See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/272488553

Palm oil mill effluent: A waste or a raw material?

Article  in  Journal of Applied Sciences Research · January 2012

CITATIONS READS

11 4,498

2 authors:

Aliyu Salihu Md. Zahangir Alam

Ahmadu Bello University International Islamic University Malaysia
34 PUBLICATIONS   459 CITATIONS    260 PUBLICATIONS   2,715 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Microbial Technology to Reduce Turbidity of River Water View project

Final Year Project for B.Eng (Hons) in Biochemical-Biotechnology Engineering View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Aliyu Salihu on 19 February 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 466
Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 8(1): 466-473, 2012
ISSN 1819-544X
This is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed

ORIGINAL ARTICLES
Palm oil mill effluent: a waste or a raw material?
1,2
Aliyu Salihu and 1Md. Zahangir Alam
1
Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Gombak, Malaysia.
2
Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

Environmental issues are increasingly becoming more important globally. Large quantities of Palm oil mill
effluent (POME) are generated annually during crude palm oil production. In this review, POME was
considered as a biphasic product; being a major source of pollution in Malaysia due to its high organic load and
as a cheap renewable residue which has been found to be useful in the production of fertilizers, citric acid,
bioethanol, biohydrogen, bioplastic, hydrolytic enzymes, among others. Some of the benefits that can be derived
from these productions include lower production cost, less waste and reduced energy consumption. Thus, recent
advances in biotechnology could offer better solutionsto POME treatment by using it as a raw material to
develop some valueadded products.

Key words: Palm oil mill effluent, pollution, raw material, value-added products.

Introduction

The oil palm in Malaysia is over a century old, although palm plant was commercially exploited as an oil
crop from 1911 when the first palm oil estate was established(Basiron and Weng, 2004). The effluent produced
during palm oil production is a viscous acidic brown liquid, predominantly organic and non-toxic in nature with
highly unpleasant odour called palm oil mill effluent (POME)(Kathiravale and Ripin, 1997). Malaysia being
amongst the largest producers and suppliers of palm oil in the world had estimated annual production figures in
2000 and 2008 as 8.3 and 16.3 million tonnes respectively (Foo and Hameed, 2010)with a total of 423 mills
producing up to 89 million tonnes of oil palm fresh fruit bunches per year(Vairappan and Yen, 2008). This
resulted in annual generation of POME of about 66.8 million tonnes(Vairappan and Yen, 2008). Thus, it was
estimated that for every 100 tonnes of fresh fruit bunches processed, 78 tonnes ended up as wastes(Vikineswary
et al., 1997).Direct discharge of untreated POMEinto aquatic environments may cause some pollution
problems;as such its treatment requires efficient and rapid technology(Singh et al., 2010).
Bioconversion denotes biological transformation of waste and/or the reformationof complex organic waste
into a valuable metabolite using biological processes or microorganisms i.e. Bacteria, yeast and fungi. Several
microbial species have been known for their ability to break down organic materials present in waste by
producing value added products(Alam et al., 2007).Renewable resources including agricultural and industrial
residues have been studied extensively through microbial bioconversion processes. These cheap agricultural and
food-processing by-products are used by most researchers as substrates in the fermentation processes to produce
several products of economic importance.
This review describes some of the value added products that can be generated from POME, which is in line
with global awareness towards creating a clean and healthy environment through green technology. This can
minimize the costs of production and effective treatment in waste management as well as full compliance with
environmental regulations.

Characteristics and Properties:

Although, the palm industry has contributed significantly towards Malaysia foreign exchange earnings and
the increase in standard of living of its population(Yusoff and Hansen, 2007), however the effluent from the
industry is known to be an environmental pollutant based on its high compositions of total solids, suspended
organic solids, dissolved organic matter among others as represented in Table 1.

Treatment systems of POME:

Malaysian palm oil industries use different treatment strategies; so as to curb the pollution of waterways
that can be caused by POME. Thus, the industries are facing the challenge of balancing the environmental

Corresponding Author: Aliyu Salihu, Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
 467
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

protection, their economic viabilities and sustainable development. Initial pre-treatment involves the use of
flocculation, solvent extraction, adsorption and membrane separation processes to remove the suspended solids
and residual oil and grease(Abdul Latif et al., 2003a). Abdul Latif et al. (2003b) showed the superiority of
membrane separation using ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis over the use of coagulation and activated carbon
adsorption for POME treatment. The latter had removal efficiencies of 97.9% turbidity, 56% COD and 71%
BOD while the former yielded a higher removal efficiencies of 100% turbidity, 98.8% COD and 99.4% BOD.

Table 1: Characteristics of POME and its respective standard discharge limit by Malaysian Department of Environment as described by
different researchers.
Parameter Ahmad et al. (2003) Najafpour et al. (2006) Choorit&Wisarnwan Standard limit
(2007) (mg/L)
pH 4.7 3.8-4.4 4.24- 4.66 5-9
Oil and Grease(mg/L) 4,000 4,900-5,700 8,845-10,052 50
Biological Oxygen 25,000 23,000-26,000 62,500-69,215 100
Demand (mg/L)
Chemical Oxygen 50,000 42,500-55,700 95,465-112,023 -
Demand (mg/L)
Total solids(mg/L) 40,500 - 68,854-75,327 -
Suspended 18,000 16,500-19,500 44,680ԟ47,140 400
solids(mg/L)
Total Nitrogen (mg/L) 750 500-700 1,305-1,493 150
Total volatile solids 34,000 - 4,045-4,335 -
(TVS) (mg/L)

Ponding stands as the most common treatment system,which is a multi-stage process consisting of de-oiling
tank, acidification ponds, anaerobic and facultative or aerobic ponds(Chan and Chooi, 1984).Thus, the capacity
of the palm oil mill and the amount of effluent discharges determine the nature of the ponds. Facultative or
aerobic ponds are necessary to further reduce BOD concentration in order to produce effluent that complies with
the national effluent discharge standards.
Although, anaerobic and facultative ponding systems are widely employed for POME treatment(Ma, 1999),
however, in order to prevent the escape of methane gas generated; these systems are coupled with closed
digesters, so that the generated methane can be used as an auxiliary fuel in the boilers of palm oil mill
industries(Vijayaraghavan et al., 2007).
Also, open digesting tanks are used for POME treatment, especially when there is limited area of land for
ponding treatment. In the process of degrading POME; methane is generated through a series of reactions. The
first step includes hydrolysis, where complex molecules are converted into their smaller subunits. This is then
followed by acidogenesis (including acetogenesis), which involves the breakdown of the subunits by acidogenic
bacteria to organic acids, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The last step is methanogenesis, where the action of
hydrogenotropic methanogens and acetoclastic methanogens results in formation of methane(Poh and Chong,
2009). The merits and demerits of alternative treatment methods are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of methods employed for treatment of POME (Poh& Chong, 2009).
Treatment type Advantages Disadvantages
Anaerobic Minimal energy requirement (no aeration), methane gas Vast area of land required for conventional
generation as a valuable product, the sludge generated digesters, longer retention time and slow start-up
can be used for land application
Aerobic Shorter retention time, efficient in handling toxic wastes Required higher energy (aeration), unsuitable for
land application as the rate of toxic inactivation is
much slower than that of anaerobic.
Membrane Small area required for membrane treatment plant, Short membrane life, membrane fouling,
effective and efficient treatment expensive compared to conventional treatment
Evaporation The Solid concentrate formed is utilized as feed High energy consumption
material for fertilizer processing

Uniqueness of POME:

High concentrations of carbohydrate, protein, nitrogenous compounds, lipids and minerals present in
POME (Habib et al., 1997) make it a good raw material for bioconversion through various biotechnological
processes. Table 3 shows the proximate composition (%) of major constituents as well as the minerals contents
of raw POME.

Conversion of POME to value added products:

The POME is a biphasic product which is considered as a waste but at the same time, it is utilized as a raw
material in other processes. Many processing technologies for converting POME into value added products have
 468
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

been developed, these include: carotenoid, which can be further utilized for vitamin A and vitamins E
(tocopherols) production(Wahid et al., 2004), citric acid(Alam et al., 2008a), fertilizer(Basiron and Weng,
2004), biodiesel(Gutiérrez et al., 2009), hydrolytic enzymes, among others. This gives positive impact by
solving environmental problem besides giving value added products.

Table 3: The proximate compositionand mineral contents of raw POME (Habib et al., 1997).
Major constituents Composition (%) Macro-minerals Composition (µg/g dry Micro-minerals Composition
weight) (µg/g dry weight)
Moisture 6.99±0.14 K 8951.55±256.45 Fe 11.08±2.20
Crude protein 12.75±1.30 Na 94.57±6.45 Cu 10.76±1.04
Crude lipid 10.21±1.24 Ca 1650.09±160.45 Zn 17.58±2.10
Ash 14.88±1.35 Mg 911.95±95.50 Mn 38.81±3.65
Carbohydrate 29.55±2.44 P 14377.38±1206.88 Mo 6.45±0.40
Nitrogen free 26.39±2.33 S 13.32±1.45 Cr 4.02±0.44
extract
Total carotene 0.019±0.001 Co 2.40±0.35
Ni 1.31±0.30
Se 12.32±1.35
Si 10.50±1.80
Sn 2.30±0.30
Al 16.60±1.44
B 7.60±0.60
As 9.09±0.65
V 0.12±0.02

Carotene extraction from POME:

Carotene is a provitamin, which is converted in the body to a vitamin. The β-carotene is a precursor of
vitamin A, whose function in the body plays major roles in the maintenance of strong bones, healthy skin, teeth
and hair(Ahmad et al., 2010).It is also known as a potent antioxidant, protecting the cells against effects of free
radicals in the body. In order to extract carotene from POME, the process was carried out using different solvent
systems; the most important ones with high extraction potentials are petroleum ether with a mean concentration
of 417.9 ppm, and n-hexane whose mean concentration was found to be 394.8 ppm(Ahmad et al., 2008). Thus,
the amount of carotene extracted from POME is closely related to that obtained from the crude palm oil; whose
carotene concentration ranges between 400 and 3500ppm. Carotenoids have been extensively used in food,
cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries; as such their extraction and recovery from POME could be
important(Ahmad et al., 2008).

Bioplastic formation:

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are thermoplastics whose excellent mechanical properties are similar to
those of polypropylene. They are endowed with other additional advantages such as biodegradability,
biocompatibility, and production are mainly from renewable resources (Mumtaz et al., 2010; Purushothaman et
al., 2001).
The PHAs are intracellular products generated by some bacteria species under nutrient limiting conditions
especially in a medium rich in carbon with little or no nitrogen or phosphorus present (Hassan et al., 1996).
Based on this, high organic content of POME makes it a good substrate for bioplastic production.
Hassan et al. (1996) developed a two-stage process for the production of PHA using POME. The initial
stage involvesthe production of organic acids (acetic and propionic acids) by anaerobic treatment of POME,
followed by conversion of the produced organic acids to PHA using a phototrophic bacterium, Rhodobacter
sphaeroides (IF0 12203). Thus, renewable agricultural residues coupled with highly producing microorganisms
are the pre-requisites that can make the PHA production economically viable; since the types and compositions
of the substrates determine the final polymer properties of the bioplastics (Mumtaz et al., 2010). Thus, use of
POME as an inexpensive carbon sourceto produce PHAs may lead to some significant economic advantages.
This is because substantial amount (40%) of total operating costs of PHA production could be linked to the raw
materials, and more than 70% of this cost is attributed to the carbon source.
Alias and Tan (2005) isolated a bacteria species from POME, which has the ability to produce poly-(3)-
hydroxybutyrate. The bacterium was tentatively identified as Burkholderia cepacia. Generally, wild type
microorganisms do not produce a high yield of PHA to be considered for use at industrial scale, but their ability
to synthesize PHA would be very important that may lead to genetic modification of the microorganisms.
 469
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

Bioethanol production:

Currently, there is global interest in the utilization of biomass and wastes forbioethanol
production.Countries like USA and China have initiated several biofuel programs where lignocellulosic biomass
and agro-industrial residues are effectively used for production of ethanol and other biofuels. Conventionally,
chemical as well as physical methods of hydrolysis are firstly used for pretreating the residues. Enzymatic
treatments to convert cellulose and hemicellulose to sugars are then used; the microbial bioconversion of the
produced sugar results in the formation of the final product, bioethanol (Hahn-Hagerdal et al., 2006).
The utilization of bioethanol (biofuel) for transport is of importance for a number of reasons, especially
with regards to environmental issues such as climate change, depletion of fossil fuel reserves, and reduction of
reliance on imports (Wingren et al., 2003). Large scale production of bioethanol using lignocellulosic biomass
and agro-industrial residues could reduce the reliance on fossil sources and curb some levels of environmental
pollution (Rass-Hansen et al., 2007). Since, combustion of ethanol does not contribute to global warming unlike
fossil fuel with atmospheric buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Several renewable residues have been
used in the production of ethanol; these include waste paper, domestic refuse (Cheung and Anderson, 1996),
andlignocellulosic biomass (corn stover, crop straw, sugar cane bagasse) (Wyman, 1996). Alam et al. (2008b)
studied the production of bioethanol using POME as the main substrate using Saccharomyces cerevisiae under
controlled laboratory condition with an optimum yield of 16%. Also, compatible mixed cultures of Trichoderma
harzianum, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Mucor hiemalis, and S. cerevisiae resulted in bioethanol production
of 4% (v/v) or 31.6 g/l based on direct bioconversion of POME. Following the determination of optimum
operating conditions by two-level fractional factorial design in stirred-tank bioreactor, the highest bioethanol
production was found to be 4.6% (v/v) or 36.3 g/l at a temperature of 32oC, pH of 6, and pO2 of 30% (Alam et
al., 2009).
Based on this, conversion of POME for bioethanol production offers a simple and effective treatment of this
effluentproduced by palm oil mills. This can alleviate the competition in the utilization of food-based raw
materials thereby preserving the price of food commodity. Thus, the oil palm-based residuescould provide an
impetus for sustainable generation of bioethanol as well as other value added products, since palm oil
production constitutes the major agricultural earnings in Malaysia (Cheng et al., 2007).

Citric acid production:

In an effort to utilize the palm oil industries effluent discharge, citric acid has been produced using POME
as a raw material (Jamal et al., 2007).Industrial production of citric acid depends on fungal fermentation (e.g.
Aspergillus niger) in the presence of glucose (or sucrose) as the main substrate using liquid and solid state
fermentation techniques (Grewal and Karla, 1995). However, several cheaper substrates have been used for
citric acid production by A. niger. These include inulin (Drysdale and McKay, 1995), date fruit syrup (Roukas
and Kotzekidou, 1997), sugarcane molasses (Gupta, 1994,among others. All these substrates have lesser yields
when compared to POME. Alam et al. (2008a) obtained the citric acid yield of 5.2 g/l from POME using a seven
day fermentation period. Citric acid is used extensively in various industrial processes especially as acidulant,
stabilizer, flavor enhancer, preservative, antioxidant, emulsifier and chelating agent (Jamal et al., 2005).
Thus, annual production of citric acid is estimated to be about half million tonnes based on the fermentation
of conventionally used raw materials (glucose and sucrose). Based on the extensive use of citric acid, several
strategies have been put in place for its efficient production using agricultural residues. Efforts to achieve this
goal by using POME as a new substrate proved effective (Jamal et al., 2007; Alam et al., 2008a).

Medium for isolation and growth of microorganisms:

Numerous microorganisms can invade and grow in POME, breaking down complex molecules into simple
ones. The high organic matter in POME has contributed in the proliferation of aerobic microorganisms. The
growth of Yarrowia lipolytica NCIM 3589 in raw POME led to a substantial reduction in Chemical oxygen
demand (COD) within 48 hrs and the acidic pH of POME became alkaline due to utilization of fatty acids by the
organism (Oswal et al., 2002).
Rashid et al. (2009) isolated and purified some filamentous fungi from POME into three different genera
namely Penicillium, Rhizopus and Basidiomycetes. Also, some bacterial species isolated from POME ponds at a
palmoilprocessing factory, showed high potential for PHAs production based on initial staining screening
experiments using Sudan Black B plates (Redzwan et al., 1997). Rhizopus oryzae and Rhizopus rhizopodiformis
were thermophilicfungi isolated from POME. These fungi showed high extra- and intracellular lipase activity at
50°C (Razak et al., 1997).
 470
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

Biohydrogen production:

Biohydrogen production attracts attention of researchers, as it is less energy intensive and can be coupled
with wastewater treatment processes using dark-and photo-fermentation techniques. Thus, Hydrogen is
characterized with a high energy yield of 122 KJ/g which is 2.75 times higher than the hydrocarbon fuels; and
the only end-product is water (Chong et al., 2009). These characteristics make it a promising alternative fuel.
The recent biological approach to producing hydrogen is to convert agro-industrial residues into hydrogen-rich
gasthrough anaerobic processes by potential bacterial strains. As such many researchers have recognized the
potential of harnessing hydrogen from POME.
Central composite design was used to determine the optimum conditions for hydrogen production using
POME by Clostridium butyricum EB6. The maximum hydrogen yield of 914 ml H2/h was obtained at the
optimum conditions of pH, temperature and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 6.52, 41oC and 60g COD/l
respectively (Chong et al., 2009). Also, thermophilicmicroflora was studied by O-Thong et al. (2007) in
anaerobic sequencing batch reactor for hydrogen production using POME. The supplementation by nitrogen,
phosphorus and iron sources resulted in significant increment of hydrogen production yield from 1.6±0.1 to
2.24±0.03 molH2 mol−1 hexose and hydrogen production rate from 4.4±0.38 to 6.1±0.03 lH2 l−1 POMEd−1 (O-
Thong et al., 2007).
In case of Rhodopseudomonas palustris PBUM001, the process parameters for the hydrogen production
were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). The maximum predicted cumulative hydrogen
production and COD reduction of 1.05 ml H2/ml POME and 31.71% respectively were obtained based on the
developed optimum conditions of 100% (v/v) POME concentration, 10% (v/v) inoculum size, light intensity of
4.0 klx, agitation rate of 250 rpm and pH of 6 (Jamil et al., 2009).
Therefore, sustainable production of biohydrogen from POME could help in reducing the energy-linked
environmental impacts, global warming due to anthropogenic carbon emissions and mobile source emissions
such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, non-methane hydrocarbons, and particulates.

Compost and Biofertilizer:

Composting is a process whereby complex organic residues of plant and animal origins are converted into
manure or biofertilizer (Singh et al., 2010) through the activities of several microbial systems (bacteria,
actinomycetes, and fungi). This process helps in stabilizing various types of industrial wastes and sludge (e.g.
sludge from pulp and paper, sugar, oleochemical, oil mills, etc.),and aids in reducing the volume/weight of the
produced sludge (Abd-Rahman et al., 2003).
Since POME is of biological origin, its composting can be a good alternative for its sustainable
management. Though, oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) have been used to produce organic fertilizer and the
process led to their bulk volume reduction by about 50%. (Chavalparit et al.,2006). Baharuddin et al. (2009)
studied the physicochemical changes during co-composting of EFB with partially treated POME on a pilot
scale. Initial rise in temperature was noticed during the first 3 days of treatment and thereafter the temperature
fluctuated between 50o–62oC throughout the composting period. However, no much variation in moisture
content from the initial values of 65–75% to about 60% at the end of the treatment, and the pH ranges from
7.75–8.10. Decrease in C/N ratio from 45 to 12 was identified after 60 days of composting. The macro and
micronutrients are present in considerable amounts in the final compost. Thus, concluding that the utilization of
EFB with POME for composting process can produce acceptable quality compost that can be applied to palm oil
plantations as biofertilizer and for soil conditioning. Therefore, the production of compost using POME could
serve as a valorization strategy that can reduce the volume of this waste with easy land application.

Enzyme production:

Hydrolytic enzymes are among the most important groups of industrial enzymes; because of their
biotechnological potential use. According to technical market research report, enzymes for industrial
applications is expected to increase to over $2.7 billion by 2012, with an average annual growth rate of 4%. The
total industrial enzyme market in 2009 was reported to be $2.4 billion (Hassan et al., 2006).
The POME has been reported to be utilized as a medium for industrial enzyme production by different
microorganisms. White rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium was used for lignin peroxidase production
using POME as the main substrate in the presence of wheat flour as the co-substrate (Alam et al. 2006). Protease
production by A. terreus IMI 282743 using pre-filtered POME yieldeda maximum activity of 129 U/ml after
four days of fermentation in a medium containing 75% (v/v) retentate of pre-filtered POME at 37oC, 250 rpm
and 5% (v/v) of temperature, agitation and inoculum concentration respectively (Wu et al., 2006). Based on this,
Wu et al. (2009) explored the use of statistical experimental design to optimize the medium and process
conditions. The developed optimum conditions of 37.95oC, 1.30% (v/v) and 3.83 days for temperature,
 471
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

inoculum concentration and fermentation time respectively resulted in 4.37-fold increase in extracellular
protease production. Rashid et al. (2009) studied the production of cellulase in the presence of POME as a basal
medium. The results revealed that T. reesei RUT C-30 resulted in the filter paper cellulase and
carboxymethylcellulase activity of 0.917 U/ml and 2.51 U/ml respectively after 5 days of fermentation.
Submerged and solid state fermentationswere used by Prasertsan et al. (1997) to optimize the cellulase
(CMCase) and xylanase productions using A. niger ATCC 6275. Addition of 0.6 g/l NH4NO3 into the POME
during the fermentation process increased the production of both xylanases and CMCases.
The residual oil and grease present in POME could serve as inducers during the lipase production. Razak et
al. (1997) isolated two fungal species (Rhizopus oryzae and Rhizopus rhizopodiformis) from POME that showed
potentials to produce both themembrane-bound and extracellular lipases under appropriate conditions.Salihu et
al. (2011a)utilized POME as a growth medium for lipase production in shake flask cultures using ten different
microorganisms. All the strains showed considerable levels of lipase activity and the highest activity of 4.02
U/ml was found in Candida cylindracea ATCC 14830.The C. cylindracea lipase production was optimized by
RSM and the optimum medium containing POME supplemented with 0.45% (w/v), 0.65% (v/v) and 0.2% (v/v)
of peptone, Tween-80 and olive oil respectivelyresulted in highest lipase production of 20.26 U/ml (Salihu et
al., 2011b).

Conclusion:

Agricultural residuesare produced in large quantities in many developing countries. Their use has still been
limited, being basically used as feeds for animals, or simply as landfills. However, they can serve as potential
resources for use in several bioconversion processes for producing valuable products. Numerous attempts have
been made forusing POME in the production of value-added products, these help in solving pollution problems,
which may be caused by its disposal. Also, realization of these potentials offered by POME can be of special
economic interest for countries with abundant agro-industrial residues. As such, research interests have been
inspired in establishing a selective, reliable and durable alternative for judicious utilization of the residues across
the globe.

References

Abd-Rahman, R., K.S. Mohd and Y. Abu Zahrim, 2003. Composting palm oil mill sludge - sawdust: Effect of
different amount of sawdust. Proceedings of National workshop in conjunction with ARRPET workshop on
Wastewater treatment and recycling 2: Removal chloroorganics and heavy metals. ISBN 983-2982-04-9.
Abdul Latif, A., I. Suzylawati, I. Norliza and B. Subhash, 2003a. Removal of suspended solids and residual oil
from palm oil mill effluent.J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 78(9): 971-978.
Abdul Latif, A., I. Suzylawati, I. Norliza and B. Subhash, 2003b. Water recycling from palm oil mill effluent
using membrane technology.Desalination, 157: 87-95.
Ahmad, A., S. Ismail and S. Bhatia, 2003. Water recycling from palm oil mill effluent (POME) using
membrane technology. Desalination, 157: 87-95.
Ahmad, A.L., C.Y. Chan, S.R. AbdShukor and M.D. Mashitah, 2008. Recovery of oil and carotenes from palm
oil mill effluent (POME).Chem. Engin. J., 141: 383-386.
Ahmad, A.L., C.Y. Chan, S.R. AbdShukor and M.D. Mashitah, 2010. Optimization of carotene recovery from
extracted oil of POME by adsorption chromatography using response surface methodology. Sep. Purif.
Technol., 73: 279-285.
Alam, M.Z., P. Jamal and M.M. Nadzir, 2008a. Bioconversion of palm oil mill effluent for citric acid
production: statistical optimization of fermentation media and time by central composite design. World J.
MicrobiolBiotechnol., 24: 1177-1185.
Alam, M.Z., N.A. Kabbashi and K.H.M. Zain, 2008b. Optimization of Media Composition for Bioethanol
Production by Direct Bioconversion of Palm Oil Mill Effluent, Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2008), 952-956.
Alam, M.Z., N.A. Kabbashi and A.A. Razak, 2007. Liquid State Bioconversion of Domestic Wastewater Sludge
for Bioethanol Production, In Ibrahim, F., N. A. Abu Osman, J. Usman and N. A. Kadri (Eds.): Biomed 06,
IFMBE Proceedings, 15: 479-482.
Alam, M.Z., M.I. AbdulKarim and M.T. Mespuan, 2006. Statistical optimization of physicochemical factors for
lignin peroxidase production using POME as substrate.Proceedings of the 20th Symposium of Malaysian
Chemical Engineers (SomChE 2006). Shah Alam, Malaysia, pp: 151-156.
Alam, M.Z., N.A. Kabbashi and S.N.I.S. Hussin, 2009. Production of bioethanol by direct bioconversion of oil-
palm industrial effluent in a stirred-tank bioreactor.J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 36: 801-808.
Alias, Z. and I.K.P. Tan, 2005. Isolation of palm oil-utilising, polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)-producing bacteria
by an enrichment technique.Bioresour. Technol., 96: 1229-1234.
 472
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

Baharuddin, A.S., M. Wakisaka, Y. Shirai, S. Abd Aziz, N.A. Abdul Rahman and M.A. Hassan, 2009. Co-
composting of empty fruit bunches and partially treated palm oil mill effluents in pilot scale. Int. J. Agric.
Res., 4(2): 69-78.
Basiron, Y. and C.K. Weng, 2004. The oil palm and its sustainability.J. Oil Palm Res., 16(1): 1-10.
Chan, K.S. and C.F. Chooi, 1984. Ponding System for palm oil mill effluent treatment. In: Proceedings of the
Regional Workshop on Palm Oil Mill Technology & Effluent Treatment, 185-192.
Chavalparit, O., W.H. Rulkens, A.P.J. Mol and S. Khaodhair, 2006. Options for environmental sustainability of
the crude palm oil industry in Thailand through enhancement of industrial ecosystems. Environ. Dev.
Sustain., 8: 271-287.
Cheng, C.K., H.H. Hani and K.S.K. Ismail, 2007. Production of bioethanol from oil palm empty fruit bunches.
International Conference on Sustainable Materials (ICoSM-2007), 69-72.
Cheung, S.M. and B.C. Anderson, 1996. Laboratory investigation of ethanol production from municipal
primary wastewater solids.Bioresour. Technol., 59: 81-96.
Chong, M., N.A. Abdul Rahman, R. Abdul Rahim, S. Abdul Aziz, Y. Shirai and M.A. Hassan, 2009.
Optimization of biohydrogen production by Clostridium butyricum EB6 from palm oil mill effluent using
response surface methodology.Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 34: 7475-7482.
Choorit, W. and P. Wisarnwan, 2007. Effect of temperature on the anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill
effluent.Electr. J. Biotechnol., 10(3): 376-385.
Drysdale, C.R. and M.H. McKay, 1995. Citric acid production by Aspergillus niger on surface culture on inulin.
Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 20: 252-254.
Foo, K.Y. and B.H. Hameed, 2010. Insight into the applications of palm oil mill effluent: A renewable
utilization of the industrial agricultural waste. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 14: 1445-1452.
Grewal, H.S. and A.L. Karla, 1995. Fungal production of citric acid.Biotechnol. Adv., 13: 209-234.
Gupta, S., 1994. Continuous production of citric acid from sugar cane molasses using a combination of
submerged immobilized and surface stabilized cultures of Aspergillus niger KCU520. Biotechnol. Lett., 16:
599-604.
Gutiérrez, L.F., O.J. Sánchez and C.A. Cardona, 2009. Process integration possibilities for biodiesel production
from palm oil using ethanol obtained from lignocellulosic residues of oil palm industry.Bioresour.
Technol., 100(3): 1227-1237.
Habib, M.A.B., F.M. Yusoff, S.M. Phang, K.J. Ang and S. Mohamed, 1997. Nutritional values of chironomid
larvae grown in palm oil mill effluent and algal culture. Aquaculture, 158: 95-105.
Hahn-Hagerdal, B., M. Galbe, M.F. Gorwa-Grauslund, G. Lidenand, G. Zacchi, 2006. Bio-ethanol: the fuel of
tomorrow from the residues of today. Trends Biotechnol., 24(12): 549-556.
Hasan, F., A.A. Shah and A. Hameed, 2006. Industrial applications of microbial lipases.Enzym. Microbial
Technol., 39: 235-251.
Hassan, M.A., Y. Shirai, N. Kusubayashi, M.I. Abdulkarim, K. Nakanishi and K. Hashimoto, 1996. Effect of
Organic acid profiles during Anaerobic Treatment of Palm Oil Mill Effluent on the Production of
Polyhydroxyalkanoates by Rhodobactersphaeroides. J. Ferment. Bioengin., 82(2): 151-156.
Jamal, P., M.Z. Alam, M.R.M. Salleh and M.M. Akib, 2005. Sewage Treatment Plant Sludge: A Source of
Potential Microorganism for Citric acid Production, American J. Appl. Sci., 2(8): 1236-1239.
Jamal, P., M.Z. Alam and A. Mohamad, 2007. Microbial Bioconversion of Palm Oil Mill Effluent to Citric
Acid with Optimum Process Conditions, In: Ibrahim, F., N.A. Abu Osman, J. Usman and N.A. Kadri
(Eds.): Biomed 06, IFMBE Proceedings, 15: 483-487.
Jamil, Z., M.S.M. Annuar, S. Ibrahim and S. Vikineswary, 2009. Optimization of phototrophic hydrogen
production by Rhodopseudomonas palustris PBUM001 via statistical experimental design.Int. J. Hydrogen
Energy, 34: 7502-7512.
Kathiravale, S. and A. Ripin, 1997. Palm oil mill effluent treatment towards zero discharge, A paper presented
at National Science and Technology Conference, Kuala Lampur, Malaysia (July, 15th -16th 1997), 1-8.
Ma, A.N., 1999. Treatment of palm oil mill effluent. In: Gurmit, S., et al. (Eds.). Oil Palm and the
Environment.A Malaysian Perspective. MOPGC, Kuala Lumpur, 113-125.
Mumtaz, T., N.A. Yahaya, S. Abd-aziz, N. AbdulRahman, P.L. Yee, Y. Shirai and M.A. Hassan, 2010. Turning
waste to wealth biodegradable plastics polyhydroxyalkanoates from palm oil mill effluent – a Malaysian
perspective.J. Clean. Prod., 18(14): 1393-1402.
Najafpour, G.D., A.A.L. Zinatizadeh, A.R. Mohamed, M.H. Isa and H. Nasrollahzadeh, 2006. High-rate
anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent in an upflow anaerobic sludge-fixed film bioreactor.Process
Biochem., 41(2): 370-379.
Oswal, N., P.M. Sarma, S.S. Zinjarde and A. Pant, 2002. Palm oil mill effluent treatment by a tropical marine
yeast. Bioresour. Technol., 85: 35-37.
O-Thong, S., P. Prasertsan, N. Intrasungkha, S. Dhamwichukorn and N. Birkeland, 2007. Improvement of
biohydrogen production and treatment efficiency on palm oil mill effluent with nutrient supplementation at
 473
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(1): 466-473, 2012

thermophilic condition using an anaerobic sequencing batch reactor.Enzym.Microb. Technol., 41: 583-
590.
Poh, P.E. and M.F. Chong, 2009. Development of anaerobic digestion methods for palm oil mill effluent
(POME) treatment.Bioresour. Technol., 100: 1-9.
Prasertsan, P., A.H. Kittikul, A. Kunghae, J. Maneesri and S. Oi, 1997. Optimization for xylanase and
cellulase production from Aspergillus niger ATTC 6275 in palm oil mill wastes and its application. World
J. Microbiol.Biotechnol., 13: 555-559.
Purushothaman, M., R.K.I. Anderson, S. Narayana and V.K. Jayaraman, 2001. Industrial byproducts as cheaper
medium components influencing the production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) – Biodegradable
Plastics. Bioprocess Biosys. Engin., 24: 131-136.
Rashid, S.S., M.Z. Alam, M.A. Abdulkarim and M.H. Salleh, 2009. Management of palm oil mill effluent
through production of cellulases by filamentous fungi.World J Microbiol.Biotechnol., 25(12): 2219-2226.
Rass-Hansen, J., H. Falsig, B. Jorgensen and C.H. Christensen, 2007. Perspective bioethanol: fuel or feedstock?
J. Chem. Technol Biotechnol., 82: 329-333.
Razak, C.N.A., A.B. Salleh, R. Musani, M.Y. Samad and M. Basri, 1997. Some characteristics of lipases from
thermophilic fungi isolated from palm oil mill effluent. J. Mol. Catal. B: Enzym., 3: 153-159.
Redzwan, G., S.N. Gan and I.K.P. Tan, 1997. Short Communication: Isolation of polyhydroxyalkanoate-
producing bacteria from an integrated-farming pond and palm-oil mill effluent ponds. World J.
Microbiol.Biotechnol., 13: 707-709.
Roukas, T. and P. Kotzekidou, 1997. Pretreatment of Date syrup to increase Citric acid Production.
Enzym.Microb. Technol., 21: 273-276.
Salihu, A., M.Z. Alam, M.I. AbdulKarim and H.M. Salleh, 2011a. Suitability of using Palm oil mill effluent as
a medium for lipase production.Afr. J. Biotechnol., 10(11): 2044-2052.
Salihu, A., M.Z. Alam, M.I. AbdulKarim and H.M. Salleh, 2011b. Optimization of lipase production by
Candida cylindracea in palm oil mill effluent based medium using statistical experimental design. J. Mol.
Catal. B: Enzym., 69: 66-73.
Singh, R.P., M.H. Ibrahim, N. Esa and M.S. Iliyana, 2010. Composting of waste from palm oil mill: a
sustainable waste management practice.Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol., 9: 331-344.
Vairappan, S.C. and A.M. Yen, 2008. Palm oil mill effluent (POME) cultured marine microalgae as
supplementary diet for rotifer culture. J. Appl. Phycol., 20: 603-608.
Vijayaraghavan, K., D. Ahmad and M.E. Abdul Aziz, 2007. Aerobic treatment of Palm oil mill effluent. J.
Environ. Man., 82: 24-31.
Vikineswary, S., A.J. Kuthubutheen and A.A. Ravoof, 1997. Growth of Trichoderma harzianum and
Myceliophthora thermophila in palm oil sludge.World J. Microbiol.Biotechnol., 13: 189-194.
Wahid, M.D., S.N.A. Abdullah and I.E. Henson, 2004. Oil Palm - Achievements and Potential: 2004 new
directions for a diverse planet. Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress (26th Sep – 1st
Oct). Brisbane, Australia.
Wingren, A., M. Galbe and G. Zacchi, 2003. Techno-economic evaluation of producing ethanol from softwood:
comparison of SSF and SHF and identification of bottlenecks. Biotechnol.Prog., 19: 1109-1117.
Wu, T.Y., A.W. Mohammad, J.M. Jahim and N. Anuar, 2006. Investigations on protease production by a wild-
type Aspergillus terreus strain using diluted retentate of pre-filtered palm oil mill effluent (POME) as
substrate. Enzym.Microb. Technol., 39: 1223-1229.
Wu, T.Y., A.W. Mohammad, J.M. Jahim and N. Anuar, 2009. Optimized reuse and bioconversion from
retentate of pre-filtered palm oil mill effluent (POME) into microbial protease by Aspergillus terreus using
response surface methodology. J Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 84: 1390-1396.
Wyman, C.E., 1996. Ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass: overview. In: Wyman, C. E. (ed.).
Handbook on Bioethanol: Production and Utilization. Taylor and Francis, Washington, pp: 1-18.
Yusoff, S. and S.B. Hansen, 2007. Feasibility Study of Performing an Life Cycle Assessment on Crude Palm
Oil Production in Malaysia. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess, 12(1): 50-58.

View publication stats