!as!they!react!with!one!another.!They!decrease!at!the!same!rate!
because!these!two!reactants!react!in!a!1:1!mole!ratio.!
!
o! Over!time,!the!concentration!of!HI!increases!as!more!is!produced!in!the!forward!
reaction.!Because'the'stoichiometric'ratio'between'each'of'the'reactants'and'HI'is'
1:2,'the'concentration'of'HI'will'increase'more'than'the'reactant'concentrations'
decrease.'!
!
o! Finally,!at!time!T,!when!the!forward!and!reverse!reaction!rates!become!equal,!there!
is!no!net!change!in!the!concentrations;!that!is,!they!remain!constant!over!time.!This!
is!when!the!system!is!at!equilibrium.!!
!
EQUILIBRIUM'IN'PHYSICAL'SYSTEMS''
'
•! Equilibrium'vapour'pressure'
o! In!a!closed!container,!some!of!the!liquid!evaporates!to!produce!a!vapour!above!the!
liquid.!Some!of!this!vapour!also!condenses!to!re$form!the!liquid.!!
"! If!left!long!enough,!equilibrium!will!be!established!between!the!liquid!and!
the!vapour.!!
"! At!this!stage,!the!rate!at!which!the!liquid!is!evaporating!will!equal!the!rate!at!
which!the!vapour!is!condensing,!so!molecules!will!be!escaping!from!the!
liquid!at!the!same!rate!as!they!are!re$entering!the!liquid!phase.!!
"! Both!amounts!stay!constant.!!
!
•! Solution'equilibria'
o! When!a!solid!is!placed!in!a!liquid,!some!of!the!solid!begins!to!dissolve!as!the!particles!
of!the!solid!break!away!from!the!lattice!and!mix!with!the!solvent’s!particles.!!
"! These!dissolved!particles!can!also!crystallise!out!of!solution!to!re$form!the!
solid.!If!sufficient!solid!is!present,!equilibrium!will!be!established!between!
the!solid!and!the!dissolved!particles!when!the!particles!are!dissolving!at!the!
same!rate!at!which!they!are!crystallising.!!
"! Basically!a!saturated!solution!with!both!amounts!staying!constant.!!
!
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THE'EQUILIBRIUM'LAW''
!
!
!
Products&
! K=! &
! Reactants&
!
!
•! The!equation!has!a!constant!value,!called!the!equilibrium!constant!(K),!at'a'particular'
temperature.!
o! [A],![B],![C]!and![D]!represent!the!concentrations!of!A–D!in!mol!L$1,!and!the!lower$
case!letters!a,!b,!c!and!d!are!the!same!value!as!the!coefficients.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! When!writing!these!equilibrium!law!expressions:!!
o! The!concentrations!of!the!products!are!written!on!the!top! Products&
line,!and!the!concentrations!of!the!reactants!are!written!on! Reactants&
the!bottom!line!.!!
o! If!there!are!two!or!more!reactants!or!products,!their!
concentrations!are! multiplied!together! !
o! The!equilibrium!law!expression!does'not'include!substances!that!are!solids'or'pure'
liquids,!because!their!concentrations!are!constant.(!However!if!the!liquid!causes!the!
volume!to!change!it!will!thus!effect!the!pressure!of!the!system)!
•! An!equilibrium!constant!has!the!following'characteristics:!!
o! If!the!temperature!of!a!reaction!is!changed,!then!the!value!of!the!equilibrium'
constant'also!changes.! !
o! It!provides!no!indication!of!the!rate!of!the!reaction,!i.e.!it!does!not!indicate!how!
quickly!a!particular!reaction!reaches!equilibrium.! !
!
o! It!indicates!the!relative!proportions!of!reactants!and!products!in!an!equilibrium!
mixture.!!
!
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THE'EFFECT'OF'CHANGES'TO'EQUILIBRIUM'SYSTEMS'–'LE'CHÁTELIER’S'PRINCIPLES''
'
•! Changes!(temperature,!volume,!concentration)!can!be!made!to!a!system!at!equilibrium.!
These!changes!affect'the'rate'of!either!or!both!of!the!forward!or!reverse!reactions,!and!thus!
the!system!may!no'longer'be'in'equilibrium.''
•! When!this!occurs,!the!system'will'reKestablish'equilibrium!by!forming!more!of!the!products!
or!reactants!until!the!forward!and!reverse!reaction'rates'are'again'equal,!and!the!value!of!
the!equilibrium!law!expression!is!again!equal!to!the!equilibrium!constant!at!the!relevant!
temperature.!!

CHANGE'IN'CONCENTRATION''
!
!
!
K'Value'='Smaller'than'1' K'Value'='1' K'Value'='Over'1'
Products!/!Reactants!! Products!/!Reactants!! Products!/!Reactants!!
3
!!¾!=!More!Reactants!! /3!!=!Equal!amount!of!reactants! 4/3!=!More!Products!
and!products!
•! If!the!equilibrium!constant!has!a!very!large!value,!it!means!large!concentrations!of!products!
and!very!small!concentrations!of!reactants!are!present;!in!other!words,!the!reaction!is!almost!
100%!complete.!!
•! If!the!equilibrium!constant!is!very!small,!then!the!concentrations!of!reactants!must!be!very!
large!and!the!concentrations!of!products!very!small,!which!means!the!reaction!would!be!
almost!insignificant.!!
•! The!size!of!the!equilibrium!constant!gives!an!indication!of!the!extent!of!the!reaction.! !
!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! If!the!concentration!of!one!of!the!reactants!or!products!in!an!equilibrium!mixture!is!
increased,!for!example,!by!adding!more!of!the!substance,!the!mixture!will!no!longer!be!at!
equilibrium.!This!can!be!inferred!because!the!equilibrium!law!expression!will!no!longer!equal!
the!value!of!the!equilibrium!constant.!!
o! According!to!Le!Châtelier’s!principle,!the!system!will!re$establish!equilibrium!in!a!
way!that!will!decrease!the!concentration!of!the!added!substance.!!
K + K
''''Example:''2CrO42 (aq)'+'2H (aq)' 'Cr2O72 (aq)'+'H2O(l)''
' Yellow! Orange!
'
•! When!a!few!drops!of!concentrated!(HCl)!are!added!to!this!equilibrium!mixture,!the!mixture!
$
turns!a!deeper!orange!colour.(Presence!of!Cr2O72 !)!
•! In!the!original!equilibrium!mixture,!the!rate!of!the!forward!reaction!is!the!same!as!the!rate!
of!the!reverse!reaction,!and!the!concentrations!of!each!of!the!substances!are!not!changing.!!
o! However,!as!soon!as!the!
(HCl)!is!added,!the!
+
concentration!of!H !ions!
increases,!causing!an!
immediate!increase!in!
the!rate!of!the!forward!
reaction!in!an!attempt!to!
decrease!the!H+!
concentration.!
!
!
•! As!the!forward!reaction!rate!is!greater!than!the!reverse!reaction!rate,!the!concentrations!of!
$ +
the!reactants!(CrO42 !and!H !ions)!will!begin!to!decrease.!!
o! This!will!result!in!a!decrease!in!the!rate!of!the!forward!reaction!as!the!amount!of!
reactants!available!is!decreasing.!!
o! At!the!same!time,!because!the!forward!reaction!was!proceeding!at!a!greater!rate,!
more!products!were!formed,!leading!to!an!increase!in!the!rate!of!the!reverse!
reaction.!!
o! Because!in!the!re$establishment!of!the!new!equilibrium,!the!rate!of!the!forward!
reaction!was!faster!than!the!rate!of!the!reverse!reaction!for!some!time,!more!of!the!
$
product!(orange!Cr2O72 !)!will!be!present!in!the!final!mixture!when!compared!to!
original!mixture.!(Thus!final!is!more!orange)!
•! The!changes!that!occur!in!the!concentration!of!each!of!the!substances!in!the!equilibrium!
mixture!can!also!be!shown!graphically:!!
!
!
NoteL!Change!in!
water!
concentration!has!
not!been!
considered,!as!it!is!
present!in!small!
quantity.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! In!the!initial!equilibrium!mixture,!the!concentration!of!each!of!the!substances!
remains!constant!with!time.!However,!when!the!(HCl)!is!added,!the!concentration!of!
+
the!H !ions!immediately!increases.!!
"! To!re$establish!equilibrium,!the!forward!reaction!is!favoured!that!is!the!
creation!of!products!is!favoured.!This!results!in!a!decrease!in!the!amount!
+ $
(and!concentration)!of!reactants!(H !and!CrO42 )!and!an!increase!in!the!
$
amount!and!concentration!of!products!(Cr2O72 ).!!
"! Note!–!the!concentration!of!added!H+!ions!decreases!as!a!result!of!the!
system!re$establishing!equilibrium!however!it!will!never!return!to!its!original!
concentration.(The'change'is'never'“completely”'apposed”)!
!
•! According!to!the!stoichiometric'ratios!shown!in!the!balanced!equation,!the!reactants!will!
+
react!in!a!1:1!mole!ratio.!As!a!result,!in!re$establishing!equilibrium,!the!amount!in!mole!of!H !
2$
and!CrO that!react!are!equal!and!so!their!concentrations!will!decrease!by!the!same!
4
amount.!!
2$
o! Likewise!the!ratio!between!2!CrO !and!1Cr2O72$!!is!2:1,!so!the!amount!in!mole!of!
4
Cr2O72$!!formed!in!the!reaction!will!increase!by!only!half!compared!to!the!decrease!in!
each!of!the!reactants.!
!
•! An!alternative!way!of!explaining!why!the!equilibrium!position!shifts!towards!the!products!
when!one!of!the!reactants!is!added!is'in'terms'of'the'equilibrium'law'expression.'!
o! In!the!initial!equilibrium!mixture,!the!value!of!this!fraction!equals!the!equilibrium!
constant,!K,!for!this!reaction!at!the!specific!temperature.!!
!
+
•! When!acid!is!added!to!the!mixture,!the!concentration!of!H !is!increased,!which!means!that!
the!value!of!the!fraction!is!now!smaller!than!that!of!the!equilibrium!constant,!K.!!
o! For!the!fraction!to!again!become!equal!to!K,!the!top!line!(or!products)!needs!to!be!
increased!and/or!the!bottom!line(Reactants)!decreased.!This!can!be!achieved!if!the!
forward!reaction!is!favoured!$!forming!more!products!and!reducing!the!amount!of!
reactants.!!
!
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DECREASING'THE'CONCENTRATION'OF'ONE'OF'THE'REACTANTS'OR'PRODUCTS'
!
•! If!the!concentration!of!one!of!the!reactants!or!products!is!decreased,!the!system!will!re$
establish!equilibrium!in!a!way!that!will!lead!to!an!increase!in!the!concentration!of!the!
removed!substance.!
o! The!concentrations!of!the!other!substances!in!the!reaction!will!also!change!in!
reaching!the!new!equilibrium!position.!!
!
•! Lets!use!the!prior!example!to!explain!this;!lets!suppose!a!few!drops!of!(NaOH(aq))!are!added!
to!an!orangeKcoloured!equilibrium!mixture!of!the!following!reaction:!causing!it!to!turn'
yellow.!!
K + K
o! Example:''2CrO42 (aq)'+'2H (aq)' 'Cr2O72 (aq)'+'H2O(l)''
! Yellow! Orange!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! The!OH$!ions!that!have!been!added!to!the!equilibrium!mixture!will!react!with!the!H+!
ions!and!decrease!their!concentration.!According!to!Le!Châtelier’s!principle,!if!there!
is!a!decrease!in!the!concentration!of!H+,!a!net!reaction!to!produce!more!H+!(or!a!shift!
towards!the!reactants)!will!occur!to!re$establish!equilibrium.!!
•! This!equilibrium!shift!towards!making!more!reactants!occurs!because!the!
rate!of!the!forward!reaction!becomes!slower(result!of!less!reactants)!than!
the!rate!of!the!reverse!reaction.!!
!
!
!
Note'–!The!rate!of!the!reverse'
reaction'does'not'speed'up;!it!
simply!is!faster!in!relation!to!the!
forward!reaction!rate,!which!has!
decreased.!!

!
!
!
!
!
!
•! The!concentration'time'graph!for!the!system!above!is!depicted!below:!!
!
At!the!new'equilibrium'position:''
$
$!CrO42 !will!be!larger!and!the!
$
concentration!of!Cr2O72 !will!be!
smaller!than!in!the!original!mixture!
(this!is!why!the!mixture!became!less!
orange!and!more!yellow!in!colour)! !!

The!concentration!of!H+!will!be!
smaller!than!what!it!was!in!the!
original!mixture!$!the!‘change’'is'
never'completely'opposed)'!

$!Rates!of!the!forward!reaction!and!
! reverse!reaction!are!equal!but!less!
than!they!were!in!the!original!
CHANGE'IN'VOLUME'OR'PRESSURE'TO'A'GASEOUS'SYSTEM!!
!
•! The!following!ideas!rely!on!the!gaseous!theory!of!Boyles'Law$!The!volume!(L)!is!inversely!
proportional!to!its!pressure!at!a!constant!temperature.!!(Opposite'directions)!!
•! If!the!volume!of!a!gaseous!equilibrium!system!is!changed,!then!the!concentrations!of!the!
substances!making!up!that!system!will!also!be!changed.!!
o! That!is,!pressure'can'be'thought'of'as'concentration!and!when!pressure!is!
increased,!so!does!concentration.!!

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o! Whether!these!changes!in!concentrations!put!the!system!out!of!equilibrium!
depends!on!the!relative!number!of!reactant'and'product!particles!(not!including!
solids!or!pure!liquids)!involved!in!the!reaction,!as!shown!in!coefficients!of!a!balanced!
equation.!!
''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Example:'H2(g)'+'Cl2(g)' '2HCl(g)''
o! The!above!reaction!has!an!equal!ratio!of!products!(2)!to!reactants!(2)!and!because!of!
this;!the!system!will!not!be!put!out!of!equilibrium!by!a!change!in!volume.(and!
obviously!pressure)!!
o! If,!however,!the!reaction!has!different'numbers'of'particles'on!each'side'of'the'
equation,!for!example,!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NO(g)'+'Cl2(g)' 'NOCl2(g)!!
o! Were!there!are!two!reactants!(2)!and!only!one!Product(1)!then!the!system!will!be!
put!out!of!equilibrium!by!a!change!in!pressure.(And!volume)!!
!
•! These!suppositions!can!be!explained!by!examining!the!changes'to'the'equilibrium'law'
expression'(resulting!from!a!change!in!volume),!and!consequent!changes!in!concentrations.!!
!
For!the!equilibrium!system:!H2(g)'+'Cl2(g)' '2HCl(g)!the!equilibrium!law!expression!is:!!
!
! K=!
!
o! If!the!volume!of!the!reaction!vessel!containing!the!equilibrium!mixture!is!halved,!for!
example,!then!the!concentrations'(due!to!pressure)!of!the!three!different!
substances!in!the!vessel!will'all'double.!
•! The!equilibrium!law!expression!will!therefore!become:!!
!
! K=!
!
o! The!top'line!of!the!fraction!has!increased'by'the'same'factor'as!the!bottom'line;!
thus!the!value!of!the!fraction!is!unchanged!by!the!concentration!changes.!!

For!the!second'example,!which!has!an!uneven!stoichiometric!ratio:!!
'''''''''''''''''''NO(g)'+'Cl2(g)' 'NOCl2(g)!
•! The!equilibrium!law!expression!will!therefore!be:!
!
! K=!
!
o! If!the!volume!of!the!equilibrium!mixture!is!halved,!doubling!each!concentration'–!
the!equilibrium!expression!then!becomes:!!

! K=!

o! The!bottom'line!of!the!fraction!is!now'twice!that!of!the'top'line;!that!is,!the!value!of!
the!fraction!has'changed!and!will!no!longer!be!equal!to!the!equilibrium!constant.!!
!
!
!
!
!

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•! We!can!also!use!these!equilibrium'expressions'to'determine!the!direction!the!equilibrium!
position!will!shift!to!re$establish!equilibrium.!(That!is!which'reaction'will'be'favourd)!!
o! For!the!second!example!above,!to!re$establish!equilibrium,!after!the!decrease!in!
volume!(increase!in!pressure),!the!fraction!will!need!to!be!increased!in!value!
because!it!is!now!smaller!than!the!equilibrium!constant.!
•! In!other!words,!the!concentration!of!the!product!will!need!to!increase!and!
the!concentrations!of!the!reactants!decrease.!(Thus!forward!reaction!
favoured)!
!
THE'EFFECT'OF'CHANGING'THE'OVERALL'PRESSURE'OF'A'SYSTEM'

•! When!the!total'pressure!of!a!gaseous'equilibrium'system!is!increased,!by!decreasing!its!
volume,!the!system!reKestablishes'equilibrium!by!reducing!the!total!pressure.!!
o! This!is!done!by!decreasing'the'overall'number'of'particles!in!the!gaseous!system.!!
!
o! For!this!to!happen,!the!equilibrium'position'shifts!towards!the!side'of'the'reaction!
with!the!least'number'of'molecules!(taking!into!consideration!coefficients).!!
•! Correspondingly,!if!the!total'pressure'of'system'is!decreased,!by!increasing!
the!volume,!then!the!system'will'favour!the!reaction!that!produces!the!
greater'number'of'molecules!(and!thus!increasing!the!total!pressure).!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Example'Reaction:!2NO2(g)' 'N2O4(g)!!
!
brown!!!!!!!!!colourless!
!
o! This!is!an!equilibrium!system!in!which!there!are!an!unequal!number!of!reactants!(2)!
and!products(1)!molecules!as!shown!in!the!equation.!!!
•! As!a!result,!this!system!will!be!put!out!of!equilibrium!by!a!change!in!volume!
(thus!total!pressure!change).!!
!
•! For!example,!if!the!plunger!of!a!syringe!containing!the!NO2!and!N2O4!equilibrium!mixture!is!
pushed!in,!to!reduce!the!volume!of!the!mixture,!the!brown!mixture!first!darkens,!then!within!
a!matter!of!seconds,!the!colour!goes!a!lighter!brown.!However,!the!final!colour!of!the!mixture!
at!the!reduced!volume!is!darker!than!the!colour!of!the!original!equilibrium!mixture.!!

!
$!The!gas!mixture!instantly!goes!darker!but!
this!is!due!to!a!higher!concentration!of!
(NO2)!–!the!only!gas!with!a!colour!in!the!
mixture.!!!!!!$!However!once!the!initial!
change!occurs,!in!an!attempt!to!re$
establish!equilibrium!the!system!favours!
that!reaction!which!will!decrease!the!
overall!pressure.!!
$!This!is!done!by!decreasing!the!amount!of!
molecules!in!the!system!and!thus!the!
forward!reaction!is!favoured.(!2!molecules!
of!reactants!create!1!molecule!of!product)!

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•! This!shift!in!equilibrium!can!also!be!depicted!in!the!Time'vs'Rate'graph!as!show!below:!!

$!To!re$establish!equilibrium,!a!
net!forward!reaction!occurs!to!
produce!more!N2O4!and!
consume!some!of!the!NO2.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
–!Note!that!when!equilibrium!is!
reached!the!concentrations!will!
both!be!higher!relative!to!the!
original!mixture.!!

!
!
!
•! Similarly!the!concentration'vs'time!graph!depicts!the!equilibrium!shift!as!shown!bellow:!!
!

$!“volume!decrease”!
mark!indicates!that!as!
soon!as!the!volume!is!
decreased,!both!the!
forward!and!reverse!
reaction!rates!
increase.(This!is!because!
an!increase!in!pressure!
increases!the!rate!of!
reaction)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!$!
When!equilibrium!is!re$
!
!
!
CHANGES'IN'TEMPERATURE''
!
•! For!this!part!of!Le'Châtelier’s'Principles'we!must!acknowledge!the!change!in!enthalpy!or!
more!simply!the!heat!that!is!given!off!or!taken!in!during!the!reaction.!!!
o! One!way!of!expressing!Delta'H!for!a!reaction!is:!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2NO2(g)! !N2O4(g);!ΔH'='–57'kJ!! Both!equations!are!expressing!an!
o! An!alternative!way!of!expressing!this!information!is! exothermic'process'where!heat!
has!been!given!off!as!a!result!of!
including!the!ΔH'in'the'reaction:!!
the!reaction.!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2NO2(g)! !N2O4(g)!+'57'kJ!!
"! Obviously!if!the!reaction!was!to!be!endothermic!
the!ΔH'value!would!be!included'in'the'reactants!and!not!the!products!as!
seen!above.!!
!
•! According!to!Le!Châtelier’s!principle!it!can!be!predicted!that!if!an!equilibrium'system'is'
heated,!the!system!will!adjust'by'removing'or'absorbing'heat.!This!means!the!endothermic'
reaction!will!be!favoured,!or!in!other!words,!the!equilibrium!position!will!shift!in!the!
endothermic!direction.!
o! Likewise!if!a!system!were!to!be!cooled,!it!would!favour!the!exothermic!reaction!!
!!!!!!!!!!!Example:!!2NO2(g)' 'N2O4(g)'+'57'kJ'
!
! brown!!!!!!!!!colourless!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! If!the!equilibrium!mixture!is!heated,!the!reverse!reaction,!the!endothermic!reaction,!
would!be!favoured!in!an!attempt!to!remove!the!added!heat.!(Mixture!will!become!
more!brown!as!more!NO2!is!formed)!!
!
•! The!shift!in!equilibrium!as!a!result!of!a!change!in!temperature!is!depicted!on!a!rate'vs'time'
graph!below:!!
!
;!Both!the!forward!and!reverse!rates!
increase,!but!the!endothermic!reaction!
increases!more!than!the!exothermic!
reaction.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
–!This!happens!because!the!system!
attempts!to!decrease!the!overall!
temperature!by!favouring!the!endothermic!
reaction.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
–!NoteW!the!endothermic!reaction!is!always!
affected!more!by!a!temperature!change!
than!the!exothermic!reaction.!This!is!true!
even!when!the!system!is!cooledW!the!
endothermic!reaction!rate!decreases!more!
than!the!exothermic!reaction!rate.!!

! !
!
o! Similarly!the!shift!in!equilibrium!can!be!expressed!on!a!concentration'vs'time'graph!
as!shown!below:!!
!

;!Because!this!process!favours!the!
reverse!reaction(endothermic),!the!
concentration!of!NO2!increases!and!
the!concentration!of!N2O4!decreases!
until!the!new!equilibrium!position!is!
reached.!!
;!Then!the!concentrations!remain!
constant!with!time.!!
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CHANGES'IN'K'VALUE!!
!
•! When!the!temperature!of!an!equilibrium!system!is!changed,!the!value!of!the!equilibrium!
constant!is!changed.!!
o! If!the!forward'reaction!is!an!exothermic'reaction!(ΔH!is!negative)! ;Be!careful!to!note!
then!an!increase'in'temperature!will!result!in!a!decrease'in!the'value' the!context!of!the!
of'K.'' equation!
"! Likewise!a!decrease'in'temperature!will!result!in!an!increase! (Forward!or!
in!the!value'of'K.!(Move!in!OPPOSITE!directions)!! reverse)!as!a!
reverse!reaction!
! will!have!the!
o! If!the!forward'reaction!is!an!endothermic'reaction!(ΔH!is!positive)! opposite&
then!an!increase'in'temperature!will!result!in!an!increase!in!the!value' characteristics!!
of'K.!!
"! Thus!a!decrease'in'temperature!will!result!in!a!decrease!in!
the!value'of'K.!(Move!in!SAME!directions)!!
!
For!example,!for!the!equilibrium!system: !!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!N2(g)'+'3H2(g)' '2NH3(g);'ΔH'='–92'kJ''
o! Because!the!forward!reaction!is!exothermic!(ΔH!is!negative),!if!the!temperature!is!
increased,!the!value!of!K!will!decrease.!If!the!temperature!is!decreased,!the!value!of!
K!will!increase.!'

Addition'of'a'Catalyst'to'a'reversible'reaction''
•! When!a!catalyst!is!added!to!a!reversible!reaction,!it!lowers'the'activation'energy!for!both!
the!forward'and'reverse'reactions.!!
o! This!results!in!an!increase!in!the!rate!of!both!the!forward!and!reverse!reactions!by!
the!same!amount.!!
"! As!a!result,!it!does!allow!the!reaction!to!reach'equilibrium'more'quickly.''
•! If!a!catalyst!is!added'to'a'system'already!at'equilibrium,!this!system!will!not'be'put'out'of'
equilibrium.!!
o! The!presence!of!the!catalyst!will!have!no!effect!on!the!amounts!or!concentrations!of!
the!reactants!and!products!present!at!equilibrium;!it!will!also!not!affect!the!yield!of!
the!reaction.!!
o! However,!the!rates!of!both!the!forward!and!reverse!reactions!will!be!increased!
equally.!!

INDUSTRIAL'PROCESSES'''
'
HABER'PROCESS''
•! Ammonia!is!produced!according!to!the!following!reaction:!!
''''''''''''''N2(g)'+'3H2(g)'#!'2NH3(g)''''ΔH'='K92kJ'
o! The!reaction!is!exothermic!and!the!right!side!has!less!molecules.!'
•! Reaction'conditions'Include:''
o! Temperature'$!Low!temperature!gives!the!best!yield!however!this!would!be!
achieved!to!slowly.!'
"! Compromise:!500oc!gives!an!acceptable!reaction!rate!and!yield.!'
o! Pressure'–'High!pressures!would!give!the!best!yield!and!reaction!rate.!However!both!
cost!and!safety!risk!increase!with!high!pressures.!'
"! Compromise:!250$350!atmospheres!(Still!high)!'
o! Catalyst'!$!A!iron/iron!oxide!catalyst!is!used!to!increase!the!rates!of!reaction.!It!does!
not!affect!the!yield,!but!reaches!equilibrium!faster.!'

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CONTACT'PROCESS''
!
•! Sulfuric!acid!is!produced!according!to!the!following!reaction:!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1.!!!!!2SO2(g)!+!O2(g)! !2SO3(g);!!ΔH!=!–196!kJ!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2.!!!!!!!SO3!!H2SO4!
•! Reaction!Conditions:!!
o! Temperature!!$!Despite!the!reaction!being!exothermic!a!relatively!high!temperature!
is!used!(economical!reaction!rate)!which!favours!the!reverse!reaction.!!
o! Pressure!$!The!forward!reaction!is!favoured!by!high!pressure!(pressure!equilibrium!
rule,!3!:!2!gas!molecules),!but!only!a!small!increase!in!pressure!is!used!to!give!high!
yields!of!sulphur!trioxide,!because!the!right!hand!side!is!energetically!very!
favourable.!!
o! Catalyst!–!A!(V2O5)!catalyst!ensures!a!fast!reaction!without!having!to!use!too!a!
higher!temperature!which!would!begin!to!favour!the!left!hand!side!too!much!.!!
!
Process' Catalyst'' What'is'produced'

Summary'
Haber! Iron!oxide! NH3!
Figure'
Ostwald! Platinum!or! HNO3!
rhodium!!
Contact! V205! H2SO4!
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MISCELLANEOUS'NOTES'
•! If!there!is!one!gas!in!a!system,!even!if!pressure!is!changed,!the!concentration!will!NOT.!'
o! Le'Châtelier’s'Principles!regarding!pressure!still!applies!to!a!system!with!one!
gaseous!substance.!'
"! If!pressure!is!increased,!it!will!favour!the!side!with!no!gas!molecules!present.!'
•! Equilibrium!can!be!identified!when!a!gas’!colour!does!not!change!over!time.!!
•! Adding!the!same!concentration!of!a!substance!(eg:!2mol!HCl!to!2mol!HCl)!will!NOT!increase!
the!concentration.!!
•! Pressure!affects!both!gases!and!aqueous!solutions.!
•! Ions!are!counted!as!molecules!in!reactions.!!
!
•! Yield!is!NOT!the!amount!of!product!that!is!collected,!it!is!simply!how!much!is!“technically!
produced”!!
o! If!you!remove!the!lid!of!a!system!and!allow!some!gas!product!to!escape,!it!will!still!
favour!the!forward!reaction!to!compensate!and!re$establish!equilibrium.!Thus,!
overall!there!has!been!an!increase!in!the!amount!of!gas!product!produce,!even!
though!we!have!not!collected!all!of!it.!!
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ACIDS'AND'BASES'
'
ELECTROLYSIS''
•! When!acids!and!bases!form!aqueous!solutions,!these!solutions!conduct!electricity!to!varying!
degrees.!'
o! Substances!that!conduct!electricity!when!dissolved!in!water!are!called!electrolytes.''
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NaCl(s)'+'aq'→'Na+(aq)'+'ClK(aq)''
Thus!NaCl!is!a!
"! All!ionic!compounds!are!electrolytes,!but!not! electrolyte.!!
all!electrolytes!are!ionic!compounds.!!
•! Two!Important!definitions!required!for!this!topic!are:!!
o! Ionise!–!Molecular!compounds!when!mixed!with!water!create!ions.!!
o! Dissociate!–!Ionic!compound!breaks!up!in!aqueas!solution!into!two!or!more!charged!
ions.!!
•! Strong'electrolyte!$!completely!ionises!or!dissociates!in!solution!!
o! e.g.!HCl(g)!+!H2O(l)!→!H3O+(aq)!+!Cl$(aq)!–!Ionisation!!
o! e.g.!NaCl(s)!→!Na+(aq)!+!Cl$(aq)!–!Dissociation!!
•! NonIelectrolytes!$!substances!that!do!not!form!any!ions!when!they!dissolve!in!water!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
o! e.g.!CH3CH2OH(l)!!→!!CH3CH2OH(aq)!
•! Weak'electrolyte!$!substance!that!produces!very!few!ions!(approx!1%)!in!solution!and!most!
of!it!remains!as!neutral!molecules!dissolved!in!water!!
o! NH3(aq)!+!H2O(l)!↔!NH4+(aq)!+!OH$(aq)!
"! Note!–!the!(+)!symbol!in!NH4+!represents!that!it!has!gained!a!proton!
(Hydrogen)!and!the!($)!symbol!in!OH$!represents!that!it!has!lost!a!proton!
(Hydrogen).!!
•! Another!important!factor!to!consider!for!the!Acids!and!Bases!topic!is!that!in!aqueous!
solution,!the!fact!that!covalent!molecular!water(H2O)!itself!is!a!very!weak!electrolyte!is!
important.!!
o! The!self$ionisation!of!water!is!represented!as:!!
''''''''''H2O(l)'+'H2O(l)' 'H3O+(aq)'+'OHK(aq) '
"! K!value!is!=!1!×!10$14!suggesting!that!the!reaction!does!not!readily!happen!to!
a!great!extent.!!
!
ARRHENIUS'ACIDKBASE'THEORY'
•! Acids!are!substances!that!produce'hydrogen'ions!(H+),!when!dissolved!in!
water!! NOTE! ;!AQ!
o! !HNO3(l)!+!aq!→!H+(aq)!+!NO3$(aq)!! means!H2O,!
"! HNO3!is!thus!an!acid!as!it!has!produced!H+!ions.!! when!expressing!
! a!reaction!simply!
add!the!reactant!
•! Bases!are!substances!that!produce'hydroxide'ions!(OH$),!when!dissolve!in!
to!water.!!
water!
!
o! Ca(OH)2(s)!+!aq!→!Ca2+(aq)!+!2OH$(aq)!$!!
"! Ca(OH)2!!is!thus!a!base!as!it!has!produced!OH$!ions.!!
•! Major!limitation!of!Arrhenius!theory!is!that!acid$base!definition!is!restricted!
to!aqueous!solutions.!!
o! As!well!as!this,!those!substances,!which!do!not!produce!H+!or!OH$!
ions,!cannot!be!classified!as!acid!or!base.!!
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BRONSTEDKLOWRY'ACIDKBASE'THEORY!!
•! Acids!are!substances!that'donate'a'H+'(proton)!!
•! Bases!are!substances!that!accept'a'H+'ion!!
o! This!requires!that!if!any!substance!is!to!behave!as!an!acid,!there!must!also!be!a!base!
present!!
''''''''''''''HNO3(l)'+'H2O(l)'→'H3O+(aq)'+'NO3K(aq)'
o! HNO3!is!acid!as!it!donates!H+!ion!to!H2O,!which!is!base!as!it!accepts!a!H+!ion!!
"! Note:!Hydronium!ion!(H3O+)!can!also!hydrogen!bond!strongly!to!other!water!
molecules,!so!formulas!such!as!H5O2+!and!H9O4+!may!also!be!present!!
•! Bronsted$Lowry!theory!allows!for!reactions!that!do!not!take!place!in!water!
o! e.g.!NH3(g)!+!HCl(g)!→!NH4+!+!Cl$!!!
"! HCl!acts!as!acid(Donates!H+)!and!NH3!acts!as!base(Accepts!H+)!
!
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!
•! The!reaction!NH3!+!HCl!!!NH4+!+!Cl$!shows!a!process!of!strong!ionisation,!in!that!the!reaction!
is!going!one!way!and!we!assume!it!goes!to!completion.!!
o! Inversely,!the!reaction!NH(aq)!+!H2O(l)! !NH+(aq)!+!OH$(aq)!depicts!a!weak!ionisation,!in!
that!the!equilibrium!arrows,! ,!show!that!the!reaction!is!not!complete!and!most!of!
the!ammonia!molecules!remain!unreacted;!they!are!just!simply!dissolved!in!the!
water.!I!
!
•! According!to!Bronsted$Lowry!theory,!substances!can!act!as!acids!in!some!reactions!and!
bases!in!other!reactions.!!
o! An!example!is!the!self$ionisation!of!water,!which!is!explained!later!on!in!these!notes.!!
!
CONJUGATE'ACIDS'AND'BASES'
!
•! The!reverse!reaction!of!a!Bronsted$Lowry!acid$base!reaction!is!also!an!acid$base!reaction!!
!!!!!!!!!!NH3(aq)!+!H2O(l)!↔!NH4+(aq)!+!OH$(aq)!!
"! Acids!=!red,!Bases!=!blue!
•! Conjugate!acid$base!pairs!differ!by!an!H+!ion,!with!conjugate!bases!having!one!less!H+!ion!and!
conjugate!acids!having!one!more!H+!ion.!!
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STRENGTHS'OF'ACIDS'AND'BASES'
!
•! Strength!is!indicated!by!position!of!equilibrium!when!the!acid!or!base!is!added!to!water.!
o! If!the!K'value'for!the!production!of!H3O+!or!OH$!is!large,!than!the!substance!is!a!
strong!acid!or!base.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Example:'HCl(g)'+'H2O(l)'→'H3O+(aq)'+'ClK(aq)''
o! HCl!is!strong!acid!and!the!forward!reaction!goes!to!completion!(large!K!value)!!
"! Reverse!reaction!does!not!occur!to!any!significant!extent,!thus!conjugate!
base!of!HCl!(Cl$)!is!a!very!weak!base.!!
•! In!general,!the!more!readily!an!acid!donates!a!hydrogen!ion!(the!stronger!the!acid),!the!less!
likely!its!conjugate!base!will!accept!a!hydrogen!ion.!
o! That!is!strong!acids!will!have!weak!conjugate!bases.!!
•! Similarly,!a!strong!base!accepts!hydrogen!ions!readily,!so!its!conjugate!acid!is!an!extremely!
weak!acid.!!
o! That!is!strong!bases!will!have!weak!conjugate!acids.!!
Strong'Acids' Strong'Bases'
•! HCl!–!Hydrochloric!Acid! •! Oxides!and!hydroxides!of!group'1'and'2'
•! HNO3!–!Nitric!Acid! metals'
•! H2SO4!–!Sulfuric!Acid!! •! NH3!is!a!base!while!NH4'is!an!acid.!'
! !
Note!$!Weak!acids!and!bases!do!not!necessarily!have!strong!conjugate!bases!and!acids!
respectively!!
o! Example!$!ammonia,!NH3,!is!a!weak!base!and!its!conjugate!acid,!NH4+,!is!also!weak.!
(Same!for!CH3COOH!acid)!!!
!
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If!the!relative!strengths!of!two!acids!or!bases!
are!known,!then!the!relative!strengths!of!their!
conjugate!pairs!can!be!determined.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Since!CH3COOH!is!a!stronger!acid!than!
NH4+,!it!follows!that!NH3!must!be!a!stronger!
;
base!than!the!CH3COO (acetate!ion).!!

If!acid!(1)!is!stronger!than!acid!(2),!than!the!
conjugate!base!of!acid!(2)!will!be!stronger!
than!the!conjugate!base!of!acid!(1)!!

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MULTIPROTIC'ACIDS'
!
•! Monoprotic'acids!$!acids!(e.g.!HCl)!that!only!donate!one!hydrogen!ion!(proton)!in!an!acid$
base!reaction.!!
•! However!there!are!other!acids!that!donate!more!than!hydrogen!ion,!these!are!referred!to!as!
polyprotic'acids'
For!example:!H2SO4!is!a!diprotic!acid!–!It!donates!a!hydrogen!Ion!twice!
!
1.& H2SO4(aq)!+!H2O(l)!→!H3O+(aq)!+!HSO4K(aq)!! +
Multiple!H !ions!are!only!
K + 2K
2.& HSO4 (aq)!+!H2O(l)!↔!H3O (aq)!+!SO4 (aq)! donated!over!additional'
! reactions'not'in'just'1'
! reaction.''
•! Note'$!Number!of!hydrogen!ions!an!acid!can!donate!does'not'relate'to!strength!of!acid!!
o! H2SO4!is!a!strong!acid,!as!it!completely!ionises!!
"! HSO4$!is!a!weak!acid,!so!reaction!does!not!go!to!completion!(thus!the!
reversible!reaction!arrows)!!
!
SELFKIONISATION'OF'WATER'
!
•! Water!is!an!amphoteric!substance!(can!behave!as!an!acid!or!a!base)!!
'''''''''''''''''''''H2O(l)'+'H2O(l)'↔'H3O+(aq)'+'OHK(aq)'
o! In!this!reaction,!one!H2O!molecule!has!acted!as!the!Brønsted–Lowry!acid!and!
donated!an!H+!ion!to!the!second!H2O!molecule.!This!second!H2O!molecule!has!acted!
as!a!Brønsted–Lowry!base!in!accepting!the!H+!ion.!!
•! Water!is!a!weak!electrolyte!as!only!a!few!water!molecules!undergo!ionisation!
•! Equilibrium!law!expression!for!self$ionisation!of!water:!K!=![H3O+][OH$]!
"! NOTE'–''[H3O+]'is'='[H+]'
o! Equilibrium!constant!for!self$ionisation!of!water!is!known!as!selfIionisation'constant!
(Kw)!at!25o!C!is!1x10K14!
"! Kw!=![H3O+][OH$]!=!1.00!x!10$14!at!25o!C!
•! Pure!water!is!regarded!as!neutral!in!an!acid$base!context:!!
o! [H3O+]!=![OH$]!=!1.00!x!10$7!mol!L$1!at!25o!C!
•! When!acid!dissolves!in!water,!H3O+!ions!are!formed,!causing![H3O+]!to!be!greater!than![OH$]!
o! An!acidic!solution!is!thus!a!solution!in!which![H3O+]!>![OH$]!!!!!!(pH!greater!than!1!x!
10$7)!
•! When!base!dissolves!in!water,!OH$!ions!are!formed,!causing![OH$]!to!be!greater!than![H3O+]!!
o! A!basic!solution!is!thus!a!solution!in!which![OH$]!>![H3O+]!!!!!!!(pH!greater!than!1!x!10$
7
)!
•! Kw!is!equilibrium!constant!for!any!reaction!that!occurs!in!an!aqueous!solutions,!thus!value!
for![H3O+][OH$]!at!25o!C!will!always'be'''''''''''''1.00'x'10K14!
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WHAT'IS'PH?'K'“Power!of!hydrogen”!$!F.!Paioff!2014'
'
•! In!order!to!express!acidity!of!solution!in!a!set!of!more!convenient!numbers,!pH!of!an!
aqueous!solution!is!defined!as:!pH'='Klog10'[H3O+]'
o! NOTE'–''[H3O+]'is'='[H+]'
•! Another!way!of!representing!this!relationship!between!pH!and!concentration!of!H3O+!is:!!
o! if![H3O+]!=!1!x!10$x!then!pH!=!x!!
•! pH!values!can!range!from!$1!to!15,!though!generally!only!range!from!0!(very!acidic!solution)!$
14!(very!basic!solution).!The!pH!of!a!neutral!solution!is!7.!!
+ K
o! Remember!for!all!aqueous!solutions,!at!25°C,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!![H3O ]'x'[OH ]'='1'×'10K14' !

MEASURING'PH'
•! Universal'indicator'paper'–!paper!soaked!with!a!mixture!of!acid$base!indicators,!and!as!a!
result,!it!changes!to!different!colours!at!different!pH!values!in!range!from!1$11!
•! For!more!precise!measurement!of!pH,!it!is!necessary!to!use!a!pH'meter!(pair!of!special!
electrodes!connected!to!a!meter!that!is!capable!of!measuring!very!small!voltage!differences)!
o! Voltage!difference!between!two!electrodes!depends!on!pH!of!solution.!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
PH'CALCULATIONS'
•! It!is!possible!to!calculate!pH!of!a!solution!of!any!strong!acid!or!strong!base!given!
concentration!of!solution!
o! From!hydronium'or'hydrogen'ion'(H3O+/H+)!concentration,!pH!can!be!determined!
directly!using!expression!H!=!$log![H3O+]!
o! From!hydroxide'ion'(OH$)!concentration!it!is!possible!to!use!value!of!Kw!for!self$
ionisation!of!water!to!determine!concentration!of!hydronium!ion!(H3O+)!and!from!
this!calculate!pH!of!solution.!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! When!a!solution!of!a!strong!acid!reacts!completely!with!a!solution!of!a!strong!base!in!the!
stoichiometric!amounts!required!by!the!balanced!equation,!the!resulting!solution!is!neutral.!!
•! If!a!strong!acid!and!base!are!not'mixed!in!stoichiometric!amounts,!then!some!of!either!acid!
or!base!will!remain'unreacted'after'reaction,!which!will!determine!pH!of!final!solution.!
Steps!involved!in!calculation!of!pH!of!a!mixture!of!a!strong!acid!and!strong!bases!are:!!

Steps!to!calculate'pH!when!there!is!a!limiting'reagent!–!!
1.! Calculate!the!amount!in!mole!of!(H3O+)!in!the!acid!solution!and!the!amount!in!mole!of!(OH$)!
Refer!to! in!the!base!solution,!before!any!reaction!occurs.! !
example! 2.! Assuming!the!(H3O+)!and!(OH$)!react!in!a!1:1!mole!ratio,!H3O+'+'OHK'→'H2O,!determine!which!
7.9!on! is!in!excess.! !
page! 3.! Calculate!the!amount!in!mole!of!excess!H3O+!or!OH$.! !
223!of! 4.! Using!the!new!volume!of!the!mixed!solution,!calculate!the!concentration!of!excess!H3O+!or!
textbook!
OH$.! !
5.! Determine!the!pH!of!the!solution!from!the!concentration!of!H3O+!or!OH$from!step!4.! !
!
PH'AND'TEMPERATURE!!!
•! Reaction!of!an!acid!with!a!base!is!an!exothermic'reaction'
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!H3O+(aq)'+'OHK(aq)'↔''H2O(l)'+''H2O(l)'ΔH'is'negative!
o! For!this!reaction,!the!reverse!reaction!is!that!for!the!self$ionisation!of!water,!so!this!
reverse!reaction!must!be!endothermic.!!
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''H2O(l)'+'H2O(l)' 'H3O+(aq)'+'OHK(aq);'ΔH'is'positive'

•! For!this!equilibrium!system!(self!ionisation!of!water),!an!increase!in!temperature!favours!
endothermic!reaction!(forward!reaction)!and!would!result!in!an!increase!in!equilibrium!
constant.!(4/3)!
o
! At!temperatures'above!25o!C,!the!value!of!K!must!be!greater'than'1'x'10K14'(because!
the!products!are!favoured)!'
o
! At!temperatures'below!25o!C,!the!value!of!K!must!be!smaller!than!1!x!10$14!(because!
the!reactants!are!favoured)!!
•! Note:!If!pH!of!pure!water!at!40o!C!is!less!than!7,!water!is!not!acidic,!as!neutral'pH'value'has'
shifted'due'to'temperature!
!
!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

HYDROLYSIS'REACTIONS''
!
•! Strength!of!an!acid!or!a!base!can!be!described!in!terms!of!the!position!of!equilibrium!when!
the!substance!donates!a!hydrogen!ion!to,!or!accepts!a!hydrogen!ion!from,!water.!!
o! When!an!acid!or!base!donates!or!accepts!a!hydrogen!ion!from!water,!the!reaction!is!
called!a!hydrolysis'reaction.'!
•! Equilibrium!constant!for!a!hydrolysis'reaction'of'an'acid,!is!called!the!acidity!constant!and!is!
represented!by!the!symbol'Ka!
•! Equilibrium!constant!for!a!hydrolysis'reaction'of'a'base,!is!called!the!basicity!constant!and!is!
represented!by!the!symbol'Kb!
•! Acetic!acid,!CH3COOH,!is!classified!as!a!weak'acid!because!the!equilibrium!constant!for!the!
hydrolysis!reaction!is!small:''
o! CH COOH(aq)!+!H2O(l)! !H3O+(aq)!+!CH3COO$(aq);!Ka'='1.8'×'10K5''
3
"! This!equilibrium!constant!is!called!the!acidity!constant!and!the!fraction!
expression!is!the!same!as!the!equilibrium!constant.!!
•! Ammonia!is!classified!as!a!weak'base!because!the!equilibrium!constant!for!its!hydrolysis!
reaction'is'small:!!
o! NH3(aq)!+!H2O(l)! !NH4+(aq)!+!OH$(aq);!Kb'='1.8'×'10K5'!
"! This!equilibrium!constant!is!called!the!basicity!constant!and!the!fraction!
expression!is!the!same!as!the!equilibrium!constant.!!
•! These!values!indicate!that!the!extent!of!hydrolysis!in!solution!is!approximately!the!same!for!
both!compounds.!!

SALTS'
!
•! Ionic!compound!that!contains!negative!ion!(anion)!other!than!oxide!ion!(O2$)!and!hydroxide!
ion!(OH$)!!
o! Salts!can!also!be!thought!of!as!a!compound!whose!positive!ions!(cations)!are!derived!
from!a!base!and!negative!ions!from!an!acid!
•! For!the!salt!potassium!chloride!(KCl),!the!potassium!ions(K+)!may!have!come!from!the!base!
potassium!hydroxide!(KOH)!and!the!chloride!ions!from!hydrochloric!acid!(HCl).!!
•! Ammonium!carbonate,!(NH4)2CO3,!is!the!salt!produced!when!carbonic!acid,!H2CO3,!acting!
as!an!acid!reacts!with!ammonia,!a!base:!
!!!!!!!!!!!H2CO3(aq)!+!2NH3(aq)!→!(NH4)2CO3(aq)!!
!

SOLUTIONS'OF'SALTS'IN'WATER'–'HYDROLYSIS'OF'IONS'
•! Salts!completely!dissociate!into!ions!when!dissolved!in!water!and!thus!are!strong!electrolytes!
o! It!is!then!possible!that!one!or!both!of!the!ions!produced!can!undergo!further!
reaction!with!water!
•! Depending!on!which!ions,!H3O+!or!OH$,!are!formed!in!any!hydrolysis!reaction!of!this!type,!
determines!whether!resulting!solution!will!be!acidic,!basic!or!neutral.!!
o! If!H3O+!ions!are!produced,!solution!of!the!salt!is!acidic,!if!OH$!ions!are!produced,!
solution!of!salt!is!basic!and!if!neither!ion!is!formed,!the!solution!of!salt!is!neutral.!!
•! Sodium!carbonate!dissociates!in!water!according!to!the!following!equation:!
o! Na2CO3(s)!+!aq(H2O)!→!2Na+(aq)!+!CO32$(aq) !
"! It!is!then!possible!that!one!or!both!of!the!ions!produced!in!the!dissociation!
reaction.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! The!dissociation!of!a!salt,!with!water!is!an!example!of!a!hydrolysis!reaction.!Solution!
of!sodium!carbonate,!the!CO32$!ion!undergoes!hydrolysis!to!produce!the!HCO3$!ion!
!
and!a!OH$! !ion.!!!
!!!!!!!!!CO32$(aq)!+!H2O(l)! !HCO3$(aq)!+!OHK(aq)!!
"! Thus!the!salt!Na2CO3(s)!froms!a!basic!solution(!due!to!the!presence!of!OH$!
ions)!!

•! Neutral'salts:!$!
o! Negative!ions!that!are!conjugate!bases!of!strong!monoprotic!acids!are!exceptionally!
weak!bases!and!do!not!hydrolyse!in!water!!
o! Positive!ions!of!groups!1!and!2!metals,!formed!when!strongly!basic!oxides!and!
hydroxides,!do!not!show!any!acid$base!properties,!so!they!do!not!hydrolyse!in!water!!
"! Therefore!the!salts!of!a!strong!acid!and!strong!base!reacting!are!neutral!
•! Basic'salts:!$!!
o! Negative!ions!that!are!conjugate!bases!of!a!weak!acid!(all!acids!other!than!HCl,!H2SO4!
and!HNO3,!unless!stated),!undergoes!hydrolysis!to!produce!a!solution!that!is!basic!
(formation!of!OH$)!
"! Therefore!salts!formed!from!the!reaction!between!a!weak!acid!and!a!strong!
base!will!be!basic!
!
•! Acidic'salts:!$!!
o! Positive!ions!that!are!conjugate!acids!of!a!weak!base!(all!bases!other!than!group!1!
and!2!metal!oxides!or!hydroxides,!unless!stated),!undergo!hydrolysis!to!produce!a!
solution!that!is!acidic!(formation!of!H3O+)!
"! Therefore!salts!formed!from!reaction!between!a!strong!acid!and!a!weak!base!
will!be!acidic!
'
SALTS'FROM'MUTLIPROTIC'ACIDS'
!
•! Sulfuric'acid:!$!
o! HSO4$!is!a!weak!acid,!so!salts!containing!this!ion!when!added!to!water,!will!produce!
an!acidic!solution!
o! SO42$!ion!is!neutral!and!does!not!hydrolyse!in!water!!
•! Carbonic'acid:!$!!
o! Both!HCO3$!and!CO32$!ions!are!basic,!so!solutions!containing!these!ions!are!usually!
basic!
!
•! Phosphoric'acid:!$!!
o! H2PO4$!ions!produce!a!salt!that!is!acidic!
o! HPO42$!and!PO43$!ions!produce!solutions!that!are!basic!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

SALTS'CONTAINING'GROUP'13'AND'TRANSITIONAL'METAL'IONS'
!
•! +3!ions!from!group!13!metals!as!well!as!+2!and!+3!ions!of!transition!metals,!produce!salts!
that!are!acidic!
o! Ions!are!highly!charged!and!attract!water!molecules!to!themselves!to!form!a!
hydrated!or!complex!ion!!
•! Complex!ions!then!react!with!water!molecules!to!produce!a!solution!with!excess!H3O+!ions!
o! For!example:![Al(H2O)6]3+(aq)!+!H2O(l)!→![Al(H2O)5(OH)]2+(aq)!+!H3O+(aq)!!
•! In!general!+3!ions!produce!solutions!that!are!more!acidic!than!solutions!of!+2!ions!
!

BUFFERS''
!
•! A!buffer!is!a!solution!that!resists!a!change!in!its!pH!when!small!amounts!of!an!acid!(strong)!
or!base!(strong)!are!added.!
•! Consisting!of!a!mixture!of!a!weak!acid!and!its!conjugate!base,!often!in!equimolar!amounts,!a!
buffer!solution!is!able!to!react!with!(H3O+)!introduced!by!addition!of!an!acid.!!
o! For!example!CH3COOH!+!NaCH3COO!!!!
"! CH3COOH!is!a!weak!acid!and!NaCH3COO!is!the!conjugate!base.!!
•! Can!also!consist!of!a!weak!base!and!its!conjugate!acid,!often!in!equimolar!amounts,!able!to!
react!with!(OH$)!!introduced!by!addition!of!a!base.!!
o! In!essence!–!a!buffer!works!to!resist!changes!to!the!system.!(Additions!of!acids!or!
bases)!!
'
'Example:!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CH3COOH(aq)'+'H2O(l)' 'H3O+(aq)'+'CH3COOK(aq)!!
•! If!a!solution!of!an!acid(strong)'is!added!to!the!“acetic!acid/acetate”!mixture!above,!the!
system!is!put!out!of!equilibrium.!!
o! To!re$establish!equilibrium,!the!acetate!ions!react!with!some!of!the!added!acid!
(H3O+),!from!the!added!acid,!to!shift!the!position!of!equilibrium!to!the!left.!!
"! When!the!reverse!reaction!is!favoured,!much!of!the!added!(H3O+)!ion!is!
removed!in!this!process;!the!overall!concentration!of!(H3O+)!!does!not!alter!
noticeably.!!
•! If!a!solution!of!a!base'(strong)!is!added!to!this!equilibrium!mixture,!the!added!(OH$),!from!
the!base,!react!with!the!(H3O+)!present!to!form!water!(neutral).!!
o! In!response!to!the!decrease!in!concentration!of!one!of!the!products,!more!acetic!
acid!reacts!in!order!to!maintain!equilibrium.!!
"! The!position!of!equilibrium!shifts!towards!the!right.!This!results!in!additional!
(H3O+)!being!produced,!which!can!react!with!more!of!the!added!OH$.!!
"! This!continues!until!all!the!added!OH$!is!consumed!(or!the!acetic!acid!is!‘used!
up’).!!
•! In!both!situations,!the!added!acid!or!base!can!be!“consumed”!and!equilibrium!re$established!
with!little!difficultly.!As!a!result,!the!pH!of!the!acetic!acid/acetate!ion!buffer!does!not!change!
much.!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Graph(s)'showing'how'a'buffer'system'reacts,'when'acid'is'added,'compared'to'neutral'water.'

'

" When!less!than!5!mL!of!0.1!
mol!HCl!solution!is!added!to!
20!mL!of!water,!the!pH!of!
the!mixture!decreases!over!
5!units!(graph!a).!!
" However,!with!20!mL!of!the!
(0.1!mol!ammonium!ion!/!0.1!
mol!ammonia)!buffer!
solution,!even!with!the!
addition!of!up!to!15!mL!of!
the!HCl!solution,!the!pH!has!
only!changed!over!the!range!
of!1!unit!(graph!b).!!
'

'

+ K
Example(2)''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''NH3(aq)'+'H2O(l)' 'NH4 (aq)'+'OH (aq)'

•! NH3!is!a!weak!base!and!its!conjugate!acid!is!NH4+.!Thus!the!equilibrium!above!is!a!buffer!
system!and!therefor,!its!pH!value!does!not!alter!noticeably!when!a!strong!acid/base!is!
added.!!
•! When!acid(strong)!is!added!to!the!buffer,!there!is!a!reaction!between!the!H+!and!the!OH$!
forming!water!(Neutral).!!
o! This!decreases!the!concentration!of!the!products!and!thus!the!system!favours!the!
forward!reaction!to!reestablish!equilibrium.!!
"! Thus!creating!more!OH$!and!in!doing!so,!resisting!the!change!in!pH!levels.!
This!is!because!more!and!more!OH$!is!produced!until!any!added!acid!(H+)!has!
been!“consumed”!–!leaving!the!pH!close!to!original.!!
"! HOWEVER!–!if!enough!acid!is!added,!obviously!the!buffer!can!only!produce!
so!much!OH$!and!eventually!the!increase!in![H+]!will!cause!a!shift!in!pH!
value.!!
•! The!same!concept!can!be!applied!to!a!base!(strong)!being!added!to!the!mixture.!The!added!
OH$!will!increase!the!concentration!of!products!and!thus!the!system!will!favour!the!reverse!
reaction!to!re$establish!equilibrium.!!
o! The!system!will!continue!to!favour!the!reverse!reaction!–!until!there!is!no!more!NH4+!
to!react!with!the!added!OH$.!

BUFFER'CAPACITY'–'EFFECTIVENESS'OF'A'BUFFER'SYSTEM'

•! A!buffer!solution!can!act!as!a!‘shock!absorber’,!keeping!the!pH!“stable”!when!acid/base!is!
added.!The!extent!to!which!the!buffer!can!‘absorb’!the!extra!acid!or!base!added!is!called!the!
buffer!capacity.!!
•! The!buffer!capacity!depends!on!two'factors:!
o! The!relative!concentrations!of!the!weak!acid!and!its!conjugate!base.!!
"! The!greatest!buffer!capacity!is!one!in!which!the!concentrations!of!the!weak!
acid!and!its!conjugate'base'in!the!buffer!are!equal.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

o! The!concentrations!of!the!weak!acid!and!its!conjugate!base.!
"! The!buffer!capacity'increases!with!an!increase!in!the!concentration!of!the!
conjugate'pair.!!
"! The!greater!the!concentration!of!the!conjugate!pair,!the!more!likely!the!
buffer!will!be!able!to!“absorb”!the!added!acid!or!base.!!
by dissolving ammonium chloride in a dilute solution of ammonia. By choosing
BLOOD'AS'A'BUFFER'SYSTEM'
an appropriate acid–base conjugate pair and adjusting their concentrations, a
buffer solution of virtually any pH can be prepared.
Enzymes!or!biological!catalysts!operate!only!over!a!very!small!range!of!pH!values,!so!anything!that!
Buffer capacity
cause!the!pH!of!blood!to!alter!appreciably!can!lead!to!illness!or!even!death.!!
A buffer solution can act as a ‘shock absorber’, keeping the pH much the same
when small The!pH'of'blood'is'7.35'–'7.45!
o! amounts of extra acid or base are added to it from another source.
The extent to which the buffer can ‘absorb’ the extra acid or base added is called
the buffer capacity. The Changes!in!pH'below'6.8!and!above'8.0!may!result!in!death!
"! buffer capacity depends on two factors:
$! base. The
•! The!major!buffer!system!in!the!body!fluid!is!HCO
• the relative concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate
most effective buffer (the greatest buffer capacity) is one 3in which
/!H2CO3!the/!CO2,!
o! Some!CO
concentrations of the,!the!end!product!of!cellular!metabolism,!is!carried!to!the!lungs!for!
2
acid and its conjugate base in the buffer are equal
• the concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base. The buffer
capacityelimination,!and!the!rest!dissolves!in!body!fluids,!forming!carbonic!acid!that!
increases with an increase in the concentration of the conjugate
pair. The greater the concentration of the conjugate pair, the more likely
the buffer dissociates!to!produce!bicarbonate!(HCO3$)!and!hydronium!(H3O+)!ions.!
will be able to combine with the added acid or base by shifting
the position of equilibrium either left or right.
o! The!two!equilibrium!buffer!systems!for!blood!are:!!
Blood as a buffer system
"! CO2!+!H2O!↔!H2CO3!
A large number of the biochemical reactions that take place in living things are
$
sensitive to changes"! H2In
in pH. COparticular,
3!+!H2O!↔!H
the vast3O+!+!HCO 3!
array of enzymes or biological
catalysts operate only over a very small range of pH values, so anything that
causes the o!pHE1:!acid$base!reaction!(actual!buffer!system)!
of body fluids to alter appreciably can lead to illness or even

"! Weak!acid,!H CO ,!and!conjugate!base!HCO $!

death.
The pH of blood is normally held between 27.35 3and 7.45 and this is achieved with3
a system o! E2:!production!of!carbon!dioxide!gas,!which!escapes,!thus!results!in!shift!to!the!right!!
of buffers. The three major buffer systems in the bloodstream involve
2!
HCO /H CO /CO , HPO
! /H PO , and a more complex system involving
!

"! Consuming!extra!acid!
3 2 3 2 4 2 4
proteins.

"! Makes!elimination!more!efficient!
In the body, the most common metabolic process involving the production
of substances that change the pH of blood is respiration. One of the products
of respiration,! carbon dioxide, is acidic and lowers the pH of body fluids. The
buffer system that is most significant in keeping the pH of blood constant during
respiration These!are!summarized!by!the!equilibria:!
o!is the carbonic acid/hydrogencarbonate system.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!H3O (aq)'+'HCO3K(aq)'buffer
The equilibrium+reactions in this
'H2Osystem in the blood are shown below:
(l)'+'H2CO3'(aq)' '2H2O(l)'+'CO2(g)'
H O (aq) + HCO (aq)
" H O(l) + H CO (aq)
! 2H O(l) + CO (g)
!
3 3 2 2 3 2 2

E1 E2 !
There are two equilibrium reactions represented here but only one of these,
1
"! These!create!a!buffer!solution,!which!resists!changes!in!pH!in!order!to!
E , is an acid–base reaction. The second equilibrium reaction, E , involves the 2

sustain!human!life.!!
production of carbon dioxide as a gas, which can easily escape from the solution,
and so provides a pathway via which the equilibrium can be shifted to the right,
•! Buffer'solutions:!often!prepared!by!mixing!a!weak!acid!of!base!with!a!salt!of!that!acid!or!
consuming excess acid (H O ).3
+

The actual buffer system in blood plasma is the carbonic acid/hydrogencarbonate

base!
reaction represented by E . This buffer consists of a weak acid, H CO , and its
1 2 3

o! By!choosing!appropriate!acid$base!conjugate!pair!&!adjusting!their!concentrations!a!
conjugate base, HCO . While this buffer in its own right could regulate blood
!
3
pH, the presence of the extra equilibrium reaction involving the production
of gaseous carbon buffer!solution!of!virtually!any!pH!can!be!prepared!
dioxide from carbonic acid (E ) makes the elimination of
2
excess H O from the bloodstream even more efficient. This latter reaction, the
"
3
elimination of carbon E.g.!NH4+/NH3!buffer!solution!prepared!by!dissolving!ammonium!chloride!in!
"!dioxide from the bloodstream via the lungs, is particularly
important during strenuous exercise.
a!dilute!solution!of!ammonia!
' CHAPTER 7 ACIDS AND BASES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION 227

CALIBRATION'OF'A'PH'METER!
•! Probe:!acts!as!a!small!electrochemical!cell!that!produces!certain!cell!potential!(voltage)!
when!placed!in!a!solution!containing!H3O+!ions!!
o! Voltage!generated:!dependent!on!concentration!of!H3O+!ions!!
"! Converted!to!pH!readings!by!the!meter!
!
•! Calibration:!achieved!by!using!buffers!of!known!pH!values!
•! Process:!
o! Electrodes!of!pH!meter!immersed!in!pH!4!buffer!&!scale!calibrated!to!read!4!
o! Electrodes!are!cleaned!&!dried,!placed!in!pH!10!buffer!&!scale!calibrated!to!read!10!!
o! From!two!points,!meter!able!to!produce!a!linear!scale!between!two!buffer!readings!
–!accuracy!of!0.1!pH!units!or!less!
•! Use'of'buffer:!contamination!of!electrodes!will!not!significantly!alter!the!pH!of!buffer!
solution!(Additionally,!pH!remains!constant!in!storage)!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

'
VOLUMETRIC'ANALYSIS''
'
KEY'REACTIONS''
'
ACID'+'METAL'OXIDE'AND'HYDROXIDES'(Bases)''
•! Neutralisation!reactions,!pH!7!
o! Acid!+!metal!hydroxide!→!salt!solution!+!water!
o! Acid!+!metal!oxide!→!salt!solution!+!water!
!
ACID'+'METAL'HYDROXIDE''
•! Strong!acid!with!a!group!1!or!2!metal!hydroxide!solution:!
Reaction!examples:!
o! HCl(aq)'+'KOH(aq)'→'KCl(aq)'+'H2O(l)'
o! 2HNO3(aq)'+'Ca(OH)2(aq)'→'Ca(NO3)2(aq)'+'2H2O(l)'
'
"! Ionic!equation!for!the!above:!!H+(aq)'+'OHK(aq)'→'H2O(l)!
•! Strong!acid!with!a!group!13!metal!hydroxide:!
o! Usually!insoluble!!
+ 3+
Reaction!example:!!3H (aq)'+'Fe(OH)3(s)'→'Fe (aq)'+'3H2O(l)!
!
ACIDS'+'METAL'OXIDES''
•! Metal!oxide!generally!in!solid!state,!
•! Group!1!metal!oxides!are!soluble!in!water!
o! Oxide!ion!is!such!a!strong!base!that!it!reacts!with!water!to!produce!hydroxide!ions!
o! An!aqueous!solution!of!the!oxide!ion!is!not!possible!
Reaction!examples:!!
+ 2+
2H (aq)!+!MgO(s)!→!Mg (aq)!+!H2O(l)!
+ +
2H (aq)!+!Na2O(s)!→!2Na (aq)!+!H2O(l)!
'
ACID'+'CARBONATES'and'HDYROGEN'CARBONATES'''
o! Acid!+!carbonate!→!salt!solution!+!carbon!dioxide!+!water!
o! Acid!+!hydrogencarbonate!→!salt!solution!+!carbon!dioxide!+!water!
!
ACID'+'GROUP'1'METAL'CARBONATE'and'ALL'HYDROGENCARBONATES''
•! Group!1!metal!carbonates!and!all!hydrogencarbonates!are!soluble!in!water!
Ionic!equations:!
2$
2H+(aq)!+!CO3 (aq)!→!CO2(g)!+!H2O(l)!
$
H+!(aq)!+!HCO3 (aq)!→!CO2(g)!+!H2O(l)!
'
ACID'+'ALL'OTHER'METAL'CORBONATES'''
•! Insoluble!in!water,!‘neutral!formula’!
Reaction!example:!!
+ 3+
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!6H (aq)!+!Al2(CO3)3(s)!→!2Al (aq)!+!3CO2(g)!+!3H2O(l)!
!
ACID'+'SULFIDES'and'SULFITES''
o! Acid!+!sulfide!→!salt!solution!+!hydrogen!sulphide!
o! Acid!+!sulfite!→!salt!solution!+!sulfur!dioxide!+!water!
!
Reaction!example:!!
+ 2$
1.! 2H (aq)!+!S (aq)!→!H2S(g)!
+ 2+
2.! 2H (aq)!+!MgSO3(s)!→!Mg (aq)!+!SO2(g)!+!H2O(l)!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

REACTIONS'OF'WEAK'ACIDS''
•! Represented!in!the!ionic!equation!in!their!‘un$ionised’!form!
•! Reaction!example:!!
1.! CH3COOH(aq)!+!OH$(aq)!→!CH3COO$(aq)!+!H2O(l)!
!
BASE'+'AMPHOTERIC'OXIDE'OR'HYDROXIDE''
•! Amphoteric'substance:!able!to!act!as!both!an!acid!or!a!base!
o! E.g.!Aluminium!oxide!and!aluminium!hydroxide!
•! Reaction!examples:!
1.! Al2O3(s)!+!2OH$(aq)!+!3H2O(l)!→!2[Al(OH)4]$(aq)!!
2.! Al(OH)3(s)!+!OH$(aq)!→![Al(OH)4]$(aq)!
'

CHEMICAL'ANALYSIS''

•! Gravimetric'analysis!$!determining!the!mass!of!a!substance!produced!(precipitate)!in!a!
chemical!reaction!and!using!this!to!solve!a!chemical!problem.!!
•! Volumetric'analysis!$!the!use!of!measured!volumes!of!solutions!that!undergo!chemical!
reactions.!!

VOLUEMETRIC'ANALYSIS''

Titration:!The!procedure!where!one!solution!is!added!to!another!solution!until!the!reaction!
between!them!is!complete.!One!solution!has!a!known!concentration!
'
Process:!
•! A!solution!of!one!of!the!reactants!is!added!to!a!fixed!volume!of!the!other!reactant.!!
o! Provided!the!concentration!of!one!of!these!solutions!is!known,!it!is!possible!to!
determine!the!concentration!of!the!other!solution.!
"! However,!this!analysis!depends!on!the!ability!to!determine!the!point!at!
which!complete!reaction!of!the!substances!has!taken!place.!!
o! This!point!at!which!the!correct!stoichiometric!amounts!of!each!substance!have!
reacted!is!called!the!equivalence!point.’!
'
Example'$!when!determining!the!amount!of!acetic!acid!in!vinegar!the!experiment!might!call!
for!a!solution!of!sodium!hydroxide!of!known'concentration!to!be!added!to!a!fixed!volume!of!
commercial!vinegar:!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CH3COOH(aq)'+'OHK(aq)'→ CH3COOK(aq)'+'H2O(l)''
o! At!the!beginning!of!the!titration,!the!acetic!acid!will!be!in!excess.!
"! As!the!sodium!hydroxide!is!added,!the!acetic!acid!will!be!consumed.!!
o! Finally!a!stage!will!be!reached!where!sufficient!sodium!hydroxide!has!been!added!to!
react!exactly!with!all!of!the!acetic!acid.!!
"! This!is!the!point!at!which!the!correct!stoichiometric!amounts!of!acid!and!
base!have!been!combined—the'equivalence'point.'!
•! Note'–!A!pH'indicator!is!used!to!make!an!observable!change!in!colour,!so!that!the!
equivalence!point!can!be!noted.!!
o! The!indicator!undergoes!a!colour!change!at!or!near!to!the!equivalence!point.!!
"! The!point!at!which!the!indicator!changes!colour!is!called!the!end!point.!
(Equivalence!point!=!end!point)!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

TYPES'OF'TITRATIONS:''

•! Strong!Acid!/!Strong!Base!!!pH!at!Equivalence!Point!=!7!!
•! Weak!Acid!/!Strong!base!!!pH!at!Equivalence!Point!>!7!
•! Strong!acid!/!Weak!base!!!pH!at!Equivalence!Point!<!7!!

Note!–!weak!acid!/!weak!base!titrations!are!too!complicated!and!unusual.!!

Summery:''
•! End'point:!point!at!which!the!indicator!changes!colour!
•! Equivalence'point:!point!at!which!the!correct!stoichiometric!amounts!of!each!substance!
have!reacted!

PRINCIPLES'OF'VOLUMETRIC'ANALYSIS''

Equipment'' Use' RINSES''

Pipette'' Used!to!accurately'deliver!a!specific,!measured!volume! The!solution!being!

of!solution,!e.g.!20.00!mL.!! delivered!from!it!in!the!
titration.'
The!volume!of!solution!delivered!from!the!pipette!is!
called!an!aliquot.!

Burette' Used!to!accurately!deliver!a!variable!volume!of! The!solution!that!is!being!

solution.! delivered!for!the!titre.'

The!volume!of!solution!delivered!from!the!burette!is!
called!the!titre.'

Volumetric'flask' Holds!an!accurately!known!volume!of!a!solution.! Should!be!rinsed!with!

distilled.!!
Used!to!make!up!a!standard'solution.!

Conical'flask' Used!to!hold!the!reaction!mixture!during!the!titration! Should!be!rinsed!with!

distilled!water!!

Storage'Flask'' Used!to!hold!standard!solutions!after!they!have!been! The!solution!that!is!going!

prepared!using!the!volumetric!flask.!! to!be!stored!!

n
Beaker'' Used!to!hold!small!amounts!of!Sol !and!aliquots!are! The!solution!that!is!being!
taken!from!them.!! held!'

'

STANDARD'SOLUTIONS''

•! A!standard!solution!has!an!accurately!known'concentration.!
o! There!are!two!types!of!standards!that!are!used!in!titrations:!primary'standards!and!
secondary'standards.!!
•! A!primary!standard!is!a!substance!possessing!the!following!purity'criteria:''
o! It!can!be!obtained!with!a!high!degree!of!purity!and!has!a!known!formula.! !
o! It!undergoes!reactions!according!to!known!chemical!equations.! !
o! It!must!be!stable.!This!means!its!composition!does!not!change!on!exposure! to!the!
atmosphere.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

!
"! NaOH!is!not!a!suitable!primary!standard!because!it!absorbs!water!from!the!
atmosphere!(deliquescence)!and!also!reacts!with!carbon!dioxide!in!the!
atmosphere.!
"! Hydrated!sodium!carbonate,!Na2CO3x10H2O,!loses!water!to!the!
atmosphere!(hygroscopic).! !
Summary:''
"! Deliquescence'!!Absorbs!water!from!atmosphere.!!
"! Hygroscopic'!!Loses!water!to!the!Atmosphere.!!
o! It!should!have!a!relatively!high!formula!mass!to!minimise!weighing!errors.!!
!
NOTE'–!Although!not!a!primary!standard!(pure!solid),!substances!can!be!“standardized”!into!
standardized!solutions!through!titration.!Eg:!NaOH(aq)!!
!
•! Common'Standard'Solutions!for!acid–base!titrations!include:!!
o! Anhydrous!sodium!carbonate,'Na2CO3,!!
o! Oxalic!acid,!H2C2O4x2H2O!
o! Potassium!hydrogenphthalate,!KHC8H4O4.!!
"! Oxalic!acid!is!also!a!primary!standard!for!redox!titrations.!!
"! !

PREPARING'STANDARDIZED'SOLUTIONS:''

1.! Accurately!weighing!out!a!calculated!mass!of!the!primary!standard!and!adding!it!to!a!
volumetric!flask.!!
2.! Adding!distilled!or!de$ionised!water!to!the!flask!and! swirling!to!dissolve!the!solid! !
3.! Continue!to!add!distilled!water!to!the!calibration!mark!on!the!flask.!!
"! The!bottom!of!the! meniscus!must!be!just!on!the!mark! !
4.! Thoroughly!shake!contents!to!ensure!that!the!solid!has!dissolved.!!

!
'
Once!the!solution!has!been!
made,!it!is!possible!to!calculate!
the!number!of!moles!(of!the!
standard!solid)!using!m/M,!then!
calculate!the!concentration!(of!the!
made!up!solution)!using!n/v.!!
!

'
'
ACCURACY'WHEN'TITRATING''
•! A!pipette'is!used!to!deliver!a!fixed,!accurate!volume!of!one!of!the!reactants!to!a!conical!
flask.!This!is!called!a!“aliquot”!!
o! Pipettes!used!in!school!laboratories!usually!have!an!accuracy'of'±0.02'mL.'Thus,!a!
20.00!mL!pipette!will!deliver!a!volume!of!solution!between!19.98!and!20.02!mL!if!
used!correctly.!!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! A!burette!is!used!to!deliver!a!variable!volume!of!the!second!solution.!
o! Most!school!laboratory!burettes!will!deliver!up!to!50.00!mL!with!an!accuracy!of!
±0.05'mL.!!

INDICATORS'!
•! Indicators!are!used!to!determine!the!point!at!which!stoichiometric!(Equivalent)!amounts!of!
two!colourless!solutions!have!combined.!An!indicator!produces!a!colour!change!at!this!point,!
very!close!to!the!equivalence!point!and!is!usually!referred!to!as!the!“end!point”.!!!
!
!

pH!change!between!3.1!;!4.4!
!
!
!
pH!change!between!7!;!9.5!
!
o! Be!careful!to!choose!an!indicator!whose!colour!change!takes!place!at!a!pH!close!to!
the!equivalence!point!for!the!titration,!and!thus!it!will!be!possible!to!determine!
when!the!reaction!is!complete.!!
"! The!point!at!which!the!indicator!changes!colour!is!called!the!end!point.!So!
the!task!of!the!chemist!undertaking!the!titration!is!to!find!an!indicator!
whose!end!point!matches!the!equivalence!point.!!

INDICATORS'AND'LE'CHATLIERS'PRINCIPLE''
''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''HIn(aq)''#!''H+(aq)'+'InK(aq)'
•! Litmus,!although!not!used!for!acid$base!titrations!is!a!fitting!example!to!demonstrate!the!
equivalence!point.!!
!
'
'
'
o! The!point!at!which!the!mole!of!HIn!and!H+!are!equal!represents!the!equivalence!
point!!!“purple”!portion!of!the!colour!scale.!'
•! In!the!presence'of'an'acid!(supplier!of!H+),!the![H+]!increases!and!so!the!reverse'reaction'is'
favoured.!!
•! In!the!presence'of'a'base!(supplier!of!OH$)!!!the!OH$!will!react!with!the!H+!decreasing!the!
[H+]!and!thus!the'forward'reaction'is'favoured.''
'
pH'CHANGES'IN'ACIDKBASE'TITRATIONS''

Three&&
Titration&&
curves:&&

!
! EP&=&7&& EP&>&7&& EP&<&7&&

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Note!–!if!a!strong!base!were!added!to!a!strong!acid,!the!curve!would!just!be!reflected!in!the!
x$axis.!This!applies!to!all!graphs.!!
!
•! How'to'describe'the'curve:!“Initially,!no!significant!change!in!pH.!Then!the!pH!changes!
markedly!with!the!addition!of!only!a!small!volume!of!acid,!followed!by!a!horizontal!region!
with!steady!pH.!The!steep!section!corresponds!to!the!point!where!one!drop!of!acid!causes!the!
pH!to!drop!drastically!!!equivalence!point.”!!
!
•! Explaining'the'pH'Value'of'the'Equivalence'point'using'Hydrolysis:'!
When!a!strong!acid!(HCl)!is!added!to!a!weak!base!(NH3),!the!equivalence!point!corresponds!
to!the!point!at!which!the!product!is!an!aqueous!solution!of!NH3Cl!.!!
o! The!NH3+!ion!is!the!conjugate!acid!of!a!weak!base!and!so!produces!an!acidic!solution!
when!hydrolised.!!
"! Thus!the!soln!has!a!pH!less!than!7,!due!to!the!hydrolysis!reaction!given!
below:!!
!!!!!!!!NH4+(aq)!+!H2O(l)! !H3O+(aq)!+!NH3(aq)!
'

SELECTING'THE'INDICATOR'!

•! Choose!an!indicator!that!has!an!end'point'(colour!change)!that!matches!the!equivalence'
point'(steep!section!of!the!titration!curve).!
o! However,!it!is!important!to!note,!that!an!indicator!who’s!range!lies!on!the!“straight”!
portion!of!a!curve!can!be!used!to!indicate!a!change!from!acid!base!or!visa!versa.!!
"! This!is!because!–!“one!drop”!of!a!strong!acid/base!will!change!the!pH!so!
drastically!that!the!indicator!will!change!colour!and!there!will!be!minimal!
errors!in!the!titration!volume.!!
o! NOTE!–!Titrations!involving!weak!acids$bases!!!the!curve!is!flatter!and!the!inflexion!
point!is!over!a!narrower!pH!range!so!you!need!to!select!the!indicator!for!the!range!
needed.!

!
BACK'TITRATIONS!–!There!will!be!TWO!reactions!!
!
•! A!“back”!titration!occurs!when!either!of!the!products!reacts!completely,!while!the!other!is!
left!in!excess.!The!excess!is!usually!the!“known”!component!of!the!reaction.!!
o! This!means!we!cant!use!the!“known”!value!of!moles!to!determine!any!other!moles,!
as!this!will!only!be!the!“original”!amount!and!NOT!the!reacted!amount.!!
•! Insight!of!this!–!a!second!titration!or!reaction!is!performed!using!the!excess!amount!of!the!
prior!“known”!substance!and!this!allows!us!to!calculate!the!excess!mols.!!
o! To!find!the!no.!of!moles!reacted!we!use!the!formula:!!
'''''''''''''n(substance)reacted'='n(substance)original'–'n(substance)Excess)''
•! By!finding!the!no.!of!moles!“reacted”!of!the!original!known!substance,!it!is!then!possible!to!
use!this!as!the!“known”!and!calculate!the!moles!of!other!reactants!using!stoichiometry.!'
NOTE!–!Sometimes!this!second!reaction!is!done!using!an!“aliquot”!of!the!original!known!
substance!and!thus!a!ratio!must!be!used!when!calculating!the!real'excess'amount.!!
I.E.''nT'='n(aliquot)'x'Total'Volume'/'Aliquot'volume''
'
'
'

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 Chemistry!3AB!

NOTE!–!Sometimes!the!unknown!substance!might!be!a!diluted!“sample”!of!a!more!
concentration!original!substance!–!so!this!requires!a!C1V1=C2V2!step!if!asked!to!find!the!
ORIGNIAL!concentration,!moles!ect.!!
o! That!is!–!you!will!find!out!the!C1V1!of!the!diluted!“sample”!and!use!these!values!to!
calculate!the!volume,!moles,!concentration!of!the!“concentrated”!original!
substance.!!
! !

'
REDOX'CHEMISTRY'
!
KEY'REDOX'CONCEPTS'
!
•! Oxidation!and!reduction!are!electron'transfer'processes!(reactions).!!
o! Oxidation'–'Loss!of!electrons!!
"! Reductant'(reducing!agent)!–!undergoes!oxidation.!!
o! Reduction'–'Gain!of!electrons!!
"! Oxidant'(oxidising!agent)!–!undergoes!reduction.!!
!
Example:'''''''''''Mg(s)'+'2H+(aq)'→'Mg2+(aq)'+'H2(g)'
o! This!reaction!can!be!broken!up!into!two!halfKreactions''
"! Oxidation:!Mg(s)!!!Mg2+!+!2e$!(lost!electrons)!'
"! Reduction:!2H+!+!2e$!!!H2!(gained!electrons)!'
Example'at'Molecular'level''
!
A!piece!of!zinc!is!placed!in!a!solution!of! '
copper(II)!sulfate,!the!zinc!undergoes! '
oxidation!and!transfers!electrons!to!the! '
copper&ions&that&are&then&reduced&to& '
metallic&copper.!!!
'
!Zn(s)!+!Cu2+(aq)!→!Zn2+(aq)!+!Cu(s)!! '
'
! '
'
'
'
STANDARD'REDUCTION'POTENTIALS''
!
•! Different!oxidants!and!reductions!have!varying!levels!of!“strength”!and!this!ultimately!
determines!if!a!reaction!will!take!place.!!
•! There!are!two'basic'rules'that!define!this!concept:!!
1.! Metals(s)'will'displace!(and!thus!react)!metal'ions'above.!!
"! E.g.!Cu(s)!will!displace!Ag+(aq)!!
2.! Halogens(g)'will'displace!(and!thus!react)!halogen'ions'below.!!
"! E.g.!F2(g)!will!displace!Br$(aq)!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Note!$!Positive!ions!of!metals!that!are!strong!reductants!are!themselves!weak!oxidants.!
•! Subsequently,!the!positive!ions!of!the!metals!that!are!weak!reductants!are!quite!strong!
oxidants.'
'
Table!summarising!the!relative!strengths! '
of!some!strong/weak!oxidants!(gain)!and! '
'
reductants(lose).!!
'
!
; '
I!e.!Mg(s)!loses!e !easily,!and!accordingly!
'
its!ion!Mg2+!does!not!gain!e;!easily.!!
'
'
'
'
OXIDATION'NUMBER'(ON)''
!
•! Oxidation'number'K'number!that!is!assigned!to!each!atom!in!a!substance!to!indicate!its!
oxidation!state!
o! This!is!used!when!it!is!difficult!to!follow!the!transfer!of!electrons,!such!as!in!
substances!with!covalent!bonds.!!
!
The'rules'for'assigning'oxidation'numbers:''
1.! Oxidation!number!of!any!element'is'zero!(including!elements!that!are!monatomic!or!
composed!of!molecules!or!a!covalent!network!substance)!
o! E.g.!Ne,!H2,!O3,!C!!
2.! Oxidation!number!of!an!atom!in!monatomic'ion!is!the!same!as!the!charge'on'the'ion!
o! E.g.!Na+!has!an!oxidation!number!of!+1!
3.! Oxidation!number!of!oxygen'in'a'compound'is'K2!
Exceptions!to!this!rule:!
o! Fluorine!oxide,!F2O,!where!oxygen!has!an!ON!of!+2!
o! Peroxides,!where!oxygen!has!an!ON!of!$1!(e.g.!Sodium!Peroxide)!
4.! Oxidation!number!of!hydrogen'in'a'compound'is'+1!
Exception!to!this!rule:!
o! Metal!hydrides,!where!hydrogen!has!an!ON!of!$1!(e.g.!Lithium!hydride)!
5.! Sum!of!the!oxidation!numbers!of!the!atoms!in!a!neutral'compound'is!zero!!
o! E.g.!CO2,!the!ON!of!carbon!must!be!+4!to!balance!the!ON!of!oxygen!($2!in!a!
compound,!thus!2x($2)!=!$4)!!
6.! Sum!of!the!oxidation'numbers'of!the!atoms!in!a!polyatomic'ion'must!equal!the!ionic!
charge.!!
o! E.g.!CO32$!the!ON!of!carbon!must!be!+4!to!balance!the!ON!of!oxygen!($2!in!
compound,!thus!3x($2)!=!$6)!!!(+4)!+!($6)!=!($2)!which!is!the!ionic!charge!of!the!ion.!!
!
DEFINING'REDOX'USING'OXIDATION'NUMBER''
•! Oxidation'K'Atom!undergoes!oxidation!if!its!oxidation!number!increases!during!a!chemical!
reaction!
•! Reduction!$!Atom!undergoes!reduction!if!its!oxidation!number!decreases!during!a!chemical!
reaction!
!
!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

This!concept!also!helps!in!determining'whether'or'not'a'reaction'is'Redox:!!
•! A!reaction!is!NOT!a!redox!reaction!if!the!oxidation!numbers!of!the!atoms!remain!constant.!!
E.g.!!!!!
! No!ON!have!changed!and!so!
! this!is!NOT!a!redox!reaction!
!
Oxidation!Numbers!can!be!used!to!identify'which'substances'have'been'oxidised'or'reduced.''
!
Example:&& !
!
•! The!(Cl)!in!HOCl!has!been!reduced!from!+1!!!$1!(thus!oxidant)!!
•! The!(I$)!ions!have!been!oxidised!from!$1!!!0!(thus!reductant)!!
'
DISADVANTAGES'OF'OXIDATION'NUMBERS''
!
•! Even!though!the!atoms!in!covalent!molecular!substances!are!assigned!an!oxidation!number!
that!includes!a!+!or!–!sign,!these!atoms!do!not!have!a!charge!
•! If!oxidation!rules!are!applied,!Thiosulfate,!S2O32$,!might!be!
assumed!to!have!two!sulfur!atoms!with!an!ON!of!+2!
o! However,!the!structure!of!the!thiosulfate!ion!is!
identical!to!the!sulfate!ion!!
o! The!central!atom!has!an!ON!of!+6,!while!the!other!
sulfur!atom!in!thiosulfate!has!an!ON!of!$2!
•! Similar!ambiguities!arise!in!assigning!oxidation!numbers!to!
carbon!atoms!in!some!organic!compounds!and!to!various!other!group!15!to!17!elements.!!
!
USING'OXIDATION'NUMBER'TO'WRITE'REDOX'EQUATIONS''
!
•! The!use!of!oxidation!numbers!to!determine!which!atoms!have!undergone!
oxidation/reduction,!along!side!some!simple!rules,!allow!the!half$equations!for!more!
complex!reactions!in!an!acidic!environment!(H+)!to!be!derived.!!
! Examples!
Example:&& Reaction!of!an!acidified!solution!of!potassium!dichromate,!K2Cr2O7,!with!a!solution!of! on!page!
sodium!oxalate!Na2C2O4.!! 269!of!
Chem!Wa!
o! Solution!of!potassium!dichromate,!K2Cr2O7!formed!a!solution!containing!Cr3+!
"! In!the!dichromate!ion!the!chromium!has!an!oxidation!number!of!(+6),!
so!the!reaction!of!dichromate!ion!to!produce!chromium!(III)!ions!is!a!
reduction.!!
"! That!is!the!ON!of!Cr!went!from!(+6)!!!(+3)!

The'Half'Equation'for'this'data'is'written'according'to'the'following:'

1.! Balance!the!atom!undergoing!the!change!in!oxidation!number!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cr2O72$ →!2Cr3+!
2.! Balance'oxygen!by!adding!water,!H2O,!where!needed!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cr2O72$!→!2Cr3+!+!7H2O!
3.! Balance'hydrogen!atoms!by!adding!H+!where!needed!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cr2O72$!+!14H+!→!2Cr3+!+!7H2O!
4.! Balance!the'charge!by!adding!electrons(eK)!where!needed!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cr2O72$!+!14H+!+!6e$!→!2Cr3+!+!7H2O!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

5.! Check!that!the!number'of'electrons'added!corresponds!to!the!change'in'oxidation'number!
of!the!atom(s)!undergoing!reduction!or!oxidation.!!
o! The!ON!of!each!(Cr)!atom!has!changed!from!(+6)!!!(+3)!and!there!are!two!Cr!atoms,!
resulting!in!a!total!change!in!oxidation!number!of!6.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cr2O72K(aq)'+'14H+(aq)'+'6eK'!'2Cr3+(aq)'+'7H2O(l)'
!
Repeat!for!second'half'equation!
The!solution!containing!the!oxalate!ion,!C2O42+,!has!produced!carbon!dioxide,!the!ON!of!carbon!has!
changed!from!(+3)!!!(+4)!!

1.! C2O42+!→!2CO2!(carbon!is!balanced)!!
Steps!2!&!3!are!skipped!because!there!are!no!Oxygen!or!Hydrogen!to!balance.!
4.!! C2O42+!→!2CO2!+!2e$!(oxalate!ion!charge!is!now!balanced)!!
!!!!!!!!Thus!half$equation!is'C2O42+(aq)'!'2CO2(g)''+'2eK'

Half'Equations'are'added'together''
•! Two!half!equations!can!be!added!by!ensuring!that!the!electrons!lost!in!the!oxidation!half!–!
equations!are!all!gained!in!the!reduction!half!equations!
o! This!may!require!one!or!both!equations!being!multiplied!by!an!integer!I.E!relate!to!
simultaneous!equations!(elimination!method)!!
•! The!equations!are!then!added,!and!the!electrons!are!‘cancelled!out’!
'''''''''''''''''Cr2O72–'(aq)'+'14H+(aq)'+'3C2O42–'(aq)'→'2Cr3+(aq)'+'7H2O(l)'+'6CO2(g)'

•! Once!the!full!reaction!has!been!written!!!any!substance!that!occurs!on!both!sides!of!the!
reaction!is!canceled!out.!(i.e.!4H20!on!left!|!10H20!on!right)!'
o! Cancels!to!6H20!on!the!right!'

Alkaline'Atmosphere:''
If!the!question!states,!the!reaction!has!a!(OH$)!atmosphere!!

1.! Complete!Normal!steps!!
2.! Once!overall!equation!is!balanced!!!add!(OH$)!to!both!sides!
3.! React!OH$!with!H+!!!H2O!and!so!cancel!anything!that!occurs!on!both!sides!of!the!reaction!

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!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Disproportionation'Reaction'''
•! Redox!reaction!where!one!substance!acts!as!both!the!reductant'and'oxidant!(thus!is!
oxidised!and!reduced)!!
Example:!H2O2(aq)→2H2O(l)+O2(g)'
o! The!O'in!(H2O2)!has!both!been!reduced!and!oxidised.!!
"! H2O2!!!H2O!(K1)'!'(K2)!–!Reduction!!
"! H2O2!!!O2!!(K1)'!'(0)!!–!Oxidation!!
!
REDOX'TITRATIONS''
!
•! Equivalence'Point!–!of!a!titration!involving!an!oxidant!and!a!reductant!occurs!when!one!of!
the!oxidant'or'reductant!is!completely'consumed.!
•! End'Point!–!The!end!point!represents!the!point!at!which!a!visible'colour!change'occurs!–!in!
redox!titrations,!often!the!reductant!and!oxidant!are!‘self$indicating’!!
o! When!either!the!reductant!or!oxidant!has!been!fully!reacted,!the!next!drop!of!colour!
will!not!react!and!so!an!‘excess’!will!be!visible!!!turning!the!clear!solution!into!a!
lightly!coloured!solution.!!
•! When!doing!redox!titrations!–!the!full'redox'equation'must!be!written!and!so!this!might!
include!writing!both!half!equations!prior.!!
o! As!well!as!the!common!oxidants!and!reductants!table!above,!the!Chemistry!DATA!
SHEET!lists!many!reactions!(in!reduction!form)!that!can!be!used!–!as!well!as!
converted!into!oxidation!reactions.!!
"! Note!–!the!Eo!when!added!must!be!a!positive!number!if!the!reaction!is!to!
occur.!As!well!as!this,!if!‘converting’!reduction!reactions!into!oxidation!ones,!
the!Eo!value!must!be!change!(!i.e.!positive!!!negative)!!
'
BACK'TITRATIONS''
Back!Titrations'apply!to!redox!titrations!in!the!same!way!the!do!to!normal!ones!–!simply!follow!the!
steps:!!
!
There!will!be!TWO!reactions!!
•! A!“back”!titration!occurs!when!either!of!the!products!reacts!completely,!while!the!other!is!
left!in!excess.!The!excess!is!usually!the!“known”!component!of!the!reaction.!!
o! This!means!we!can’t!use!the!“known”!value!of!moles!to!determine!any!other!moles,!
as!this!will!only!be!the!“original”!amount!and!NOT!the!reacted!amount.!!
•! Insight!of!this!–!a!second!titration!or!reaction!is!performed!using!the!excess!amount!of!the!
prior!“known”!substance!and!this!allows!us!to!calculate!the!excess!mols.!!
o! To!find!the!no.!of!moles!reacted!we!use!the!formula:!!
'''''''''''''n(substance)reacted'='n(substance)original'–'n(substance)Excess)''
•! By!finding!the!no.!of!moles!“reacted”!of!the!original!known!substance,!it!is!then!possible!to!
use!this!as!the!“known”!and!calculate!the!moles!of!other!reactants!using!stoichiometry.!'
NOTE!–!Sometimes!this!second!reaction!is!done!using!an!“aliquot”!of!the!original!known!
substance!and!thus!a!ratio!must!be!used!when!calculating!the!real'excess'amount.!!
I.E.''nT'='n(aliquot)'x'Total'Volume'/'Aliquot'volume''
'
NOTE!–!Sometimes!the!unknown!substance!might!be!a!diluted!“sample”!of!a!more!
concentration!original!substance!–!so!this!requires!a!C1V1=C2V2!step!if!asked!to!find!the!
ORIGNIAL!concentration,!moles!ect.!!
o! That!is!–!you!will!find!out!the!C1V1!of!the!diluted!“sample”!and!use!these!values!to!
calculate!the!volume,!moles,!concentration!of!the!“concentrated”!original!
substance.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

ELECTROCHEMICAL'CELLS''
!
!

Electrochemical'cell!–!Cell!works!to!produce!the!energy!of!the!exothermic!redox!reaction!in!the!
form!of!electrical!energy!(measured!through!a!voltmeter).!
o! That!is,!the!cell!converts!chemical!potential!energy!into!electrical!energy.!!
•! This'cell'transfers!the!electrons!through!a!wire!(known!as!the!external'circuit)!from!the!
reductant!(in!the!Anode)!to!the!oxidant!(in!the!Cathode).!!
•! The!two!pieces!of!metal!(copper!and!silver)!in!the!separate!beakers!are!called!electrodes!
and!are!linked'by!a!conducting!wire!(the!external'circuit).!!!
o! Anode!–!Negative!electrode,!oxidation!occurs!(thus!reductant!is!present)!!
o! Cathode!–!Positive!electrode,!reduction!occurs!(thus!oxidant!is!present)!!
•! The!copper!electrode(Anode)!is!placed!in!a!solution!of!CuSO4,!this!ensuring!it!does'not'react!
with!the!solution!in!its!respective'halfKcell.!!
•! The!silver!electrode(Cathode)!is!in!a!solution!of!AgNO3,!this!ensuring!it!does!not!react!with!
the!solution!in!its!respective!half$cell.!!
!
•! The!Salt'Bridge!completes!the'circuit!by!joining'the!two'beakers.!
o! The!salt!bridge!contains!an!electrolyte'solution,!usually!a!saturated'solution'of'a'
salt!such!as!KNO3!whose!ions'will'not'react'with!the!contents!of!either!of!the!
beakers.!
o! The!flow!of!electric!current!(electrons)!in!the!external!circuit!is!completed!in!the!
beakers!by!the!salt!bridge!with!a!flow!of!positive!and!negative!ions.!!
"! Anions(negative!ions)'flow'towards'!'Anode!!
"! Cations'(positive!ions)!flow'towards'!'Cathode!
•! In!the!copper/silver!electrochemical!cell!above,!only!one!of!the!electrodes!(the!cathode)!
takes!part!in!the!reaction.!!
o! Note!$!all!electrochemical'cells'need'two'electrodes,!even!if!neither!actually!takes!
part!in!the!reaction.!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

ELECTRICAL'CURRENT'TRANSFER''
•! The!half$equations!for!their!respective!half$cell’s!are!show!below:!!
o! Oxidation!half$cell!reaction!(at!the!anode):!Cu →!Cu2+!+!2e$ !
(s)!
"! This!increases!the!Cu2+!concentration!
o! Reduction!half$cell!reaction!(at!the!cathode):!Ag+!+!e$!→!Ag !!
(s)
"! This!decreases!the!Ag+!concentration!!
•! The!electrons!that!are!produced!in!the!oxidation!of!the!Cu !move!through!the!external!
(s)
circuit!and!travel!to!!!the!cathode!where!they!are!picked!up!by!the!(Ag+)!ions,!which!are!
then!reduced!to!Ag(s).!
o! As!a!result!of!the!oxidation!reaction,!the!mass!of!the!copper(Cu)!electrode!will!
decrease,!as!it!turns!into!Cu2+ .!!
(Aq)
Equally,!the!mass!of!the!silver(Ag)!electrode!will!increase!as!more!(Ag+)!ions!
are!turned!into!Ag(s).!!
'
COMPLETING'THE'CIRCUIT''
•! The!AnodeKcell!only!requires!Cu(s)!to!undergo!oxidation,!however,!to!insure!there!is!a!
complete!circuit!in!the!half$cell,!the!solution!in!this!halfKcell'needs!to!contain'an'
electrolyte.!!
o! Using!a!copper(II)!salt!e.g.!CuSO4;!ensures!that!the!solution!will!conduct!an!electric!
current!and!that!the!ions!in!the!solution!will!not!interfere!with!the!oxidation!of!the!
copper.!!
•! The!CathodeKcell!only!requires!a!dissolved!silver!salt!e.g.!AgNO3!to!undergo!reduction,!
however,!to!insure!a!complete!circuit!in!the!half$cell,!the!electrode!must!be!unreactive!with!
the!cell’s'contents.!!
o! A!silver!(Ag(s))!electrode!provides!the!necessary!conductor!and!also!ensures!that!the!
electrode!material!will!not!interfere!with!the!reduction!of!the!silver!ions.!!

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MAINTAINING'NEUTRAL'CONDITIONS''
!
•! Anode!$!As!the!Cu(s)!anode!is!oxidised,!the!newly!formed!Cu!2+!ions,!enter!the!solution!of!the!
half$cell.!!
o! The!increased!positive!charge!in!the!Anode$cell!is!neutralised!by!negative!
ions(Anions)!migrating!from!the!salt!bridge!into!the!beaker.!E.g.!NO3$!!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Cathode'$!As!Ag+!ions!are!reduced,!and!thus!removed!from!the!solution,!accordingly!the!
‘missing’!positive!charge!must!be!replaced.!!
o! The!increased!negative!charge,!resulting!from!the!loss!of!positive!Ag+!ions,!is!
neutralised!by!positive!ions(cations)!migrating!through!the!salt!bridge!into!the!
cathode!half$cell.!E.g.!K+!
•! This!allows!a!continuous!flow!of!electrons!!!maintain!a!complete!circuit!!!continuous!
flow!of!current!
'
Further'Electrochemical'Cells'!
•! Redox!reactions!are!not!limited!to!those!between!metals!and!metal!ions.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Example:!Cl2(g)!+!2I$ (aq)!→!2Cl$ (aq)!+!I2(aq)!
o! oxidation!half$equation:!2I$(aq)!→!I2(aq)!+!2e$!
o! reduction!half$equation:!Cl2(g)!+!2e$!→!2Cl$(aq)!
!
$
The!electrons!produced!by!the!oxidation!of!(I )!ions,!need!to!
flow!through!an!inert'electrode!–!will!not!react!with!
anything!in!the!anode!half$cell!in!order!to!travel!through!the!
external!circuit.!!

The!electrons!must!then!be!then!must!be!transferred!by!
another!inert!electrode!in!order!to!combine!with!the!
chlorine!gas!!

The!most!common!inert!electrodes!are!carbon'(graphite)'
and!platinum!(often!with!a!surface!coating!so!that!it!will!
adsorb!gases).!
!
o! Note!–!Colour!change!(clear!!!brown)!occurs!in!the!anode$cell!as!a!result!of!I2!being!
formed.!!
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Summarising'Table'
(A)& Metal'+'Metal' (B)& Metal'Ions'in' (C)& Dissolved'nonK (D)& Gaseous'nonKmetal'
Ion' different'oxidation' metal'and'its'ions' and'its'ions''
states'

Metal!is!the!electrode!and! Graphite!or!platinum!is!placed! Graphite!or!Platinum!is! Gas!is!bubbled!over!a!

it!is!placed!in!a!solution!
containing!its!ions.!E.g!Cu!
metal!placed!in!a!solution!
2+
of!Cu !ions. !
in!a!solution!containing!both!
of!the!metal!ions.!E.g.!
graphite!electrode!placed!in!a!
solution!containing!iron(III)!
and!iron(II)!ions.! !
placed!in!a!solution!
containing!both!the!non$
metal!and!its!ions.!E.g.!
graphite!electrode!placed!in!
a!solution!containing!Br!and!
_
dissolved!Br !ions.! !
platinum!electrode!immersed!
in!a!solution!of!the!non$metal!
ions.!E.g!H2!bubbling!over!a!
surface!of!platinum!placed!in!
+
a!solution!containing!H !ions.!!

!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

ELECTRIC'POTENTIAL'
!
•! Different!oxidants!(things!that!are!reduced)!have!differing!levels!of!strength!and!this!will!
effect!how!well!the!cathode$cell!can!‘pull’!electrons!through!the!wire,!from!the!anode$cell.!!
o! Thus,!when!two!half$cells!are!connected,!the!one!with!the!stronger!oxidant!will!
‘pull!electrons’!more!strongly,!and!thus!be!named!the!cathode$cell.!!
•! This!‘pull’!or!‘driving!force’!causing!the!flow!of!electricity!is!thus!due!to!a!‘difference!in!
electric!potentials’!of!the!two!half$cells.!!
o! The!unit!of!electric!potential!is!the!Volt!(V)!
•! The!cell!potential!for!an!electrochemical!cell!is!given!by!the!symbol!Cell!!
o! This!potential!depends!on!the:!
"! Nature!of!oxidants!and!reductants!!
"! Concentrations!of!electrolytes!!
"! Pressure’s!of!any!gas(s)!involved!
"! Temperature!at!which!cell!operates!!
!
STANDARD'REDUCTION'POTENTIALS!
!
•! However,!the!Standard!Cell!Potential!for!all!reactions!is!used!in!this!course!and!the!symbol!
for!that!is!EO!
o! The!conditions!for!a!cell!to!be!“standard”!include:!
"! 1mol!L$1!concentration!of!all!dissolved!substances!!
"! 101.3!kPa!pressure!of!gases!!
"! 25oC!temperature!
!
Determining'which'reaction'will'be'oxidation'/'reduction''
•! In!order!to!determine!which!half$equation!will!be!either!reduction!or!oxidation!respectively,!
we!simply!compare!their!Eo!volts!(found!on!data!sheet)!while!in!the!same!form.!(Either!both!
in!reduction!form!or!Visa!Versa)!!
o! That!is,!by!having!both!reduction!‘versions’!of!the!half!equations,!we!can!compare!
which!has!a!higher!E0cell!!value!and!thus!conclude!that!this!half!equation(higher)!will!
undergo!reduction.!
"! Correspondingly,!the!other!half$equation!will!be!in!its!oxidation!form.!!
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DETERMINING'CELL'POTENTIALS''
•! The!Eo'potential'of'a'cell'is'found!by!adding!the!Eo!volts!of!the!reduction!half$equation!and!
the!oxidation!half$equation.!!
o! Remember,!the!same!rules!apply!when!using!the!Standard!Reduction!Potentials!
data!sheet.!!
"! When!converting!a!reaction(in!reduction!form)!into!oxidation!form!!!Eo!
volt!value!must!be!swapped!around(!I.e.!positive!!!negative)!!
•! Another!way!of!calculating!the!Eo,!although!mathematically!its!simply!a!rearrangement,!the!
formula!is!useful!to!define!the!calculation.!!
•! IUPAC!suggest!that!the!standard!cell!potential!is!calculated!using!the!formula:!E°cell'='
E°oxidant(reduction)'–'E°reductant(oxidation)'!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Note'–!If!given!a!multiple!options,!
when!told!to!construct!a!
electrochemical!cell!(with!the!
highest!possible!electric!potential)!–!
the!best!oxidant!can!be!identified!
O!
by!the!one!which!has!the!highest!E
volt!value.!!
!
Equally,!to!determine!the!best!
reductant,!simply!use!the!one!which!
O
has!the!lower!E !volt!value.!!
!
The!same!concept!is!applicable!to!
finding!the!lowest!possible!cell!
potential!!

'
Note'–'Sometimes!questions!require!you!to!compare!the!‘predicted’!or!calculated!cell!potential!(!Eo)!
with!the!observed!cell!potential!(through!a!voltmeter)''!
'
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SUMMARY''
•! The!more!positive!the!reduction!potential,!the!stronger!the!oxidant.! !
•! The!more!negative!the!reduction!potential,!the!stronger!the!reductant.! !
•! Oxidants!generally!only!react!with!reductants!that!have!a!more!negative!E°!value.! !
•! The!greater!the!difference!in!E°!values!between!the!oxidant!and!reductant!the!more!likely!
the!reaction!is!to!proceed!in!the!direction!predicted.!
o! This!also!means,!there!will!be!a!higher!voltage!and!this!creates!more!possibilities!
with!regard!to!the!cells!use.!!
•! Differences!in!reduction!potentials!are!related!to!equilibrium!constants.!The!greater!the!
difference!in!E°!values,!the!larger!the!equilibrium!constant!for!the!reaction.! !
•! Even!when!there!may!be!a!large!difference!in!standard!reduction!potentials!between!the!
oxidant!and!reductant,!the!cell!potential!does!not!predict!how!fast!the!reaction!will!take!
place.!
o! It!is!possible!that!the!rate!of!reaction!at!25°!is!very!slow,!or!simply!can’t!react!due!
to!a!high!activation!energy.!!
•! The!table!of!Standard!Reduction!Potentials!is!based!off!a!standard!reference!half$cell!(2H+!+!
2e$!!!H2(g))!with!a!Eo!=!O!volts,!thus!if!a!different!half$cell!is!selected!as!the!‘reference’!cell,!
then!all!values!on!the!table!will!shift!by!the!original!value!of!that!cell.!!
o! E.g.!if!(Cu2+!+!2e$!!!Cu(s))–!Eo!+0.34!is!set!as!the!reference$cell,!that!all!values!in!the!
table!will!increase!by!0.34!$!!but!will!stay!in!proportion!to!one!another.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

PREDICTING'WHETHER'REDOX'REACTIONS'WILL'TAKE'PLACE''
!
•! A!redox!reaction!will!be!expected!to!occur!if!the!following!requirements!are!satisfied:!
o! One!reactant!is!an!oxidant!and!the!other!is!a!reductant! !
o! The!oxidant(reduced)!has!a!larger!standard!reduction!potential!(E°)!than!the!
reductant(oxidised).!(oxidant!higher!on!the!table!of!standard!reduction!potentials!
will!react!with!a!reductant!lower!down)!!

!
Example' !
!
It!can!be!predicted!that:! !
1.! Chlorine!will!react!with!iron!because!Cl2!is!a!stronger!oxidant!than!Fe2+!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cl2(g)!+!Fe(s)!→ 2Cl (aq)!+!Fe2+(aq)!
2.! A!solution!of!iron(II)nitrate!will!not!react!with!a!solute!
3.! on!of!sodium!chloride!because!Fe2+(aq)!!is!not!a!sufficiently!strong!oxidant!to!react!with!Cl$(aq).!
!
Note!$!The!greater!the!difference!between!the!E°!values!for!the!oxidant!and!the!reductant,!the!
larger!the!equilibrium!constant!for!the!reaction.!!
•! However,!a!large!value!for!the!equilibrium!constant,!K,!does!not!mean!that!the!reaction!rate!
will!also!be!large!!!high!activation!energy.!!
!
Standard'reduction'potentials'can'be'used'to'explain'reactions'such'as:!
•! Reactions!of!metals!and!water—any!metal!with!a!reduction!potential!less!than!around!–0.4'
V!will!react!with!water!(even!if!it!is!very!slow)!
•! Reactions'of'metals'and'acids—'
o! Metals!with!a!reduction'potential'(E°)'less'than'0.0'V!will!react!with!hydrochloric!acid!
and!dilute!sulfuric!acid!to!form!H2.!
"! “Metals!above!hydrogen!are!reactive”!
o! Metals! with! a! reduction' potential' (E°)' less' than' 0.95' V! will! react! with! reasonably!
concentrated!nitric!acid!to!form!NO(g)!(which!will!immediately!oxidise!to!brown!NO2(g)!
in!the!presence!of!air).!
!
ADDITIONAL'INFO/USES'OF'THE'STANDARD'REDUCTION'POTENTIALS'INCLUDE:! !
!
•! Many!substances!will!only!react!if!an!acid!is!present.!
o! E.g.!!MnO4$(aq)!and!Cr2O72$(aq)!both!require!the!presence!of!H+(aq)!in!their!reactions!as!
illustrated!in!the!specific!half$equations.!
•! In!an!aqueous!solution!the!very!weak!oxidant(reduced)!metal!ions!will!not!participate!in!a!
redox!reaction.!!
o! Cations!(positive!ions)!of!group!1!and!2!metals!together!with!Al3+!can!be!ignored!
when!predicting!redox!reactions!involving!aqueous!solutions.!
•! Nitrate!(NO3$)!and!sulfate!(SO42$)!ions!will!not!participate!in!redox!reactions!unless!they!are!
present!as!reasonably!concentrated'nitric'acid'or'sulfuric'acid:''
o! Nitric'acid—when!a!metal!reacts!with!the!concentrated!acid,!nitrogen!dioxide!is!
formed:'
"! NO3(aq)!+!2H+(aq)!+!e$ !→ NO2(g)!+!H2O(l)! !
o! When!a!metal!reacts!with!less'concentrated!acid!(4–6!mol!L$1),!nitrogen!monoxide!
forms: !
"! NO3$(aq)!+!4H+(aq)!+!3e$!→!NO(g)!+!2H2O(l)!
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o! Sulfuric'acid—when!a!metal!reacts!with!concentrated!sulfuric!acid,!sulfur!dioxide!
forms:! !
"! SO42$(aq)!+!4H+(aq)!+!2e$→!SO2(g)!+!2H2O(l)!

MISCELLANEOUS'NOTES'

•! Increases'and'decreases'in'electrolyte'concentrations!–!!
o! If!the![Reductant]!increases,!this!will!have!little!to!no!affect!on!the!cell’s!EMF!as!the!
reductant!ions!are!not!directly!taking!part!in!the!oxidation!process.!!
Remember!!
o! If!the![Oxidant]!increases,!the!cell’s!EMF!will!also!increase!as!there!are!more!oxidant!
[Substance]!
means!the! ions!available!to!be!reduced!at!the!cathode,!meaning!there!will!be!a!stronger!‘pull’!
concentration!of! of!electrons!from!the!anode.!!
the!substance!! o! The!exception!to!this!rule!is!in!an!equilibrium!electrochemical!cell!where!both!the!
[reductant]!and![oxidant]!must!be!considered!insight!of!Le!Chatelier's!Principles.!!
!
•! In!redox!reactions!–!when!a!contextual!question!refers!to!‘steal’!it!can!be!assumed!that!this!
is!an!alloy!of!Fe(s)!and!accordingly,!simply!use!the!reduction/oxidation!half!equation!for!
Fe(s)/Fe2+!respectively.!
!
•! A!standard!solution!has!an!accurately!known'concentration.!
•! A!primary'standard!is!a!substance!possessing!the!following!purity'criteria:''
o! It!can!be!obtained!with!a!high!degree!of!purity!and!has!a!known!formula.! !
o! It!undergoes!reactions!according!to!known!chemical!equations.!!
o! It!must!be!stable.!This!means!its!composition!does!not!change!on!exposure! to!the!
atmosphere.!!
"! Deliquescence'!!Absorbs!water!from!atmosphere.!!
"! Hygroscopic'!!Loses!water!to!the!Atmosphere.!!
o! It!should!have!a!relatively!high!formula!mass!to!minimise!weighing!errors.!!
!
•! Substances!can!be!‘standardised’!into!standardised!solutions!through!titration.!
o! This!process!creates!secondary'standard'solutions.!!
"! Oxalic!acid,!H2C2O4Ç2H2O!is!a!primary!standard!for!redox!titrations,!while!
MnO4$!is!a!secondary!standard.!!
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APPLICATION'OF'REDOX'!
'
DRY'CELL'
•! A!cell!or!a!battery!is!an!electrochemical!cell!that!stores!useful!energy!in!form!of!an!oxidant!
and!a!reductant!that!are!capable!of!releasing!electrical!energy!when!required!!
•! Dry!cells!are!primary'cells!–!spontaneous!redox!reaction!only!occurs!once!and!cannot!be!
reversed!(thus!are!non$rechargeable!cells)!!
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Leclanche'cell!–!original!and!most!familiar!dry!cell,!anode!consists!
of!a!zinc!container!while!cathode!is!a!graphite!rod!surrounded!by!
powdered!manganese!dioxide,!space!between!electrodes!filled!
with!electrolyte!which!acts!as!salt!bridge.!This!dry!cell!has!limited!
shelf!life!due!to!corrosion,!a!low!energy!to!mass!ratio,!though!is!
inexpensive!and!simplistic!to!use.!!
!!
HalfKreactions'for'this'dry'cell'are:''
•! Cathode:!2MnO2!+!2NH4+!+!2e$!→!Mn2O3!+!2NH3!+!H2O!
•! Anode:!Zn!→!Zn2+!+!2e$!
!
!
!
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ALKALINE'CELL'–'PRIMARY'CELL'
•! Zinc!is!reducing!agent!and!silver!oxide!is!oxidising!
agent,!KOH!is!used!as!electrolyte!paste.!These!cells!
are!superior!to!the!Leclanche!cell!but!are!more!
expensive!!
!
HalfKreactions'for'this'cell'are:''
•! Anode:!Zn!+!2OH$!→!Zn(OH)2!+!2!e$!
•! Cathode:!Ag2O!+!H2O!+!2!e$!→!2Ag!+!2OH$!
!
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LEADKACID'ACCUMULATOR''
•! Lead$acid!accumulator!is!a!secondary'cell!–!able!to!be!recharged!when!they!go!'flat'!!
•! Recharging!these!cells!involves!applying!a!voltage!(greater!than!the!cell!potential!voltage)!to!
the!electrodes!that!reverses!the!normal!cell!reactions!(hence!regenerates!oxidising!and!
reducing!agents)!!
•! Lead$acid!accumulator!is!made!up!of!series!of!six!(2V)!connected!cells!each!consisting!of!an!
anode!(grid!of!lead!alloy!packed!with!finely!spongy!lead)!and!a!cathode!that!is!similar!to!the!
anode!(instead!packed!with!lead(IV)!oxide!powder).!Powdered!nature!of!electrodes!give!
reagents!greater!surface!area!(producing!high!currents).!!
•! Electrolyte!used!is!sulfuric!acid.!Sulfuric!acid!is!consumed!in!cathode!reaction!over!time,!as!
sulfuric!acid!is!also!denser!than!water,!measuring!the!density!of!electrolyte!can!be!used!to!
check!extent!to!which!battery!has!been!discharged.!!

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HalfKreactions'for'this'cell'are:'!
•! Anode:!Pb!+!SO42$!→!PbSO4!+!2e$!
•! Cathode:!PbO2!+!4H+!+!SO42!$!+!2e$!!→!PbSO4!
+!2H2O!
!
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NICKELKCADMIUM'CELL'–'SECONDARY'CELL'
•! It!is!rechargeable!because!reaction!products!stick!to!the!electrodes,!allowing!for!electrode!
reactions!to!be!reversed.!Electrolyte!is!KOH.!Cell!produces!smaller!potential!of!1.2$1.3V!and!
cadmium!used!is!also!toxic.!
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HalfKreactions:''
•! Anode!:!Cd!+!2OH$!→!!Cd(OH)2!+!2e$!
•! Cathode!:!NiO(OH)!!+!H2O!+!e$!→!!Ni(OH)2!+!OH$!
!
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FUEL'CELLS''
!
•! Fuel'cells!do!not!store!the!oxidising!or!reducing!agent!–!instead!they!are!constantly!fed!into!
the!cell!to!generate!electricity!with!by$products!being!constantly!removed!!
•! Hydrogen!oxygen!alkaline!fuel!cell!is!most!common!fuel!cell!–!electrodes!are!porous!(allow!
liquid/air!to!pass)!and!are!inert.!These!cells!are!more!energy!efficient!than!other!large$scale!
methods!(e.g.!coal)!though!are!much!more!expensive!
'
HalfKreactions'for'this'cell'are:''
•! Anode:!H2!+!2OH$!→!2H2O!+!2e$!!!!!!!!!
•! Cathode:!O2!+!2H2O!+!4e$!→!4OH$!
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RUSTING'OF'IRON''
•! Iron!is!readily!susceptible!to!corrosion!–!iron!is!oxidised!by!air!in!a!moist!environment!(wet!
corrosion)!to!form!a!brown!substance!called!rust!(layer!of!rust!allows!oxygen!and!water!to!
pass!through)!
•! Wet!corrosion!has!an!electrochemical!nature,!which!is!enhanced!by!the!fact!iron!can!
conduct!electricity!!
•! In!rusting!process,!iron!acts!as!anode:!Fe!→!Fe2+!+!2e$!!
•! Cathode!is!usually!a!region!of!high!oxygen!concentration:!O2!+!2H2O!+!4e$!→!4OH$!
!
!!
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PREVENTION'OF'CORROSION'
•! Methods!of!controlling!corrosion:!!
•! Inert'nonKmetallic'coatings'–!works!by!excluding!oxygen!and!water!from!iron!thus!
preventing!redox!reaction!from!occurring!
•! Inert'metallic'coatings!–!less!reactive!metal!coating!excluding!oxygen!and!water!
from!reacting!with!iron!
•! Galvanising!–!coating!iron!in!more!reactive!metal,!allows!more!reactive!metal!to!be!
oxidised!in!place!of!iron!
•! Cathodic'protection'using'a'DC'current!–!applied!voltage!makes!iron!negative!
charged!so!by!preventing!its!oxidation!
•! Cathodic'protection'using'a'sacrificial'anode!–!more!reactive!metals!is!oxidised!in!
preference!to!iron!–!as!sacrificial!anode!is!slowly!oxidised!it!releases!electrons!onto!
iron,!making!iron!cathodic!so!it!cannot!oxidise!
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ORGANIC'CHEMISTRY''
'
'
KEY'DEFINITIONS''
•! Organic'Chemistry!–!The!study!of!known!carbon'compounds!(exceptions;!hydro/carbonates,!
oxides!of!carbon)!!
•! Inorganic'Chemistry!–!The!study!of!all!other!compounds!and!elements.!(exceptions;!
methanoic!acid!H2CO2)!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

HYDROCARBONS''
!
•! Hydrocarbons!$!Compounds!containing!only!carbon!and!hydrogen.!!
o! Undergo!combustion!or!oxidation!when!ignited!in!the!presence!of!air!or!O2.!!
•! Combustion!of!hydrocarbon!equation:!!
!
!
!
Example:!Combustion!of!propane,!C3H8!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!C3H8(g)'+'5O2(g)'→'3CO2(g)'+'4H2O(l)' Note&–&The!coefficient!of!O2!
'
is!(x+y/4)!so!(3!+!8/4)!thus!=!
o! !If!combusted!with!a!limited!supply!of!O2,!CO!may! 5!&
form!instead!of!CO2.!! No.!of! Suffixe!
' Bonds!
•! Saturated'Compound'–!Contains!only!single!bonds.!! 1! “ane”!
•! Unsaturated'Compound'–!Contains!at!least!one!multiple!bond.!! 2! “ene”!
' 3! “yne”!
ALKANES''
!
•! Straight!and!branched!chain!Alkanes!have!the!following!general!features:!!
o! They!consist!only!of!carbon!and!hydrogen.! !
o! They!have!only!single'bonds!between!the!carbon'atoms,!e.g.!propane! CH3!–'CH2!–'
CH3.! !
o! They!have!the!general!formula!CnH2n+2!where!n!=!1,!2,!3!etc.! !
o! They!are!colourless!and!may!be!gases,!liquids!or!solids!at!room!temperature!
depending!on!their!relative!formula!mass.! !
o! They!are!insoluble'in'water.!(Non!–!Polar)!!

STRAIGHT'CHAIN'ALKANES'–'Aliphatic'
!
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Note'–!The!boiling'points!of!each!successive!
Name'' No.'of'C' Molecular' straight!chain!Alkane!increases,!with!the!
atoms'in'' Formula'' number!with!Carbon!atoms.!!
MethK'ane' 1! CH4!
This!is!due!to!increasing!dispersion!forces!as!a!
EthK'ane' 2! C 2H 6!
result!of!the!“non$polar”!carbon!chain!portion!
PropK'ane' 3! C 3H 8!
of!the!compound!increasing!in!size.!!
ButK'ane' 4! C4H10!
PentK'ane' 5! C5H12!
HexK'ane' 6! C6H14! '
HeptK'ane' 7! C7H16! '
OctK'ane' 8! C8H18! '
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NonK'ane! 9! C9H20!
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DecK'ane! 10! C10H22!
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BRANCHED'CHAIN'ALKANES'–'Aliphatic'
'
Straight'Chain' Branched'Chain'
Butane!! ! Methylbutane!!
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3! !

The!names!of!branched!chain!alkanes!are!based!on!the!names!of!the!straight!chain!alkanes!from!
which!they!are!derived.!!
!
The!IUPAC!rules'for'naming!alkanes!are!as!follows:!!
1.! Identify!longest!continuous!chain.!Stem!name!associated!with!number!of!carbon!atoms!and!
suffix!of!“ane”!is!added.!! CH3!–!!1! Methyl!
2.! Name!side!chains!that!branch!off!longest!chain.!Name!of!chains!derived!from! carbon!
stem!name!associated!with!number!of!carbon!atom!on!that!chain!and!suffix!of! C2H6!–!! Ethyl!!
2!
“yl”!(Shown!in!table!to!the!right)!!
carbon!!
3.! If!more!than!one!identical!side!chain!appears,!use!prefixes!(di,tri..!etc)!!
C3H8!–!! Propyl!
4.! Number!longest!carbon!chain!from!end!to!end!(starting!at!the!end!where!lowest! 3!
possible!numbers!of!side!chains).!Allocate!number!to!each!chain!and!place!a! carbon!
hyphen($)!between!any!word!and!number,!while!a!comma!is!placed!between! C4H10!–4! Butyl!
two!consecutive!numbers.!! carbon!
o! E.g.!3$ethyl$2,4$dimethylhexane!!
Note!$!For!cyclic'alkanes,!same!naming!rules!apply!except!prefix!of!“cyclo”!is!added.!(e.g.!
cyclopentane)!

Example:''

• The!longest!chain!is!8!carbons!long,!and!
so!the!parent!chain!is!octane.!
• The!side;chains!on!this!parent!chain!are!
two!methyl!groups!(on!carbons!2!and!4)!
and!an!ethyl!group!(on!carbon!4).!!

!!!!Thus!the!name!is!4;ethyl;2,4;dimethyloctane.!!

!
!

STRUCTURAL'ISOMERS'OF'ALKANES''
•! Structural!isomers!are!compounds!that!have!the!same'molecular'formula!but!different'
structural'formulas.!!
!
Both!compounds!have!the!
molecular!formula!C5H12!but!
evidently,!have!different!structural!
formulas.!!

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SUBSTITUTION'REACTIONS'OF'ALKANES'!
•! Substitution'reaction!–!One!atom!in!a!molecule!is!replaced!by!a!different!atom,!to!form!a!
new!molecule.!!
o! Usually!takes!the!form!of!a!reaction!between!an!alkane!and!a!halogen!(particularly!
Cl2!and!Br).!!
"! In!this!reactions,!the!hydrogen!atoms!of!the!alkane!and!replaced,!one!after!
the!other,!by!halogen!atoms.!!
•! Haloalkanes!(compounds!that!contain!carbon,!halogen!atoms!and!possibly!hydrogen!atoms)!
and!a!hydrogen!halide!are!formed!in!these!substitution!reactions.!!
•! The!reaction!mixture!must!be!exposed!to!ultraviolet!light!(or!sunlight)!for!the!reaction!to!
occur.(used!as!a!source!of!energy!to!break!bonds)!!
o! As!well!as!this!the!reactions!are!often!very!slow.!!
Example:''

This!process!can!continue!until!all!
hydrogen!atoms!attached!to!the!
carbon!atom!have!been!substituted!
for!halogen!(Br)!atoms.!
This!process!is!dependent!upon!how!
much!halogen!(Br)!is!added.!!

Limited'Halogen' If!1:1!molar!mixture!of!CH4!and!Br2!is! CH4!+!Br2!→!CH3Br'+!HBr!

reacted,!that!the!major!product!
formed!would!be!CH3Br!
Excess'Halogen' If!Excess!Br!is!used,!then!CBr4!would! CH4!+!4Br2!→!CBr4!+!4HBr!
be!the!major!product.!!
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•! When!naming'a'Haloalkane,!a!prefix!representing!a!halogen!must!be!used,!and! F 2! “Fluoro”!
the!location!of!the!halogen!along!the!carbon!chain!must!be!stated.!!(If!there!is! Cl2! “Chloro”!
just!1!carbon!atom!–!no!number!is!required)!' Br2! “Bromo”!
' !I2! “Iodo”!!
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CYCLOALKANES'–'ALICYCLIC'
•! The!general!formula!for!cycloalkanes!is!CnH2n!i.e.!C2H4!and!this!is!the!same!as!the!general!
formula!for!alkenes.!
•! Naming!cylcoalkanes!–!the!ring!is!regarded!as!the!parent!chain!and!the!prefix!“cylco”!is!used.!!
o! Like!straight/branched!alkanes,!the!ring!is!numbered!so!the!side!chains/groups!have!
the!smallest!possible!number.!!
Example:''
!

• The!ring!has!6!carbon!atoms!as!so!the!parent!
chain!is!“hex”!with!the!prefix!“cylco”.!!
• !There!are!two!side!branches!next!to!each!other!
so!either!can!be!labeled!1,!and!subsequently!
the!other!is!labeled!2.!!
• Thus!the!name!is:!1,2!dimethylcyclohexane.!!
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Note!–!the!structural!formula!of!cycloalkanes!can!also!be!written!without!showing!the!hydrogen!and!
carbon!atoms.!Eg:!cyclohexane:!!
•! Cycloalkanes,!like!the!alkanes,!undergo!combustion!and!substitution!reactions.!!
Example!$!the!reaction!of!cyclohexane!with!chlorine,!in!a!1:1!molar!ratio,!and!in!the!
presence!of!UV!light,!is:!!
!
! Can!also!be!
! drawn!without!
groups!labelled!
!
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ALKENES''
!
•! Alkenes!have!the!following!general!properties:!!
o! They!contain!only!carbon!and!hydrogen'atoms.! !
o! They!have!at'least'one'double'carbon–carbon'bond,!for!example,!propene,!
H2C=CH–CH3,!which!is!an!alkene.! !
o! They!have!a!general!formula!of!CnH2n!where!n!=!1,!2,!3!etc.!(Assuming!the! alkene!
has!only!one!double!bond.)! !!
o! They!are!colourless!compounds.! !
o! They!have!relatively!low'melting!and!boiling'points.' '
o! They!are!insoluble'in'water!(non$polar)!!

Naming'Alkenes!!

1.& The!longest!carbon!chain!chosen!as!the!parent!chain!must'contain'the'double'
carbon–carbon'bond.' '
2.! This!parent!chain!is!numbered!from!the!end!that!gives!the!double!bond!the!smallest!
number!possible.! !
3.! The!suffix!‘Kene’!is!used!as!the!ending!of!the!parent!name,!rather!than!‘$ane’!in!
alkane.!!
4.! The!position!of!the!double!bond!within!the!chain!is!given!as!the!lower!number!of!the!
two!double!bonded!carbons.!The!number!is!placed!just!before!the!suffix!‘$ene’.! !

STRUCTURAL'ISOMERS'OF'ALKENES'!
Example:'
!
• The!parent!chain!contains!seven!carbon!
atoms!and!the!double!bond!is!between!
carbon!3!and!carbon!4.!!
• There!is!an!ethyl!group!on!carbon!5!and!a!
methyl!group!on!carbon!6.!!
!
Thus!the!name!is!5$ethyl$6$methylhept$3$ene.!

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•! Structural'Isomer'–'As!like!in!alkanes,!a!structural!isomer!is!those!compounds!that!have!the!
same'molecular'formula!but!different'structural'formulas.'

Both!compounds!have!the!molecular!
formula!C4H8!but!evidently!have!
different!structural!formulas.!!
!

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GEOMETRIC'ISOMERS'OF'ALKENES''

•! Geometric'Isomer'–'Compounds!that!have!the!same!molecular!formula,!in!which!the!
position!of!the!double!bond!is!the!same,!yet!the!spatial!arrangement!of!atoms!across!is!
double!bond!is!different.!'
o! Occurs!for!alkenes!because!the!carbon!atoms!joined!by!the!double!bond!are!unable!
to!rotate!about!the!double!bond.!(Is!possible!with!a!single!bond)!'
"! Consequently,!geometrical!isomerism!does!not!exist!for!alkanes.!!'

'
Cis!–!When!the!(Br)!group!(or!any!functional!
' group)!is!on!the!same!side!of!the!double!bond.!!
!
' Trans!–!When!the!(Br)!group!(or!any!functional!
group)!is!on!opposite!sides!of!the!double!bond.!!
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Note'–'A!Alkene!will!only!exhibit!geometric!isomerism!if!each!of!the!carbon!atoms!joined!by!the!
double!bond!have!different!groups!attached!to!them.!

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ADDITION'REACTIONS'FOR'ALKENES'!

•! Alkenes!undergo!addition!reactions!readily!with!substances!such!as!Cl2,!Br2,!F2,!H2,!hydrogen!
halides!and!water!(steam).!!
o! Two!new!atoms!are!added!‘across!the!double!bond’!and!the!double!bond!becomes!a!
single!bond.!
"! Addition!reactions!occur!at!a!much!faster!rate!than!substitution!reactions.!!
Example& !
Ethene!reacting!with!!
bromine!to!form!!!!!!!!!!!1,2;!
dibromoethane!(which!is!
an!alkane)!!

Note!–!Naming!
Haloakenes!is!done!in!the!
same!way!as!haloakanes!!
•! Experimentally,!an!alkane!and!an!alkene!can!be!distinguished!by!
adding!an!aqueous!solution!of!bromine.!!
o! An!aqueous!solution!of!Br2'is'an'orange'colour!and!when!it!reacts!with!either!an!
alkane!or!an!alkene,!a!colourless!mixture!is!formed.!!
•! When!an!alkene!is!added!to!an!aqueous!solution!of!Br2(aq),!the!orange'colour!of!bromine!
disappears'instantly.!!!
•! When!an!alkane!is!added!to!an!aqueous!solution!of!Br2(aq),!the!orange'colour'of!bromine!
takes!a!much!longer'time'to'disappear,!and!ultraviolet'light'is!necessary!for!the!reaction!to!
occur.!

ADDITION'REACTIONS'FOLLOWED'BY'SUBSTITUTION'REACTIONS'FOR'ALKENES''

•! Alkenes!can!undergo!addition!reactions!followed'by'substitution'reactions'with'halogens!$!
only!if!ultraviolet'light'is'present!and!if!the!reaction!mixture!is!allowed!to!react'for'
sufficient'time.!!
o! Furthermore,!for!a!substitution!reaction!to!occur,!the!halogen!and!alkene!need!to!be!
initially!present!in!greater!than!a!1:1!mole!ratio!mixture.!!
!
Example:&& First'$!Ethene!will!react!with!chlorine!to!form!
1,2$dichloroethane!(which!is!an!alkane).!

Second–!this!reaction!will!only!take!place!in!
the!presence!of!ultraviolet!light!and!excess!
chlorine.!!

!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

•! Hydrogen'halides!such!as!HCl!or!HBr!will!also!add!to!the!double!bond!in!an!alkene.!!
o! For!monoprotic!hydrogen!halides!$!the!hydrogen!is!added!to!one!carbon!and!the!
halogen!to!the!other,!to!produce!a!haloalkane.'!

! Both!the!“H”!and!“Br”!
components!of!the!hydrogen!
! halide!(HBr)!have!been!
! attached,!individually,!to!a!
! carbon!atom!–!making!the!
! compound!a!saturated!alkane!!
!
!
!
•! Alkenes!will!also!undergo!addition'reactions'with'steam!(H2O)!in!the!presence!of!a!suitable!
catalyst!to!produce!alcohols.!!
!
Ethene!is!reacting!with!steam(H2O)!
producing!ethanol.!!
!
Note'–!this!reaction!only!occurs!in!the!
presence!of!the!catalyst!and!usually!
high!pressure!and!temperature.!!
o! This!is!a!key!industrial!method!for!producing!
ethanol.!!

AROMATIC'HYDROCARBONS'K'BENZEN'
•! The!general!formula!of!aromatic!compound,!benzene!has!the!formula!C6H6.!Originally!a!ring!
structure!based!on!cyclohexane!with!three!double!bonds.!!
o! However,!it!does!behave!as!if!it!has!three!single!bonds!and!three!double!bonds.!!
o! It!does!not!readily!undergo!addition!reactions,!even!though!the!structure!containing!
a!double!bond!would!suggest!it!would!be!very!reactive.!
"! Suggests!that!the!carbon!carbon!bonds!in!benzene!are!all!the!same,!with!a!
bond!length!between!that!of!a!single!and!double!bond.!!
•! A!new!structure!is!formulated!to!represent!Benzen,!a!circle,!represents!six!delocalized!
electrons,!one!from!each!carbon!atoms;!these!electrons!are!not!fixed!to!any!one!atom.!!
o! Thus!Benzene!appears!to!be!similar!to!Graphite,!which!also!bonds!to!three!other!
atoms,!and!can!conduct!electricity!through!its!delocalized!electrons,!yet!Benzene!is!a!
bad!conductor!of!electricity!as!the!delocalized!electrons!are!restricted!to!discrete!
regions.!!
'
Reactions'of'Benzene''
•! Benzene!and!other!aromatic!hydrocarbons!also!undergo!Combustion!reactions,!as!like!
Alkanes!and!Alkenes.!!
•! Rather!than!undergoing!addition!reactions,!which!would!be!expected!from!a!molecule!with!
double!bonds,!in!defiance!of!this,!Benzene!undergoes!Substitution!reactions.!(Halogenation!
of!Benzene!can!take!place!at!room!temperature!in!the!presence!of!a!suitable!catalyst!such!as!
aluminum!halide.)!!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

'
ORGANIC'CHEMISTRY'–'FUNCTION'GROUPS'
'
A'FUNCTIONAL'GROUP'DEFINED''
•! A!functional!group!is!an!atom!or!a!group!of!atoms!that!determines!the!chemical!and!physical!
properties!of!an!organic!compound.!!
o! The!presence!of!a!particular!functional!group!in!a!molecule!can!be!used!to!predict!
the!type!of!reactions!the!molecule!will!undergo.!!
•! Summarising!table!depicts!common!functional!groups!attached!to!simple!molecules.!!
!
!

The!way!in!which!the!atoms!of!a!
functional!group!attach!to!the!
molecule!determines!the!type!of!
functional!group!and!the!effect!it!
will!have!of!the!compounds!
properties.!!!
!
!
!
!
ALCOHOLS''
!
•! The!functional!group!present!in!an!alcohol!is!the!(–OH)!group!attached!to!a!tetrahedral!
(attached!to!4)!carbon!atom.!The!simplest!alcohol!is!methanol,!CH3OH.!!

These!two!figures!depict!a!methanol!compound!where!the!‘alcohol!
component’!is!the!c$OKH,!note!how!there!is!a!bond!between!O!and!H!
respectively.!!
!

The!IUPAC!rules'for'naming!Alcohols!are!as!follows:!
1.! The!alcohol!is!named!by!selecting!the!longest!carbon!chain!that!contains!the!–OH!functional!
group.!This!longest!chain!becomes!the!parent!alkane!and!the!alcohol!is!named!by!adding!the!
suffix'‘ol’!in!the!place!of!the!‘e’!in!the!alkane!name.!
2.! The!position!of!the!alcohol!functional!group!is!indicated!by!the!use!of!a!number!placed!
before!the!suffix!‘ol’.!
o! (The!prefix!‘hydroxy’!is!used!for!some!compounds!where!there!is!more!than!one!
functional!group!present).!
3.! The!alcohol!functional!group!is!given!the!smallest!possible!number!in!the!chain!and!takes!
priority!over!any!side$chain!alkyl!(methyl,ethyl…)!groups.!
o! If!two!alcohol!functional!groups!are!present,!then!the!suffix'‘diol’!is!used!and!the!‘e’!
is!not!dropped!from!the!alkane!name.!
4.! For!cyclic!alcohols,!the!numbering!begins!at!the!carbon!atom!attached!to!the!alcohol!
functional!group.!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

Example:'
o The!longest!carbon!chain!containing!the! !
–OH!group!is!5(carbons)!long!–!‘pent’!
!
o The!OH!group!is!on!the!second!carbon!
(from!the!left)!and!so!the!name!is:!
!
'''''''''''''Pentan'–'2'–'ol'' !
! !
'
'
PHYSICAL'PROPERTIES'OF'ALCOHOLS''
1.! Simple!alcohols!(with!up!to!eight!carbon!atoms!in!the!longest!chain)!are!colourless'liquids!at!
room!temperature.!
2.! The!boiling'point!of!an!alcohol!is!higher!than!that!of!the!parent'alkane.!
o! Due!to!presence!of!hydrogen!bonds!and!dispersion!forces!between!the!alcohol!
molecules,!compared!to!only!dispersion!forces!between!alkane!molecules.!
"! As!the!number!of!carbons!(in!the!longest!chain)!increase,!so!does!the!boiling!
point!and!this!is!because!as!the!number!of!atoms!increase,!so!does!the!
number!of!electrons!(increases!dispersion).!!
!
3.! Hydrogen'bonding!occurs!between!molecules!
where!a!hydrogen!atom!is!bonded!to!one!of!
the!three!highly!electronegative!atoms—
nitrogen,!oxygen!or!fluorine.!!
o! Alcohols!have!an!–OH!group!so!the!
hydrogen!attached!to!the!oxygen!in!
one!molecule!can!hydrogen!bond!to!an!
oxygen!atom!in!another!alcohol!
molecule.!!
!
4.! Alcohols!with!smaller'molecular'masses(less!carbons)!are!soluble!in!water.!!
o! However,!as!the!molecular'mass(and!so!no.!of!carbons)!increases,!the!solubility!of!
the!alcohol!in!water!decreases.!!
"! After!butanol!!!essentially!insoluble.!!
o! This!is!because!the!hydrogen!bonding!that!can!occur!between!smaller!alcohols!is!of!
equal!strength!to!those!in!H2O!and!naturally!they!dissolve!in!water(bonds!can!be!
disrupted!and!formed).!!
"! However,!in!larger!alcohols,!the!larger!hydrocarbon!chain!(no.!of!carbons)!
means!that!there!is!there!is!more!dispersion!forces!than!hydrogen!bonding,!
so!much!so!that!the!small!no.!of!hydrogen!bonds!would!not!be!able!
overcome!the!energy!required!to!break!the!water!molecules!apart!to!fit!in!
the!hydrocarbon!chain!of!the!alcohol.!
!
TYPES'OF'ALCOHOLS''
!
'
•! Alcohols!are!classified!as!primary,'secondary'or'tertiary.!!
o! Classifications!are!based!on!the!number!of!carbon!atoms!(or!hydrogen!atoms)!
attached!to!the!carbon'atom'to'which'the'(–OH)'group'is'bonded.!
!
!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

1.& Primary'Alcohols''
o! One!carbon!atom!and!two!hydrogen!atoms!are!attached!to!the!carbon!atom!
to!which!the!–OH!group!is!bonded.!
"! 1'Carbon!attached!to!bonded!Carbon!
2.& Secondary'Alcohols'
o! Two!carbon!atoms!and!one!hydrogen!atom!are!attached!to!the!carbon!atom!
to!which!the!–OH!group!is!bonded.!!
"! 2'Carbons!attached!to!bonded!Carbon!!
3.& Tertiary'Alcohols'
o! Three!carbon!atoms!and!no!hydrogen!atoms!are!attached!to!the!carbon!
atom!to!which!the!–OH!group!is!bonded.!'
"! 3'Carbons!attached!to!the!bonded!Carbon!!

!
!
REACTIONS'OF'ALCOHOLS''
!
REACTION'BETWEEN'ALCOHOLS'AND'REACTIVE'METALS''
•! Reactive!metals!(eg.!Na!&!K!–!those!at!the!bottom!of!the!reduction!potentials!list)!react!with!
H2O!to!produce!a!solution!containing!the!OH$!!and!liberating!H2(g)!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2H–OH(l)!+!2Na(s)!→!H2(g)!+!2OH$(aq)!+!2Na+(aq)!!
o! Note!–!the!H2O!is!represented!as!H$OH!
!
•! Alcohols!behave!in!a!similar!fashion!with!these!reactive!metals,!though!not!as!vigorously!as!
with!water.!In!addition!to!hydrogen,!the!other!product!of!the!reaction!is!the!alkoxide'ion,''
(R–OK)'!(where!R!represents!a!hydrocarbon!chain)!
''''''''General'Formula:'''2R–OH(l)'+'2Na(s)'→'H2(g)'+'2R–OK +'2Na+ !
o! Note!–!alkoxide!ion!and!metal!ion!are!never!combined!into!compound.!!
'''''''''Example:!2CH3CH2OH!+!2Na!→!H2!+!2CH3CH2OK'Na+ '
o! Note!–!Alkoxide!ion!in!this!example!is!Ethoxide(derived!from!ethanol)!and!the!
(2CH3CH2O$!Na+)!although!not!joined,!is!refered!to!as!sodium!ethoxide.!!
•! The!order'of'reactivity,!for!Alcohols!with!comparable!molecular!mass,!is:!
!primary'>'secondary'>'tertiary.'
o! This!order!of!reactivity!can!be!used!to!decipher!what!alcohol!was!used,!based!on!the!
amount!of!reactants.!'
•! The!reactivity!of!an!alcohol!is!also!dependent!on!the!hydrocarbons'chain,!where!increases'
in'length'mean'a'decrease'in'reactivity,!as!the!likelihood!of!a!successful!collision!between!
the!alcohol!functional!group!and!the!metal!is!reduced.!

COMBUSTION'OF'ALCOHOLS''
•! Alcohols!also!undergo!oxidation!when!they!are!burnt!in!air!or!oxygen!and!the!products!of!
the!reaction!of!an!alcohol!with!excess!air!are!carbon!dioxide!and!water.!!
!
•! A!general!equation!for!the!complete!combustion!of!an!alcohol!is:!!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

OXIDATION'OF'ALCOHOLS''
!
FORMATION'OF'ALDEHYDES'
'
•! A!primary!alcohol!can!be!oxidised!to!form!a!compound!containing!the!aldehyde'functional'
group'or'the'carboxylic'acid'functional'group,!depending!on!the!experimental!conditions!
used!for!the!oxidation.!!
o! Aldehydes!are!made!by!oxidising!a!primary'alcohol.!'

The!aldehyde!group!is!represented!to!the!
right,!and!can!be!written!in!a!formula!as!!!!!!
–CHO!
!
"! Remember!that!the!–CHO,!aldehyde!group,!must!be!attached!to!the!end!(or!
beginning)!of!the!hydrocarbon.!(Also!note,!characterised!by!a!H$!group,!
attached!to!a!Carbon!which!is!doubled!bonded!to!an!Oxygen.)!
o!!!!Aldehydes!are!named!using!the!suffix'‘al’!to!replace!the!‘e’'in!the!name!of!the!
alkane'chain.''
"! The!numbering!of!the!carbon!chain!begins!with!the!carbon!atom!to!which!
the!aldehyde!is!attached.!!
!
!
Examples' !
!
!
!
Note!–!No!number!is!used,!because!the!aldehyde!is!always!at!the!end!of!the!chain.!!
!
!
•! The!oxidation!of!primary!alcohols!to!aldehydes!involves!the!reaction!of!the!alcohol!with!an!
oxidising!agent!such!as!an!acidified!MNO4$!!or!Cr2O72$!!
o! Aldehyde!is!removed!(often!by!distillation)!
from!reaction!mixture!as!it!forms)!
!
o! Since!this!is!a!redox!equation,!it!can!be!expresses!as!two!half$equations!respectively.!!
!
+ $
! Oxidation:![!CH3CH2CH2OH(l)!→!CH3CH2CHO(l)!+!2H (aq)!+!2e ]!x!3!
2$ + $ 3+
! Reduction:![Cr2O7 (aq)!+!14H (aq)!+!6e !→!2Cr !(aq)!+!7H2O(l)!]!x1!!
2$ + 3+
! Overall:!3CH3CH2CH2OH(l)!+!!Cr2O7 (aq)!+8H (aq)!!!3!CH3CH2CHO(l)!+!!2Cr !(aq)!+!7H2O(l)!
! !
FORMATION'OF'CARBOXYLIC'ACIDS''
'
•! The!aldehyde!functional!group!can!be!oxidised!further!(if!the!aldehyde!is!not!removed!as!it!is!
formed)!and!will!react!to!produce!a!compound!containing!another!functional!group—the'
carboxylic'acid'group.!!
o! Carboxylic!acid!is!made!by!oxidising!an!Aldehyde.!!

The!carboxylic!acid!group!is!represented!to!
the!right,!and!can!be!written!in!a!formula!as!
–COOH,'or'–CO2H.!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

"! Remember!that!the!–COOH,!carboxylic!acid!group,!must!be!attached!to!the!
end!(or!beginning)!of!the!hydrocarbon.!(Also!note,!characterised!by!an!OH$!
group!attached!to!a!Carbon,!which!is!doubled!bonded!to!an!Oxygen.!!
!
o! Carboxylic!acids!are!named!by!using!the!suffix'‘oic'acid’!in!the!place!of!the!‘e’!in!the!
name!of!the!parent!alkane.!!
"! The!numbering!of!the!carbon!chain!begins!with!the!carbon!atom!to!which!
the!carboxylic!acid!group!is!attached.!!
! Note'–!No!
! numbers!are!used!
Examples' ! because!!
!
!
!
!
The!two'oxidation'processes!outlined!above!are!summarised!by!the!following!figure:!!
!
To!ensure'that'the'carboxylic'acid'is'
formed!in!this!reaction!rather!than!the!
aldehyde,!the!reaction!mixture!is!
normally!heated!for!some!time,!for!
example,!30!minutes.!(The!question!will!
say!‘complete!oxidation’!or!‘excess!of!
oxidant’!

!
•! The!formation!of!the!carboxylic!acid!from!the!primary!alcohol!or!aldehyde!is!also!a!redox!
reaction!and!accordingly!the!half$equations!can!be!expressed:!
+ $!
! Oxidation:![!CH3CHO(l)!+!H2O(l)!→!CH3COOH(l)!+!2H (aq)!+!2e ]!x!3!
2$ + $ 3+
' Reduction:![!Cr2O7 (aq)!+!14H (aq)!+!6e !→!2Cr (aq)!+!7H2O(l)!]!x!1!
2$ + 3+
' Overall:!3CH3CHO(l)!!+!Cr2O7 (aq)!+!8H (aq)!!!3CH3COOH(l)!!+!2Cr (aq)!+!4H2O!
!
Additional'Properties'of'Carboxylic'acids''
1.! Carboxylic!acids!are!weak'acids!so!they!only!partially!ionise!when!dissolved!in!water.!
(strength!decreasing!as!hydrocarbon!chain!increases!in!size!–!as!aforementioned)!!
2.! Remember!that!because!they!are!acids,!they!will!react'with'bases,!by!donating!a!hydrogen!
ion.!!
o! !
!
3.! Carboxylic!acids!are!soluble'in'water!because!of!the!hydrogen!bonding!that!exists!between!
the!acid!molecules!and!the!H2O!molecules.!!
o! Each!carboxylic!acid!has!both!an!–OH!group!and!another!polar!oxygen!atom!to!form!
hydrogen!bonds!with!water!molecules!!!this!makes!carboxylic!acids!more!soluble!in!
water!than!alcohols!of!similar!molecular!mass.!(Same!rule!applies!with!regard!to!
effect!of!increasing!hydrocarbon!chain)!!
4.! Furthermore,!Hydrogen'bonds!are!able!to!form!between!carboxylic!acid!molecules!
themselves.!
o! This!translates!into!carboxylic!acids!having!higher'melting'and'
boiling'points!compared!to!other!organic!molecules!of!similar!
molecular!mass.!!
"! In!general,!each!carboxylic!acid!can!form!hydrogen!bonds!
‘through’!two!of!its!atoms.!(Both!H$!and!O$)!!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

FORMATION'OF'KETONES''
!
•! A!secondary!alcohol!can!be!oxidised!to!form!a!compound!containing!the!Ketone'functional'
group,!this!reaction!performed!under!the!same!conditions!as!the!oxidation!of!a!primary!
alcohol.!!
o! Ketones!are!made!by!oxidising!a!secondary'alcohol.''

The!ketone!group!is!represented!to!the!
right,!$!CO!
!
!
"! Remember!that!the!ketone!group,!must!be!attached!somewhere!in!the!
middle!of!the!carbon!chain,!and!never!on!an!end.!(Also!note,!characterised!
by!an!!
oxygen,!double!bonded!to!a!carbon,!who!has!two!(single)!bonds!attached!to!
it)!!
!
o! Ketones!are!named!using!the!suffix!‘$one’!to!replace!the!‘$e’!in!the!name!of!the!
alkane!chain.!!
"! The!numbering!of!the!carbon!chain!begins!at!the!side!(of!the!longest!chain)!
which!positions!the!ketone!group!to!have!the!smallest!number!possible.!!

!
Examples' !

! Propane!is!sometimes!referred!to!as!Acetone!!

!
•! As!aforesaid,!the!oxidation!of!alcohols!is!a!redox!reaction!and!likewise,!in!the!case!of!
secondary!alcohols!being!oxidised!to!form!ketones,!half$equations!can!be!expressed.!!
'
+ $!
! Oxidation:![CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3(l)!→!CH3COCH2!CH3(l)!+!2H (aq)!+!2e ]!x!5!
2$ 2+ $ 2+
! Reduction:![MnO4 (aq)!+!8H (aq)!+!5e !→!Mn (aq)!+!4H2O(l)!]!x!2!
2$ 2+
! Overall:'5!CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3(l)!+!2!MnO4 !+!6H (aq)!!5!CH3COCH2!CH3(l)!!
! !
! !
o! Note'K!Ketones!cannot!be!oxidised!any!further!by!acidified!dichromate!or!
permanganate!solutions.!!

Summarising!Figure!–!Oxidation!of!Alcohols!!

Note!–!Tertiary!
alcohols!cannot!
be!oxidised.!!

!!

!
!
!

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 Chemistry!3AB!

ESTERS''
!
•! Esters!are!compounds!formed!in!the!reaction!between!a!carboxylic'acid'and'an'alcohol.'
o! Occur!naturally!(in!fruits)!and!produce!a!‘fruity!odour’.!!

Where!the!
functional!
group!is!!
!

!
o! The!–COO–!group!is!attached!to!the!‘body’!of!the!hydrocarbon!chain,!where!the!(C)!
atom!can!be!bonded!to!a!(H)!atom!or!an!alkyl!(Methyl…)!group,!while!the!oxygen!
atom!can!only!be!bonded!to!an!alkyl!group.!!
"! Name!has!a!suffix!$'oate!
!
!

Examples''
!
!
!
!
•! The!conditions'of'‘esterification’!are!as!follows;!Esters!are!formed!in!the!reaction!between!a!
carboxylic!acid!and!an!alcohol!in!the!presence!of!an!acid'catalyst!such!as!concentrated!
sulfuric!acid.!!
o! The!mixture!is!normally!heated'(for'some'time),!during!which!a!condensation!
reaction!takes!place.!!
"! This!reaction!involves!the!elimination!of!a!water!molecule!as!the!acid!
combines!with!the!alcohol.!
o! In!this!reaction,!the!hydrogen(H)'from'the'alcohol!group!combines!with!the!OH!
from!the!carboxylic'acid!to!form!water.!
!
The!dotted!oval!drawn!around!the!H!
and!OH!shows!the!atoms!that!join!
together!to!form!the!water!molecule.!!

The!oxygen!on!the!alcohol!bonds!with!
the!CO!carbon!atom!to!form!the!ester!
functional!group.!!

!
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

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 Chemistry!3AB!

'
When'naming'Esters,'we'consider'–''
'
•! The!first'word'being'the'alkyl'group!from!the!alcohol!that!reacts,!and!the!last'word!being!
derived!from!the!carboxylic'acid!by!replacing'the'‘Kic'acid’'with'‘Koate’.!!

!
!
!
Examples' !
!
!
!
!
!
'
'
Reversing'Esterification''
•! Esters!can!be!converted!back!to!the!original!carboxylic!acid!and!alcohol!when!reacted'with'
an'acid,!usually!accompanied!by'warming.!!
o! The!reverse!of!the!esterification!reaction!is!called!hydrolysis.!!
•! Warming!the!ester!with!a!solution!of!NaOH!(or!similar!base)!can!also!result!in!the!hydrolysis!
of!the!ester.!!
o! Through!base$hydrolysis,!the!products!of!the!reaction!are!the!alcohol!and!the!salt'of'
the'carboxylic'acid.''
R$!COOR!+!H2O!→ R$!COOH!+!ROH!(in'acidic'
conditions)''
!
$
R$!COOR!+!H2O!→ R$!COO !+!ROH!(in'basic'
conditions)''
!

!
!
PRIMARY'AMINES'AND'AMINO'ACIDS''
!
PRIMARY'AMINES''
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•! Primary!amines!contain!the!$NH2'functional'group!where!the!nitrogen!is!bonded!directly!to!
a!carbon!atom.!!
•! Amines!can!act!as!a!base'(proton!acceptor)!like!ammonia,!and!thus!partake!in!acid$base!
reactions.!!! !
''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''RNH2!!!!+!!!H+(aq)!!!!RNH3+(aq)!!
•! Primary!amine!are!weak!bases;!this!is!as!a!result!of!a!hydrogen!atom!on!a!water!molecule!
being!donated!to!the!nitrogen!atom!on!the!amine.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CH3NH2(aq)!+!H2O(l)! !CH3NH3+(aq)!+!OHK(aq)'
o! Presence!of!OH$!signifies!the!basic!properties!of!Primary!Amines.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

Naming'Amines'

•! Primary!Amines!are!named!by!$!finding!the!longest!chain!containing!the!amine!functional!
group,!removing!the!‘e’!from!the!alkane!and!replacing!it!by!‘amine’.!!
o! A!number!is!then!inserted!between!the!alkane$parent!name!and!the!
‘amine’component,!so!that!the!functional!group!has!the!smallest!number!in!the!
chain.!!

1. The!longest!carbon$chain!(with!the!amine!functional!group!
attached)!is!selected!and!numbered!so!that!the!Amine!function!
group!has!the!smallest!possible!no.!–!This!case,!5!carbons!and!
thus!Pentane!is!the!Parent$Alkane!!
2. Any!Alkyl!groups!are!noted!and!numbered!–!2x!Methyl!groups!
nd th
on!the!2 !and!4 !Carbon!atoms!!
!
Thus!the!name!will!be!–!2,4$Dimethylpentan$1$amine!!

!
o! Note'–!the!function!group!can!exist!on!any!part!of!the!hydrocarbon!!
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Properties''
•! Amines!are!structurally!related!to!ammonia!(NH3)!and,!like!NH3,!are!polar'
molecules,'capable'of'hydrogen'bonding!to!one!another!and!other!polar!
molecules!containing!oxygen,!nitrogen!or!fluorine.!!
o! However,!the!electronegativityKdifference!between!(N)'and'(H)!is!
less!than!that!between!(O)'and'(H),!so!the!hydrogen!bonding!
interaction!between!amines!is!weaker!than!that!in!alcohols.!
!
•! Amines!with!lower'molecular'masses!(smaller!carbon$chains)!are!usually!soluble!in!water!
due!to!their!ability!to!hydrogen!bond!to!the!abundant!water!molecules.!!
o! However,!as!like!with!alcohols,!as!the!molecular!mass!increases!(larger!carbon$
chain),!the!non$polar!hydrocarbon!chain!dominates!the!physical!properties!of!the!
amine!and!solubility!decreases.!
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αKAMINO'ACIDS''
!
•! The!name!‘amino!acid’!suggests!that!these!compounds!contain!an!amine!and!a!carboxylic!
acid!functional!group.!
o! Highlighted!through!the!Greek!symbol!alpha!‘α'’!$!!used!to!show!that!the!two!
functional!groups!are!attached!to!the!same,!terminal!carbon!atom.!!
!
•! The!structure!of!an!amino!acid!is!depicted!to!the!right!and!as!evident,!a!
central!and!terminal(ending)!carbon!is!attached!to!both!an!Amine!
(NH2)!functional!group,!as!well!as!a!carboxylic!acid!(CO2H)!group.!!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

Properties''
•! Amino!Acids!thus!have!both!acidic'and'a'basic'functional'groups!means!that!α'Kamino'acids'
are'amphoteric—they!can!behave!as!either!an!acid!or!a!base.!
o! At!high'pH'values!(basic!solutions),!
the!carboxylic!acid!functional!
group!donates!its!(H+)!ion!to!
produce!the!carboxylate!ion!
functional!group,!(–COO$)!
o! At!low'pH'values!(acidic!solutions),!
the!amine!functional!group!
accepts!a!(H+)!to!become!(–NH3+)!
!
•! At!250c,!amino!acids!are!all!solids!with!relatively!high'melting'and'boiling'points,!
characteristic!of!ionic!compounds,!and!to!add!to!this,!they!are!also!relatively!soluble!in!
water,!as!seen!with!Ionic!compounds!respectively.!!
o! These!observations!lead!to!a!conclusion!that!$!amino!acids!in!the!solid!state,!as!well!
as!in!aqueous!solution,!do!not!have!the!amine!and!carboxylic!acid!groups!present!as!
(–NH2)!and!(–COOH),!but!rather!their!ionic!forms,!as!(–COO$)!and!(–NH3+)!

!
! The!general!name!given!to!these!compounds!that!have!a!
! positive'charge!on!one!atom!and!a!negative'charge!on!
! another!is!zwitterion.!!!
!
All!amino$acids!are!‘zwitterion’!and!there!are!no!un$ionised!
!
amino!acids.!!
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MISCELLANEOUS'NOTES'
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SUMMARISING'FIGURE''

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 Chemistry!3AB!

GENERAL'FORMULAS(WRITTEN)'FOR'FUNCTION'GROUPS'
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Functional'Group' General'Formula''
Alcohols! Cn!H2n+2!O!
Amines! Cn!H2n+3!N!
Aldehydes! Cn!H2n!O!
Ketones! Cn!H2n!O!
Carboxylic!Acids! Cn!H2n!O2!
Esters! Cn!H2n!O2!
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ADDITIONAL'NOTES''
!
•! Markovnikov's!Rule!$!!formation!of!the!most!stable!carbocation!during!the!addition!process.!!
o! The!‘rich!get!richer’!i.e.!!!attach!the!functional!group!to!the!carbon!with!the!most!
H/functional!groups!
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 Chemistry!3AB!

STANDARD'REDUCTION'POTENTIALS''

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 Chemistry!3AB!

PERIODIC'TABLE'AND'DATA'SHEET'

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 Chemistry!3AB!

ION'REVISION''
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Name' ! ! ! ! ! ! ' Symbol'
Nitride!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! N3$!
Nitrate!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NO3$!
Nitrite!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NO2$!
Sulfide!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S2$!
Sulfate! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! SO42$!
Sulfite! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! SO32$!
Hydrogen! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! HSO4$!
Sulfate!
Thiosulfate! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S2O32$!
Hypochlorite! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! OCl$!
Chlorite!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ClO2$!
Chlorate! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ClO3$!
Perchlorate!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ClO4$!
Hydrogen! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! HCO3$!
Carbonate!!
Dihydrogen! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! H2PO4$!
Phosphate!
Cyanide! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! CN$!
Dichromate! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Cr2O72$!
Chromate! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! CrO42$!
Oxalate! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! C2O42$!
Hydrogen! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! HPO42$!
Phosphate!
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GOD’S'KINGDOM'LIES'WITHIN'MAN'
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ST'LUKE'I'17'

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