• According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 48 million persons get sick,

128,000 are hospitalized, and 3,000 die from foodborne infection and illness in the United
States each year. Many of these people are children, older adults, or have weakened immune
systems and may not be able to fight infection normally.
…
At the turn of the 20th century, consumers kept food fresh by placing it on a block
of ice or, in cold weather, burying it in the yard or storing it on a window sill
outside. During the 1920s, refrigerators with freezer compartments became
available for household use. Another process that reduced the incidence of disease
was invented by Louis Pasteur--pasteurization. Although the process was applied
first in wine preservation, when milk producers adopted the process, pasteurization
eliminated a substantial vector of foodborne disease

1. In 1970s changes in agricultural practices and food processing operations,

and the globalization of the food supply lead to newly recognized foodborne
pathogens. Seemingly healthy food animals can be reservoirs of human
pathogens. During the 1980s, for example, an epidemic of egg-
associated Salmonella serotype Enteritidis infection spread to an estimated
45% of the nation's egg-laying flocks, which resulted in a large increase in
egg-associated foodborne illness within the United States (St. Louis ME,
Morse DL, Potter ME, et al. The emergence of grade A eggs as a major
source of Salmonella enteritidis infections: new implications for the control
of salmonellosis. JAMA 1988;259:2103-7.).
2. Escherichia coli O157:H7, which can cause severe infections and death in
humans, produces no signs of illness in its nonhuman hosts (Griffin PM.
Epidemiology of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections in
humans in the United States. In: Kaper JB, O'Brien AD, eds. Escherichia
coli O157:H7 and other Shiga-toxin producing E. coli strains. Washington,
DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1998:15-22.).
3.
4. In 1993, a severe outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 infections attributed to
consumption of undercooked ground beef (9) resulted in 501 cases of
illness, 151 hospitalizations, and three deaths, and led to a restructuring of
the meat inspection process.
5.
6. The most common foodborne infectious agent may be the calicivirus (a
Norwalk-like virus), which can pass from the unwashed hands of an infected
foodhandler to the meal of a consumer.
7.
8. Improved surveillance, applied research, and outbreak investigations have
elucidated the mechanisms of contamination that are leading to new control
measures for foodborne pathogens. In meat-processing plants (16), the
incidence of Salmonella and Campylobacter infections has decreased.
However, in 1998, apparently unrelated cases of Listeria infections were
 linked when an epidemiologic investigation indicated that isolates from all
cases shared the same genetic DNA fingerprint; approximately 100 cases
and 22 deaths were traced to eating hot dogs and deli meats produced in a
single manufacturing plant (17). In 1998, a multistate outbreak of shigellosis
was traced to imported parsley (18). During 1997-1998 in the United States,
outbreaks of cyclosporiasis were associated with mesclun mix lettuce,
basil/basil-containing products, and Guatemalan raspberries (19). These
instances highlight the need for measures that prevent food contamination
closer to its point of production, particularly if the food is eaten raw or is
difficult to wash (20).

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4840a1.htm#tab1
October 15, 1999 /48(40);905-913

….

Factors Contributing to the Emergence of Foodborne Diseases

Human Demographics
…

…(gia listeria nap w kai alla…)

In the past decade, Transplant infectious disease has emerged as an integral

subspecialty component of most successful transplant programs.
Recognition of infection is more difficult in transplant recipients than in individuals
with normal innate and acquired immune functions.
prophylactic strategies are based on an assessment of the anticipated risk for
infection based on experience (i.e. universal prophylaxis with trimethoprim–
sulfamethoxazole [TMP–SMX] for Pneumocystis pneumonia [PCP]) or on known or
likely infectious exposures based on serologic and microbiologic testing,
epidemiologic history and the perceived intensity of immunosuppression. (Fishman,
2009)

???(foodborne)??Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PVAN) after renal

transplantation, is a leading cause to renal dysfunction and graft loss.The human
polyomavirus type 1 (also called BK virus) is responsible for more than 95% of all
cases are caused by the human polyomavirus type 1 called the BK virus. The
primary treatment for PVAN is immunosuppression reduction, which must be
carefully balanced against increased risks of rejection. (Trofe, 2006)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2006.00166.x/full

Toxoplasmosis is an opportunistic infection caused by a parasite Toxoplasma gondi. Is

transmited via accidental contact of cat feces through touching hands to mouth. Infection is
severe in highly immunocompromised patients, either by reactivation of latent cysts, or as a
primary infection.A 17-year-old youth diagnosed with Fanconi Anemia (FA) in adolescence,
at the age of 15 years underwent allogeneic HSCT from a 10/10 matched, unrelated donor.
Six months post-transplant, the youth was found at home with consciousness disorders,
periodically without logical contact, with symptoms of sensory aphasia. On admission to
hospital, the patient complained of headache, malaise, discomfort, myalgias, abdominal and
inguinal pain and chronic fever. Cerebral computer tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scans and toxo-serology advocated for cerebral toxoplasmosis.
Table 1.. (Zaucha-Prażmo, 2007)

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are the most common parasitic infections in transplant patients,
particularly in endemic re- gions (Kotton et al., 2009).

Aspergillus and Candida cause important invasive infections in transplant patients (Person et
al., 2010).

HEV infection is transmitted by the fecal–oral route and may be a zoonosis in industrialized countries
In conclusion, our data suggest that HEV should be considered an etiologic agent of hepatitis in
organ-transplant recipients. We have demonstrated that HEV infection can evolve to chronic hepatitis,
at least in organ-transplant recipients.( Kamar, 2008)
Recently, persistent HEV infection has become an emerging and significant clinical problem with
considerable morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals such as organ transplant
recipients

…
Anti- inflammatory and immunosuppressive corticosteroids are used to treat several
autoimmune diseases and have many dose-dependent effects on innate and acquired
immunity (Dropulic and Lederman, 2009)

..

Both patients with DM1 and those with DM2 are at increased risk for common infections
(Muller 2005). The greater frequency of infections in diabetic patients is caused by the
hyperglycemic environment that favors immune dysfunction (e.g., damage to the neutrophil
function, depression of the antioxidant system, and humoral immunity).(Casqueiro, 2012)

Foodborne infections associated with im- munosuppressant therapy in IBD patients include
Salmonella, L. monocytogenes, and T. gondii (Epple, 2009)

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection causes chronic progressive

immunodeficiency through re- ducing CD4+ T-cell lymphocytes (Dropulic and Lederman,
2009).

CD4 counts below 200/lL are associated with diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium, which
can be severe (Hunter and Nicholls, 2002; Stark et al., 2009).

Conditions that increase iron availability in the body, in- cluding multiple transfusions of
whole blood or erythrocytes in excess, liver dysfunction, alcohol-induced cirrhosis, he-
mochromatosis, and thalassemia, can stimulate growth of several foodborne pathogens,
including Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio,
Yersinia, and Toxoplasma (Khan et al., 2007; Weinberg, 2009).

As a rule, elderly nursing home residents have multiple chronic diseases and functional
impairments that predispose them to infection. Age-related achlorhydria increases
susceptibility, as does frequent use of antimicrobial agents, which renders residents
vulnerable to GI infection and chronic carriage of enteric pathogens. Residents who have
dementia, incontinence, and behavioral disturbances may share crowded living spaces and
bathroom facilities, facilitating person-to-person transmission of GI pathogens. (Strausbaugh,
2003)
The secretion of hydrochloric acid by the stomach plays an important role in protecting the
body against pathogens ingested with food or water. A gastric • uid pH of 1 to 2 is
deleteriousto many microbial pathogens; however, the neutralization of gastric acid by
antacids or the inhibition of acid secretion by various drugs may increase the risk of food- or
waterborne illnesses. Peptic ulcer disease is often treated by decreasing or eliminating gastric
acid secretion, and such treatment blocks the protective antibacterial action of gastric • uid.
The majority of peptic ulcer disease cases originate from Helicobacter pylori infections.
(Smith, 2003).Proton pump inhibitors are available increasingly without prescription, so that
people can self-medicate without realizing that this might mean an increased risk of
foodborne disease. (Lund, 2011)

Ola ta pio panw ta brika apo ((Barbara M. Lund et al, 2011
 )

The outbreak investigation demonstrated that ‘sick patients got sicker’ when
acquiring a norovirus infection. Furthermore, at-risk populations were identified for
several clinical outcomes. Patients with cardiovascular disease, those receiving
immunosuppressive therapy, the elderly and organ transplant recipients were at
higher risk of a severe clinical outcome. These patients should be monitored
frequently when suffering from norovirus infection.
The causative agent was the new variant Grimsby virus
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2005.01299.x/full

Norovirus (NoV) infection, which is often foodborne or waterborne, poses a higher risk of
severe consequences in immunosuppressed patients, causing chronic gastroenteritis (Mattner
et al., 2006; Roddie et al., 2009).

sos

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/328/5975/228

Metabolic syndrome
Na me meta gia orismena mikrobia xexwrista…!!!!!!!@£$%^&^please

Sos …. Climate change….

Human Behavior
SOS
Hepatitis A is an increasing problem because of the decrease in immunity
of populations in countries with high standards of hygiene.
…

Dietary Fatty Acids