Laboratory Work No.

TITLE: SOIL SAMPLING AND PREPARATION FOR TEST

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. shovel and spade
2. soil auger
3. pipe wrench
4. water-tight sample containers
5. wax or paraffin
6. stack of sieves
7. oven
8. rubber-cover pestle
9. sample splitter

PROCEDURE:
1. For easier boring and for better quality of soil sample, first clear the area
where the sample is to be obtained.
2. With the use of soil auger, bore thru the soil up to the desired depth and
obtain a disturbed sample.
3. Each type and depth or thickness of soil strata encountered must be noted.
4. Should it be desired to obtain an undisturbed sample, a large hole is dug but
the middle portion of the hole is kept intact.
5. Trim the middle portion to exact size then cover with wax or paraffin.
6. Place the sample I a container and to ensure water tightness, seal the sides of
the cover with wax or paraffin.
7. Label each container and store in a cold place.

The sample label shall include the following:

Project Title: __________________________________ File
No.____________________________
Location: _____________________________________ Sample
No._______________________
Date: _________________________________________ Boring
No.________________________
Depth of sample from surface: _________________
Description of soil:
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Remarks:
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 ___________________________________________________________________________
The above data or information shall also be kept for filling purposes.

PROCEDURE: Preparation of Disturbed Sample for Test

1. Air-dry or oven dry (max. 60 oC) the disturbed soil sample obtained earlier.
2. Break the sample into smaller pieces using the rubber-covered pestle.
3. Using the splitter or quartering method obtain a representative sample of the
amount required for the desired test.

GENERAL DATA:

TEST TYPE OF WEIGHT OF HEIGHT, DIAMETER NUMBER

SAMPLE SAMPLE mm mm REQUIRED
Grain size Passing thru 400 gm
Analysis #10 oven
dried
Atterberg Passing thru 250 gm
Limits #40
disturbed
not dried
Specific Disturbed 100 gm
Gravity Passing thru
#10
Compaction Disturbed 11 kgs
not dried
Consolidatio Undisturbed 50 70 1
n

Tri-Axial Undisturbed 100-175 50-90 3-5

Shear
Unconfined Undisturbed 100-175 50-90 2
Compressio
n

PROCEDURE: Preparation of undisturbed soil sample for test

1. Trim the undisturbed soil sample extracted or obtained with the use of a wire
saw and a soil lathe.
2. Cut the specimen to standard height.
3. Measure dimensions using caliper.

PRECAUSIONS:
1. As much as possible the preparation should be done inside a room.
2. Use a cellophane or wax paper in handling the sample.
3. Support the specimen over its entire length when transporting it.
4. After every cut, remove the soil sticking on the wire saw.

DRAWING OF APPARATUS:
GENERAL DISCUSSION:
Sampling, whether of disturbed or undisturbed soil, has to be done correctly to be
able to obtain soil properties soil properties and structure accurately.
Although it is practically impossible to obtain a true undisturbed soil sample,
results can be made as close as possible to the true properties of the soil if the
sampling, storage and preparation is done such that the sample retains its water
content and structure and is protected from undue strain.
A disturbed sample may not give as accurate properties of soil as what an undisturbed
soil gives but extreme care must be taken in obtaining, preparing and obtaining it for
proper classification and determination of its suitability for any given job.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION:

 Laboratory work no. 2

TITLE: DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT, UNIT WEIGHT, VOID RATIO, POROSITY

AND DEGREE OF SATURATION.

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. balance 5. Wax paper

2. drying oven 6. Graduated cylinder
3. Moisture cans 7. Spatula
4. Soil pan

PROCEDURE:
Water Content
1. Weigh a moisture can including the cover. Be sure to identify the can and
its lid.
2. Place a representative sample of wet soil in the cup and determine the
weight of wet soil + container (or can).
3. After weighing the wet sample + container, remove the lid (it is usual
practice to place it on the bottom of the can) and dry the sample in the
oven at a constant temperature of 110+5 oC.
4. When the sample has dried to a constant weight (1-6 hours depending on
the amount of sample), obtain the weight of the dry sample + container.
5. Compute the water content, w. The difference between the weight of wet
soil + container and the weight of dry soil + container and the weight of
container is the weight of soil solids Ws and

Ww
W= ------------ x 100%
Ws

Unit weight, Void ratio, Porosity, and Degree of Saturation

1. Trim a soil sample to a cylinder of about 40 mm in diameter and 50 mm
to 75 mm in length.
2. Weight the specimen to the nearest 0.10 gms.
3. Cover with a thin coating or wax and reweigh. Compute the volume of
paraffin from the weight. Note that the specific gravity of paraffin is the
total weight of the specimen.
 4. Determine the volume of the specimen with coating by immersing it in
water in the graduate cylinder. The volume of specimen without coating
is the volume of the displaced water less than the volume of paraffin.
5. Compute the unit weight.
6. Assuming the specific gravity and soil solids (the proper determination
of specific gravity shall be taken up in separate laboratory work),
compute the void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation.

GENERAL DATA:

WATER CONTENT DETERMINE TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2

WEIGHT OF CONTAINER
WEIGHT OF CONTAINER + WET SOIL
WEIGHT OF CONTAINER + DRY SOIL
WEIGHT OF WATER, Ww
WEIGHT OF DRY SOIL, Ws
WATER CONTENT, w

Unit weight:
Volume by Measurement Volume by Immersion
Length of sample (cm)________________ Weight of sample
(gm)__________________
Diameter of sample (cm) ______________ Wt. of sample + paraffin,
cc_____________
Area (cm)____________________________ Weight of paraffin
(cc)__________________
Volume of sample (cm)_______________ Volume of paraffin
(cc)_________________
Weight of sample (gm)________________ Volume of sample + paraffin
(cc)________
Unit weight (gm/cc)___________________ Unit weight
(gm/cc)____________________

Void ratio, Porosity, Degree of Saturation

Average water content, w______________________
Specific gravity of Soil Solids, Gs_________________
Void ratio, e____________________________________
Porosity, n______________________________________
Degree of Saturation, Sr_________________________

COMPUTATIONS:
DRAWING OF APPARATUS:

GENERAL DISCUSSIONS:
The determination of water content is a routine laboratory test to determine the
amount of water present in a quality of soil in terms of its dry weight. It is a part of
other more elaborate tests such as the compaction test, the determination of liquids,
plastic and shrinkage limits, the field density test, etc. It is defined mathematically as

Ww
w = ------------- x 100%
Ws
where;
w = water content
Ww = weight of water present in the soil mass
Ws = weight of soil solids

Although, one could define the water content as the ratio of Ww and the total
weight or ratio of the volume of water present in the soil mass and the total volume.
The unit weight is determined from representative undisturbed soil samples. The
void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation are normally determined accurately after
the true specific gravity of the solids are obtained.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION:

 Laboratory Work No. 3

TITLE: MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENTS AND APPARATUS:

1. Stack of sieves 5. sieve shaker

2. Drying oven 6. soil pan
3. Mortar 7. spatula
4. Balance 8. hand shovel

PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain a representative of a given dry soil approximately 400-500 grams. The

sample must be well pulverized using the mortar impresser or mechanical soil
pulverizer. Place the sample in the stack if sieves with the arrangement
shown.

Place the stack of sieves in a mechanical sieve shaker. Shake for 5 to 10

minutes, depending on the probable difficulty involved as observed by visual
inspection.
2. Remove the stack of sieves from the shaker and obtain the weight of the
material.
 3. Sum up the cuts and compare the weight obtained (400 – 500). Get
percentage of loss.
4. Compute the percentage retained in each sieve by the original sample weight.
Compute the percentage of passing or percent finer by starting with 100%and
subtracting the percentage retained from each sieve by a cumulative
procedure.
5. Put the plot of the graph of percentage passing as natural scale versus sieve
size as a logarithmic scale.

GENERAL DATA:

Original weight of Soil Sample ____________________________

Weight of Sample _______________________________________
Weight of Pan with Soil ___________________________________
GENERAL DISCUSSIONS

A soil material maybe divided into fractions according to the size of its consistent
particles. Such division is a mechanical analysis of soil. A good mechanical analysis is
not equally valuable in different branches of engineering. The size of soil grain is of
importance only in such cases as embankments where earth is used as a material that
should satisfy definite specifications in foundations of structures. Data from mechanical
analysis generally are only illustrative; other soil properties such as compression or
shearing resistance are of importance.

The physical and chemical processes which result in graduation of sizes of

granular sizes from immense builders down to tiny particles composed of clay minerals
also suggest that this should be a convenient method in classifying the material, and
most system of classification which have been devised are, in fact, based upon the
grain size. In practice important mechanical property distinctions and differences
develop as soil grain sizes approximate those at which the chemical and physical
properties are also separated. Certain material behaviors maybe associated with the
coarser grain sizes and qualitatively different behaviors with soils composed of finer
grain sizes.

Consequently, it is of interest to determine in any given soil sample the

proportions of relatively finer materials present. This is achieved by considering that
soul larger in size than the openings of the #200 sieve shall be determined as coarse,
and the smaller grain size soil will be termed as fine. The classifications of soil size
distribution are accomplished by setting up a stack of sieves in which sieve is a set
above a second one whose opening is commonly half the size of opening of the first.
Frequently, seven or eight sieves are used. The range of size varies perhaps by ¾ size
openings. However, the selection of sieve usually depends on how the observer sizes up
this range in the soil most accurately. With a known weight of sieves, the nest is shaken
vigorously for 10 to 15 minutes. And then, the weight of the soil retained din each sieve
is measured. The soil in any sieve is the size resisting upon it. A pan catches the grain
passing through the sieve.

In the case of the finer particles, they are separated by the method of wet
analysis, which is principally based on the speed of sedimentation. The method of wet
analysis generally used is the “hydrometer method”. Other methods are the pipette
and elutriation method, which will not be discussed here.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION:

GENERAL DATA:

Sieve Size Weight Weight Weight % Retained % Passing

# Openin w/o W/ soil Retained
g soil

COMPUTATIONS:
DRAWING OF APPARATUS:

Laboratory work No. 4

TITLE: DETERMINATION OF LIQUID AND PLASTIC LIMITS OF SOIL

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. Liquid limit device with grooving tool

2. Moisture cans
3. Plastic limit plate
4. Soil mixing equipment
5. Balance sensitive to 0.01 gram
6. Sieve no. 40
7. Soil pan

PROCEDURE:

1. Each person on each group will pulverize a sufficient quantity if air-dried soil
to obtain a representative sample of material passing #40 sieve of about
250+10 grams. Be sure to discard the residue remaining in the sieve into
waste cans, as this material is no longer representative of the soil from the
field site. Be sure to break the umps down for sieving; one of the major
sources of error is the failure to use a truly representative sample, and many
of the “fines” are in the lumps. In the interest of the student’s laboratory time,
do not presoak the sample prior to performing the test.
2. Next, each group will check the height of fall of the liquid limit machine it will
use for a fall of exactly 1 cm. Use the 1 cm. Calibration block on the end of the
grooving tool for making the adjustment. Make the adjustment with respect to
the worn spot on the base of the cup, not the shortest fall. If the height of the
 fall is not calibrated within this limits a water content error of several percent
maybe introduced.
3. Place a 250 gm. Of soil in a porcelain-mixing dish, add a small amount of
water and carefully mix the soil to a uniform color. Another major source of
error is poor mixing of the soil water mixture. When the color is uniform
throughout and the mixture has a creamy appearance, proper mixture has
generally been achieved. Continue to add small amounts of water and mix the
mass to a uniform color each time. When you have the soil to the point of
consistency (stickiness) where you estimate (or by making a trial test) it will
take about 50 blows to close the standard groove 12.7 mm. Remove about 20
grams of thoroughly mixed soil form the dish for the plastic limit
determination. Now add more water and mix to a uniform color until you have
the soil to a consistency that will yield a blow count of from 30 to 40 blows to
close the standard groove 12.7-mm.
4. Remove the brass cup from the liquid limit machine and place a small amount
of soil to the correct depth of the grooving tool well centered in the cup with
respect to the hinge. Smooth the surface of the soil or pat carefully and using
the grooving tool, cut a clean, straight groove that completely separates the
soil pat into two parts. The soil depth should be just barely trimmed with the
shoulders of the tool at the deepest part.

After making the groove, quickly attach the cup to the device and make the
blow count. Unnecessary delay will, if the humidity is low, dry the soil surface,
which will show when plotting the data giving an erratic locus of points. Other
test errors will also do this, however.

5. Take a moisture sample in the pre-weighed moisture can (as large as possible
and of about 40 grams), being sure to take the water content of the sample
from the closed part of the groove. Place the lid on the moisture content
container of soil and set it aside temporarily. Remove the remainder of soil
from the brass cup and return it to the porcelain dish. Wash and dry the cup.
Add a small amount of water to the porcelain dish of soil, and carefully mix to
a uniform color and consistency to yield a blow count of between 25 to 30+
blows. Repeat steps 4 and 5.
6. Repeat the sequence for two additional test for blow counts of the individual
trials of at least 2 and preferably 3 or more to yield a reasonably spread plot –
but one in which the blow count is not far from 25 blows.
Be sure to clean the brass cup after each test and carefully dry it. Be sure to
have about the same time lapse for each test to eliminate laboratory humidity
as a variance. Do not leave the soil in the brass cup for a long period of time.
This would allow adhesion to build up between cup and soil.
7. Weigh the four moisture containers from the test, remove the lids, and place
the cups of the soil in the oven (110 degrees Centigrade) to dry overnight. It is
obvious now that the addition of water in the blow count sequence is done in
this manner so that the soil is well mixed. It is easier to blend water into the
mixture rather than to blend in new soil if the soil mass becomes too wet and
 must be dried to obtain the desired spread of blow counts in each side of 25.
It is difficult to the novice to predict the blow count or say 35 and then water
is added, it is reasonable to expect the next test to yield a blow count of 18,
how much dry soil does one add to get a blow count of 22 to 24? The wetter
the soil the more nearly it will act as a viscous liquid.

PROCEDURE: Plastic Limit.

The next step is to determine the plastic limit. To increase the precision by
eliminating weighing errors, the test should be done as follows.

1. Break the 20 to 30 gm. “peanut” of soil set aside earlier into several smaller
samples.
2. Roll the soil between the fingers in a glass plate or on a piece of paper lying
on a smooth surface with sufficient pressure to form a diameter thread using
about 80 to 90 rolling strokes per minute (forward and back = 1 stroke). When
the diameter of soil thread become 3mm. (1/8 in.), break thread into several
pieces. Re-form into a ball and re-roll. Continue this alternative rolling and re-
balling until the thread crumbles under the pressure of rolling and the soil can
no longer be rolled into a thread. If the thread crumbles at a diameter of 3mm,
this is satisfactory to define Wp. Thread failure maybe defined as:

a.) Simply falling apart

b.) With the outer tubular (hollow roll) layer that split from ends
inward
c.) Barrel – shaped solid pieces 6 to 8 mm. long (for heavy clays)

Do not produce a failure by allowing thread to reach 3 mm. by

reducing the rate of rolling and/or hand pressure. Exception is with soils
approaching nonplasticity; this initial ball may be shaped close to 3mm. by
hand prior to rolling.

3. Repeat this sequence several times adding each test to the same moisture
can.
4. Weigh the covered can, remove the lid, and place the can in the oven.

cccc
GENERAL DISCUSSIONS:

The liquid and plastic limits are two of five proposed by

A. Atterberg, a Swedish agricultural scientist. These limits are:

1. Cohesion limit – that moisture content at which soil crumbs just stick
together.
2. Sticky Limit – that moisture content at which soil just sticks to a metal
surface such as a spatula blade. This would have some significance to the
 agricultural engineer since it is related to soil sticking to the sailboard of a
plow or disc in cultivating soil.
3. Shrinkage limit – that moisture content below which no further soil volume
reduction (or shrinkage) occurs. The method of determining this moisture
content is presented in Laboratory Work No. 5.
4. Plastic Limit – moisture content below which the soil is non-plastic.
5. Liquid Limit – moisture content below which the

At this moisture content, the soil is on the verge of becoming a viscous fluid.
The liquid and plastic limits have been widely used all over the world,
primarily for soil identification and classification. The shrinkage limit is used in
certain geographical areas where the soil undergoes large volume changes
when going through wet and dry cycles. The potential volume-change can
often be detected from the liquid and plastic limit tests. The liquid limit is
sometimes used to estimate settlement in consolidation problems, and both
limits maybe useful in predicting maximum density in compaction studies.

The cohesion and sticky limits are used very little worldwide. In fact only
recently has it become widely known that Atterberg proposed five and not
three Atterberg limits.

The relative locations of the shrinkage limit, plastic limit and liquid limit, are
shown on the water content scale as follows.

PLASTIC RANGE OF SOIL BEHAVES AS

SOIL NON PLASTIC SOIL VISCOUS FLUID

Ws Wp W1 WATER CONTENT, w%

Relative locations of shrinkage, plastic, and liquid limits on a water content scale.
Note that the Ws location may vary for some soils to the right.
In order to place definite reproducible values on these limits, it was proposed that
the liquid limit be arbitrarily defined as that water content at which a pat of soil placed
in a brass cup, cut with a standard groove, and then dropped from a height of 1 cm. Will
undergo a groove closure of 12.7mm. when dropped 25 times. Several variables affect
the liquid limit test or the number of blows required to close the standard groove
12.7mm, including:

1. size of soil pat in brass cup (thickness of quantity)

2. rate of blows (should be 120 rpm)
3. time of soil in cup prior to beginning test blow count and how clean cup is
prior to adding soil for test.
 4. Laboratory humidity and speed of performing test.
5. Type of material used for liquid limit device base (commonly hard rubber)
6. Accuracy of height of fall calibration(should be exactly 1 cm.)
7. Type of grooving tool
8. Condition of liquid limit device (worn pins, loose connections, etc.)

The plastic limit has been arbitrarily defined as the water content of the soil at
which a thread just crumbles when it is rolled down to diameter of 3mm. This
test is somewhat more subjective (operator dependent) than the liquid limit test
since just what constitutes crumbling and what is a 3mm diameter are subject to
some interpretation. The diameter can be displayed in the laboratory using wire
or welding rods for a visual comparison. With practice, it appears that plastic limit
value can be reproduced to within 1 to 3 percent by different laboratory
technicians on the same soil.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION:

Laboratory Work No. 5

TITLE: DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT OF SOIL

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. evaporating dish
2. spatula
 3. shrinkage dish
4. straight edge
5. glass cap or glass plate with 3 sprongs of immersing the soil pat in the
mercury.
6. Graduated cylinder for measuring volume of displaced mercury
7. Balance sensitive to 0.01 gram
8. Drying oven
9. Soil pan
10.Mercury
11.Sieve # 40

A sample weighing about 30 gram shall be taken from the thoroughly mixed
portion of the material passing the #40 sieve. The sample shall be placed in the
evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with distilled water in an amount sufficient to fill
the soil voids completely and to make the soil pasty enough to be readily worked into
the shrinkage dish without the inclusion of air bubbles. The amount of water required to
furnish triable soil with the desired consistency to furnish plastic soils may exceed the
limit by as much as 10%.

The inside of the shrinkage dish shall be coated with vaseline or some other
heavy grease to prevent the adhesion of the soil to the dish. An amount of the wetted
soil equal to about 1/3 of the volume of the dish shall be placed in the center of the
dish, and the soil caused to flow the edges by tapping the dish on a firm surfaced
cushion by several layers blotting paper or similar material. An amount of soil shall be
added approximately equal to the first portion, and the dish tapped until the soil is
thoroughly compacted and all included air has been brought to the surface.

The dish when filled and struck off level shall be weighed immediately and the
weight recorded as the weight of the dish and wet soil. The soil pat shall be allowed to
dry in air until the color of the pat turns from dark to light. It shall then be oven-dried to
constant weight at 110 degrees Celsius and weighed, the weight being recorded as the
weight of the dish and dry soil. The volume of the empty dish shall be determined by
filling the dish to overflowing mercury, removing the excess by pressing a glass plate
firmly over the top of the dish, and measuring the volume of the mercury held in the
dish by means of a graduated cylinder. This volume shall be recorded as the volume of
the wet soil pat, V. The volume of the dry soil pat shall be determined by removing the
pat from the shrinkage dish and immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the
following manner.

The glass cup shall be filled with overflowing mercury and the excess mercury
shall be removed by pressing the glass plate with 3 prongs firmly over the top of the
cap. Any mercury which would e adhering to the outside of the cap shall be carefully
wiped off. The cap filled with mercury shall be placed in the evaporating dish and the
soil pat shall be placed on the surface of the mercury. It shall then be carefully forced
under the mercury by means of the glass plate with 3 prongs and the plate shall be
placed firmly over the top of the cap. It is essential that no air be trapped over the soil
pat. The volume of the mercury so displaced shall be measured in the graduated
cylinder and recorded as the volume of the dry soil pat, Vd.

Calculation of the moisture content, w

( W - Wd)
w = --------------- x 100%
Wd

where:

w = moisture content of soil when placed in dish

W = weight of wet soil
 Wd = weight of dry soil

The Shrinkage Limit

The shrinkage limit of soil is that moisture content expressed as a percentage of

the weight of the oven-dried soil, at which a reduction in moisture content will cause an
increase in the volume of the soil mass. Thus:

( V - Vd)
S = --------------- x 100%
Vd

where:
S = shrinkage limit
w = moisture content
V = volume of wet soil pat
Vd = volume of dry soil pat

Optional Method: When both the true specific gravity, G and the shrinkage ratio, R are
known, the shrinkage limit may be calculated as:

1 1
S = ( ------ - ----- ) x 100%
R G

Shrinkage Ratio:

The shrinkage ratio of a soil is the ratio between a given volume change
expressed as a percentage of the dry volume and the corresponding change in moisture
content above the shrinkage limit, expressed as the percentage of the weight of the
oven-dried soil.
The shrinkage ratio, R shall be calculated from the data obtained in the
volumetric shrinkage determination by the following formula:

Wd
R = ----------
Vd

Volumetric Changes:
The volumetric changes of a soil for a given moisture content is the volumetric
change expressed as a percentage of the dry volume of the soil mass when the
moisture content is usually taken as the field moisture equivalent. The volumetric
change shall be calculated from the data obtained in the volumetric shrinkage
determination by the following formula:

Volumetric Change = (w - S)R

where:
w = given moisture content
S = shrinkage limit
R = shrinkage ratio
Lineal Shrinkage:

The lineal shrinkage of a soil for a given moisture content is the decrease in one
dimension expressed as a percentage of the original dimension of the soil mass when
the moisture equivalent is reduced from the amount equal to the field moisture
equivalent or liquid limit to the shrinkage limit.

The lineal shrinkage shall be obtained either by means of a formula or by means

of the chart for determining lineal shrinkage from volumetric.

GENERAL DATA:

__________________________________________________________________________________
Weight of dish
__________________________________________________________________________________
Weight of dish and wet soil
__________________________________________________________________________________
Weight of dish and dry soil
__________________________________________________________________________________
Weight of water
__________________________________________________________________________________
Volume of wet soil, V
__________________________________________________________________________________
Volume of dry soil, Vd
__________________________________________________________________________________
Moisture content
__________________________________________________________________________________
Shrinkage limit
__________________________________________________________________________________
Shrinkage Ratio
__________________________________________________________________________________
Volumetric Change
__________________________________________________________________________________

COMPUTATIONS:
DRAWING OF APPARATUS:

GENERAL DISCUSSIONS:

Soil which undergo large volume changes in water content maybe troublesome if
used for highway or railroad fills or if structural foundations are placed on them. The soil
volume changes can result in bumps in roads and cracks in structures since the volume
changes may not and usually will not be equal.

The liquid and plastic limits may be used to predict potential trouble in soils due
to changes made in volume. However, to obtain a quantitative indication of how much
change in the moisture can occur before any appreciable volume change occurs and to
obtain, if volume changes do occur, an indication of the amount of change, a shrinkage
limit test should be performed.

This test begins with a given volume of fully saturated soil (preferably but not
necessary) at a water content above the liquid limit. The soil is dried. It is assumed
during drying that down to a certain limiting value of water content, no further change
in volume occurs with loss of pore water. This limiting value of water content is termed
as a shrinkage limit.

Physically, this means that any moisture changes below the shrinkage limit do
not cause volume changes in the soil. Above the shrinkage limit, volume changes will
occur with change in water content.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION:

 Laboratory Work No. 6

TITLE: Field Density Test of Soil

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. sand cone density apparatus

2. triple beam balance
3. spatula
4. mold of known volume (to take specific gravity of sand)
5. digging tool
6. drying oven
7. guide plate
8. soil pan
9. soil cap (to obtain moisture content ) / moisture can

PROCEDURE:
 Uniformly graded material be prepared by dry sieving a sand or sandy material,
rejecting all particles coarser than #10 sieve and finer #40 sieve. The density for the
dry sample to be used will be determined as follows:

1. A container shall be selected.

2. The container to be used has a volumetric measure shall be calibrated by
using water (known density – 1 gm/cc). The weight of the container filled with
water minus the weight when empty gives the weight of water. The volume of
the measure shall be determined by:

Wt. of water (gm)

Vol. Measure = ------------------------------
1 gm / cc

3. The volumetric measure shall be filled with the sand by pouring the sand
through a funnel spout at a constant height above the deposited sand in order
to maintain a uniform density from the bottom to the top of the container. The
excess sand is stricken off with a straight edge and the weight of the sand in
the measure taken. Density shall be computed as follows:

Wt. of sand
Density of sand = ---------------------------
Vol. Of measure

The above operation shall be repeated 4 or 5 times and the average unit
weight is determined. A representative spot of sufficient size on the surface of
the soil layer to be tested shall be smooth off so that the guide plate (size about
230 x 230 x 5 mm with 152 mm diameter circle cut in the center) will sit flat upon
the ground. A minimum amount of the surface soil shall be removed in this
operation. Using the guide plate, a 126 to 152 mm diameter hole shall be dug
with a knife, chisel or soil sugar to the full depth of the layer under test. Care
shall be taken to keep the sides of the hole vertical without the side wall material.
All soil removed from the hole shall be weighed carefully. A small sample shall be
taken and placed in a watertight container for moisture content determination
upon returning to the laboratory.

The sand shall be deposited in the test hole thru a funnel in exactly the
same manner used in filling the volumetric measure. All excess should be
returned to the sand container. The sand remaining in the container should be
carefully weighed to determine the weight of the sand used in filling the test
hole. The sand may be removed from the test hole if it is clean for further use.

GENERAL DATA:

Density Determination:

Weight of soil from hole

Density of sand
Weight of sand filled in hole
Volume of soil
Wet unit weight
Dry unit weight
 Moisture content determination
Weight of wet soil
Weight of wet soil + container
Weight of dry soil + container
Weight of container
Weight of moisture
Weight of dry soil
Moisture content

COMPUTATIONS:

DRAWING OF APPARATUS:

GENERAL DISCUSSION:

Filled control of fill construction is of great importance for maintaining the same
quality of earth regardless of whether conditions or changes in burrow materials. This is
facilitated by clear specifications which leave the contractor know doubt about the
standards of work expected. The control is exercised through the result of field tests on
unit weight and moisture content of the fill. To determine the field unit weight of fill a
number of tests are in use. Most of them are based on the simple steps of measuring
the volume of a small hole excavated in the field and determining the weight and the
moisture content of the material removed from the hole. The volume f the hole is
measured for example by filling it with a uniform sand, the unit weight of which is
known to very between very narrow limits when poured loosely into a hole. Or by
expanding a water – filled balloon into the hole. In cohesive fills, a very rapid method of
volume determination is the submergence of a lump of soil in oil or mercury. A typical
test for the determination of in-place density of soil is described below.
The density apparatus consist of a base plate, a metal funnel and a gallon jar.
The jar is filled with clean, dry , free – flowing sand of fairly uniform size of grains. The
unit weight of this sand when poured loosely in the container may not be more than 1%.
The apparatus is calibrated by placing the cone in a level surface, opening the valve
between the jar and cone and measuring the weight and thus the volume of the sand,
which fills the cone and the valve pipe. A hole with the same diameter as the cone is
dug by hand and the excavated material weight immediately, and a sample is
preserved in a moisture tight container for a moisture content determination. The base
plate is seated firmly over the hole, and the unit weight of the fill can be determined.
The field potion of the test provides only the wet unit weight of the fill, and the
moisture content must be determined before the dry unit weight can be calculated. The
drying of the soil sample takes considerable time, more than can be afforded by toadies
pace of grading operation. Rapid method for moisture content determination therefore
have been developed; they feature radiant heat and alcohol, carbide and other
hydroscopic admixtures for the rapid removal and measurement of soil mixture. An
experienced field inspector will have little trouble estimating the moisture content if a
fill after having worked with it after few days, and his judgement can be generally used
with confidence pending the outcome of the moisture content determinations which
must be made for the records.
Since larger stones are removed from the fill for the laboratory compaction test,
the effect of stone content in the field density must be taken into account. Correction
factors have been developed for this condition but their use involves making frequent
grain size analysis in the field, which again is time consuming. A more practical
approach is to exclude the stones from the volume and weight measurement in the field
thus confining the control figures to the soil matrix.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION:

Laboratory Work no. 7

TITLE: SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST FOR SOIL

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. Pycnometer volumetric flask or a stoppered bottle with a capacity of at least
100 ml.
2. Balance sensitive to 0.01 grams.
3. Thermometer and graduated cylinder
4. Other standard
5. Oven with temperature control
6. Burner or hot plate
7. Evaporating dishes
8. Dissector and other

PROCEDURE:

This method is test intended foe determining the specific gravity of the soil by
means of pycnometer. When the soil is composed of particle lager than #4 sieve the
method outlines in the standard methods of test for specific gravity and absorption of
coarse aggregate shall be followed. When the soil is composed of particles both larger
and smaller than #4 sieve as the appropriate shall be weighed, average of the two
values of the specific gravity is to be used in the calculation in connection with the
hydrometer portion of standard method of mechanical analyze of soil. It is intended that
the specific gravity test be made on that portion of the soil which passes the #10 sieve.

Pycnometer Calibration:
In the specific gravity determination, the weight of the pycnometer filled with a definite
quantity of distilled water at the test temperature is needed. This weight is a function of
temperature, due to changes in weight of the water and volume of the pycnometer. It is
obtained from the calibration curve, which is plot of the concurrent temperature and
weight of pycnometer filled with water measurements. At least 3 sets of concurrent
measurements are made within the temperature range of 28 o to 40oC.
1. Clean and dry the pycnometer.
2. Fill the pycnometer with distilled water. If a flask is used, the bottom of the
meniscus should beat the calibration mark.
3. Dry the outside surface of the pycnometer, and inside of the neck above the
calibration mark of a volumetric flask.
4. Weigh the pycnometer with water to 0.01 grams and record as Wa.
5. Read and record the water temperature to 0.01 oC with the thermometer
inserted to a fixed depth. Before reading, check that the water that the water
temperature us uniform by holding the thermometer at different elevations.
6. Heat the pycnometer with water in a water bath and repeat the procedure to
get a sufficient number of points for plotting the calibration curve. Before the
concurrent measurements are made, the excess water due to heating should
be carefully removed and the pycnometer should be dried as in test 3.
7. Draw the calibration curve by plotting temperature against weight in
arithmetic scale.

Determination of Specific Gravity:

Mix about 100 grams of soil with water in an evaporating dish to form ordinary
paste. The sample may be tested at its natural water content or is oven dried. Its weight
on an oven dry basis denoted by Ws shall be at least 25 grams. If it is tested at natural
water content, the oven-dry weight Ws shall be dispersed in distilled water before
testing with the use of the special dispersing apparatus specified in the hydrometer
test. If an oven-dried sample is used, it should be dried to constant weight at 110 oC,
cooled to room temperature and weighed. If the soil is cohesive, it shall be soaked in
distilled water for at least 12 hours.

1. Transfer carefully the sample to the calibrated pycnometer and add distilled
water until about ½ full. Avoid loss of soil during transfer if the weight has
been determined.
 2. Remove entrapped air by boiling to room temperature or to a temperature
within the range of the calibration curve of the pycnometer used for at least
10 minutes; roll occasionally pycnometer to assist in the removal of air.

3. Cool sample to room temperature within the range of the calibration curve of
the pycnometer used.

4. Fill pycnometer with distilled water as in (2), pycnometer calibration.

5. Dry the outside of the pycnometer as in (3), pycnometer calibration.

6. Weigh the pycnometer with water and soil to 0.01 grams and record as m 3.

7. Record temperature of contents to 0.01 oC as in (5), pycnometer calibration.

COMPUTAIONS:

m2 – m1
Gs = ----------------------------
(m4 – m1) – (m3 – m2)

Where:
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

m1 = Mass of empty Pycnometer

m2 = Mass of empty Pycnometer + Soil (dry)
m3 = Mass of empty Pycnometer + Soil + H2O
m4 = Mass of empty Pycnometer + H2O

GENERAL DATA:

Trial No.
M1 (Pycnometer)
M2 (Pycnometer + Soil )
M3 (Pycnometer + Soil +
Water)
M4 (Pycnometer + Water)
Gs (specific gravity of soil)

CALIBRATION CURVE
COMPUTATIONS:

DRAWING OF APPARAUS

GENERAL DISCUSSION:
The specific gravity of soil, Gs without any qualifications are taken to be the
average value for the soil grains. If numerical values are given in the discussion where it
may not be clear to what specific gravity is preferred, the magnitude of the values may
indicate the correct usage since the specific gravity of the soil grains may always be
larger than the bulk specific gravity based on inclusion of the sol voids in the
computation (either full of air or full of water or party full of water).

A value of specific gravity is necessary to compute the void ratio of the soil. If it is
used in the hydrometer analysis, and it is used to predict the unit weight of the soil
mineral classification, i.e., iron mineral have a larger value of specific gravity than silica.

The specific gravity of a substance divided by the weight of distilled water. Thus, f
one is considering only the soil grains, one obtains specific gravity Gs as:

Unit weight of soil solids

Gs = ----------------------------------------
Unit weight of water
 The specific gravity of the material can also be computed using any ratio of
weight of substance to weight of water as long as equal volumes are involved. Thus:

Ws / W
Gs = ---------------------
Ww / V

The problem consist of obtaining the volume of a known weight of soil grains and
dividing this by the weight of the same volume of water, i.e., applying the above
equation, since the form is easier to visualize as well as obtain values in the laboratory.
The volume weight of soil grains can be obtained by using a containers of known
volume and applying the Archimedes Principle ( that a boy submerged in a volume of
water will displace a volume of water equal to the volume of a submerged body). The
container of a known volume is a flask, which holds a standard volume of distilled water
at 20 oC. At temperatures above this value, it will be slightly more, if below 20 oC, it will
be slightly less.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION

Laboratory No. 8
TITLE: PERMEABILITY TESTS OF SOIL

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. glass tube 8. Moisture content cans
2. filter screen 9. Rubber tubing
3. overflow chamber 10. oven
4. permeability standpipe 11. Graduated cylinder
5. thermometer 12. Support frames and cans
6. stop watch 13. caliper
7. tamping device 14. Sieves

PROCEDURE:
1. Select a representative sample of air-dried soil Or sand containing less 10% of
particle passing the #200 sieve and equal in volume to twice amount for
filling the permeameter chamber (approximately 800 grams).
 2. Mix sufficient moisture into the soil to prevent segregation of particle sizes
during placing in the permeameter. The water content should be such that the
mixture flows freely to form layers.

3. Remove the chamber cap and upper chamber from the unit by unscrewing
the three-knurled cap nuts and lifting the units of the tie rods. Position one
porous stone on the support ring in the base of the chamber.

4. Using a scoop or funnel, pour the prepared specimen in a circular manner into
the lower to a depth of 1.5 cm so that a uniform layer is formed. Compact the
layer of soil to the desired density using an appropriate tamping device.
Repeat the procedure.

5. Fill the constant head container with water from the source to be used while
testing. A constant flow of water into the container will be required. Allow the
sample to saturate. Chamber must be filled with water.

6. Place a graduated cylinder to receive outflow from the chamber. Regulate the
flow of water into the constant head container such that the stable condition
with flow from both the overflow port and the chamber outflow line is
achieved.

7. Calculate the coefficient of permeability using the following equation:

QL
k = ---------------
TxHxA

Where: Q = discharge
L = length of soil sample
T = time
H = hydraulic head difference
A = area of soil sample

PROCEDURE:

1. Select a representative sample of the material to be tested and compact it in

the lower chamber section in layers approximately 1.5 cm deep to within 1
inch of lower chamber rim. Compaction may be accomplished to the desired
density using an appropriate tamping device.

2. Remove the upper section of the chamber tie rods, place the upper porous
stone on the specimen and secure the chamber head with spring to the unit.
Measure and record the specimen length.

3. Allow water to flow through the specimen until the constant flow condition is
observed. Till the permeameter standpipe with water with a temperature
between 5 to 10 o F above room temperature (care being taken not to be
disturbed sample). Record the height of water above the chamber outflow
port, the date and time. Place the moist cotton stopper on top of the pipe to
prevent evaporation.

4. Allow water to permeate through the sample until a minimum of 20 ml of flow

has occurred. Record the flow in ml the height of water column above the
chamber outflow port, and the data and time.

5. Calculate the coefficient of permeability using the following equation:

2.303 L a h1
 k = ----------------- --------- log10 ----------
T2 – T1 A h2

Where:
L = length
a = area of standpipe
A = area of soil sample
H1= initial head of water
H2= final head of water
T1 – T2= difference in time for water to flow from h1 to h2

GENERAL DISCUSSIONS:

It has been obtained that for a given soil sample, with corresponding length and
cross-sectional area also given, the rate of flow through the soil is linearly proportional
to the total head difference acting across the soil.

There are other variables that affect flow rate through the soil. For a given
sample of soil, if its length was doubled and thru experiments, it can be found out that
the quantity of flow had halved for each value of the total head difference. If the cross-
section was doubled, twice the flow rate over the range of the total head difference
would be obtained.

Thru Darcy’s law of flow, we can thus have an equation for the rate of flow Q
thru the soil in the following form:

Q k A (H1 - H2)
-------- = -----------------------------
T L

where:
A and L are the area and length of the soil respectively
H1 and H2 are the total heads acting across the ends of the sample.
K is the constant of proportionality relating the flow quantity to other
parameters.

If all factors are maintained constant, and only the soil type changed, it would be
found out that the linearity of the expression would be unaltered for a wide range of
soils. However, a fine-grained soil would give a small value for K, and a coarse grained
soil, a large value.

The constant K is called the constant of proportionality or the coefficient of

permeability of a soil, or commonly, the permeability and has the dimensions of a
velocity. A constant as defined includes in it the properties of viscosity and unit weight
in Engineering usage, since we concern ourselves on the flow of water alone, generally
over a range of temperatures, in which no significant variations in viscosity and unit
weight occurs.

Attempts have been made to derive a general expression for the coefficient of
permeability based on the size and shape of soil grains and pore spaces. We can see
however, that it is very difficult to describe a soil mathematically in this terms.
 More recently, attempts have been made to approach the permeability from
statistical point of view. However, it is safe to say further analytical point of view rests
upon empirical proof and the experimental determination of the value of K. This is done
by experimenting an undisturbed soil sample taken from the field for tests.

GENERAL DATA:

Constant Head Test

Test No H T (sec) L A Q K (cm/sec)

Falling Head Test

Test No H1 H2 T (sec) Q K (cm/sec)

Diameter of mold = ___________________________

Area of mold = ___________________________
Diameter of Standpipe = ____________________
Area of standpipe = ___________________________
Length of sample = ___________________________

COMPUTATIONS:
DRAWING OF APPARATUS:

Laboratory Work No. 9

TITLE: COMPACTION TEST

OBJECTIVE:

LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS:

1. compaction mold and hammer 7. Large mixing pan

2. moisture sprayer 8. Balance
3. no. 4 sieve 9. Drying oven
4. rubber-tipped pestle 10. Dissector
5. scoop 11. Moisture cans
6. straight edge and knife

PROCEDURE:

1. Weigh the mold to 0.01 lb.

2. Obtain a 6 lb. Representative specimen of the soil sample to be tasted. Break

sample with the use of rubber pestle and pass through no. 4 sieve.

3. Form a 2 to 3 inch layer using the soil passing through no. 4 sieve.

4. Press soil until it is smooth and compact it with specific no. of evenly
distributed blows of the hammer, using a one-foot drop, rotate the hammer to
insure a uniform distribution blows.

5. Repeat the same procedure for second and third layers seeing to it that a
uniform one-foot drop is maintained.
 6. After compaction of the top rim of the mold.

7. Remove the collar and trim off the soil from the top of the mold. Start
trimming along the center and work towards end of the mold.

8. After the soil has been mad even with the top of the mold and all the base soil
cleaned from the outside, weight the cylinder and sample to 0.01 lb.

9. Remove the soil from cylinder and obtain a representative sample of 100
grams for a water content determination. The water content sample should be
made up with specimens from the top, middle and bottom of the compacted
soil.

10.Break up by hand the soil removed from the cylinder and remix with original
sample and raise its water content by approximately 3% by adding water to
the sample with the sprayer. Mix the soil thoroughly and by weighing the
sprayer, before and after the spraying, the amount of water added is known.

11.Keep repeating procedure for 5 to 6 times until soil is sticky. Use 3%

approximate water content.

GENERAL DATA:

Trial No.
Wet density Determination
Weight if mold and wet soil
Weight of mold
Weight of wet soil
Wet density
Moisture determination
Weight of can + wet soil
Weight of can + dry soil

Weight of can

Weight of wet dry soil

Weight of water

Water content

Dry density

COMPUTATIONS:
DRAWING OF APPARATUS:

GENERAL DISCUSSIONS:

On structural earth fill projects, job specifications will indicate the soil density or
degree of compaction that must be achieved in order for the fill to be considered
satisfactory. The job specification requirements are typically based on the results of
laboratory compaction tests. (Actually, moisture density tests ) performs on
representative samples of soil to be use din the filling operation. The laboratory tests
determines the maximum density (or unit weight) for the soil, and the influence of
moisture content on obtaining that density.

The most widely used procedure for moisture – density testing consists of
compacting the soil layers in a cylindrical mode by using a drop hammer. For a
particular method, the mold will be specified, as will the weight and drop of the
compacting hammer. To establish the moisture-density relationship for a soil, separate
samples are each compacted at different water contents. Each sample is compacted in
the same manner (same volume, same number of layers, same compaction energy).
The compacted dry density and water content for each trial is then determined by
weighing and drying the soil.

A comparison of results obtained from all the samples will reveal that the dry
densities are different. This is caused by the variation in water content present during
the compaction process. It should not be expected however, that compaction will result
in a no void space condition for the soil primarily because of the irregular shapes and
various sizes of soil particles.

REMARKS AND CONCLUSION: