lADC/SPE

lADC/SPE 29408

Minimization Of Formation Damage, Filter

Cake Deposition, & Stuck Pipe
Potential In Horizontal Wells Through The Use of Time-Independent
Viscoelastic Yield Stress Fluids & Filtrates

John ,W. Powell and Mike P. Stephens, Ph.D, M-1 Drilling Fluids Co, L. L.C.,
J, Mac Seheult, Thomas Sifferman, Ph. D., & John Swazey, Kelco

permeability, without formation damage.

ABSTRACT

IMPACT ON HORIZONTAL DRILL-IN PROGRAM

Over 60 horizontal wells have been drilled and
completed with slotted liners in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska
The over 60 wells drilled-in with the VETIP fluid have
using a low solids or solids-free clarified xanthan/brine
collectively higher well productivity indexes than
drill-in fluid. As previously described the drill-in fluid
conventional wells or previous horizontal wells drilled
demonstrates a functional true yield stress (TYSI in the
with oil muds or sized-salt fluids.’ With conventional
circulating fluid.’ The yield stress is also present in the
fluids, the inadequate removal of filter cakes has been
filtrate. limiting depth of filtrate invasion. The fluid has
documented as the major source of skin damage and
been further described as being viscoelastic (VEI under
restricted well inflow in uncemented horizontal wells
stat!c conditions and at the low shear rates exisiting in
completed with slotted liners.2 The absence of filter
an expanded plug flow region. This plug flow region is
cake clean-u~ or removal problems, combined with the
persistent over a wide range of flow rates and is a
minimization of operational problems normally
function of polvmer concentration and brine salinitv.
associated with drilling horizontal and ERD wells, has
The exhibits both time-indepent and pseudoplastic
lowered horizontal well drilling and completion costs,
properties at higher shear rates (TIP), Collectively the
Lower well construction costs combined with improved
viscoelastic, time-independent pseudoplastic fluid
initial production rates lowers cosl/bbl. Accelerated
rheology is abbreviated as VETIP.’ Fluid performance
recoverv and increased total recovery has the potential
has correlated to excellent well productivity, lack of
to improve well value and return on investment.
formation damage. minimization of stuck pipe and
Currently, there is an expanding horizontal drill-in
IIners, minimization of filter cake deposition and the lack
program which may help extend the drilling life of North
of mud cake clean-up or removal problems, improved
America’s largest oilfield.
cost-effectiveness, and apparent improvements in
present and long term well values,

BACKGROUND
Lack of formation damage, near-zero stuck pipe
incidence rates, and minimization of filter cake removal
Diesel oil based drilling muds were used in Prudhoe
problems are attributed to a functional true yield stress
BaV, Alaska, for drilling and completing horizontal wells
(TYS) in the circulating fluid and filtrate. The yield
with slotted Imers until 1991. These systems posed
stress is measurable with oscillatory (Rheometrics),
significant environmental risks during transfers and
capillary, constant stress, and very low shear rate
handling for obvious reasons. Poor hole cleaning and
rotational viscometers. New field and laboratory data
residual oil mud filter cake caused liner running
correlate well to the yield stress measurements. The
problems and production facility upsets. Poor
yield stress of the filtrate declines with time, thermal
productivity from high skin damage was experienced
degradation, biodegradation, and is quickly broken with
with these systems causing as little as 2(IYo of the
hypochlorite breaker, restoring original
horizontal wellbore to contribute to production as
measured bv production logs.’
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 2 MVC/SPE 2940&

The VETIP drill-in fluid has solved the operational and FLUID INVASION: TECHNICAL CONCEPTS
formation damage problems. Horizontal wells are now
more cost-effective, opening up additional infill and ERD The ability of viscoelastic fluids to control seepage
bottom hole locations which could not be as losses and depth of invasion into permeable sandstone
economically drilled and completed with conventional matrix is fundamentally based on a practical application
wells. The horizontal wells drilled-in with the VETIP of Darcy’s Law. As the fluid, or filtrate, radially
fluid have demonstrated the following operational and migrates from the well bore into the formation, its
production results: velocity and shear rate is inversely proportional to the
distance from the wellbore, described as:
● Increased Pls by reducing or eliminating skin
damage from residual filter cakes or filtrate
invasion . . . . . . (1)

● Significantly reduced environmental risk

Where: V, = radial filtrate velocitv
● Improved hole cleaning, eliminating cuttings Q = Volumetric flow rate, ft’ /hr
beds h = height, ft
r = radius, ft
● Improved wellbore stability
● Increased ROP: Over 50%3, average ROPS of Velocity of the fluid will also be influenced by the
over 150 ft/hr in 6“ hole @ 250 gal/rein, and as xanthan’s ability to develop a functional TYS. The
high as 200 ft/hr, have been achieved without viscosity versus shear rate profile (Fig. 1 ) demonstrates
cuttings beds or affecting torque & drag an asymptotic viscosity increase as shear rate
decreases, while Figure 2 [A & B) shows the presence
● Lower torque, drag, and pump pressures of a yield slress under static conditions. Boger” also
demonstrates, “a logarithmic plot of apparern viscosity
~ 15-30°A reductions in pump pressure versus shear rate, which has a slope of -1 over a range
of low shear rates is indicative of the existence of a
~ 20-40% reductions in torque without yield stress. Alternatively, one may plot the log of
lubricants apparent viscosity versus log shear stress to
demonstrate the presence of the yield stress as the
● Improved Bit Hydraulics lower stress limit at which the apparent viscosity tends
> ‘A HHP @ bit @I constant flow rate to infinity. ” Studies with ceramic cores have indicated
that the flow characteristics of xanthan solutions in
● Near-zero stuck pipe incidence porous media are dominated by shear rheology as
opposed to extensional viscosit~’, explained here in
● Over 99”A of the drilled hole has been covered terms of low shear rheology and viscoelastic yield
with slotted liner with fewer pull and rerun stress.
problems
The yield stress of xanthan fluids has been used by one
North Sea Operator to control excessive fluid losses
BASIC FOCUS OF NEW LABORATORY AND FIELD and persistent stuck pipe problems experienced while
INVESTIGATIONS drilling high permeability zones. Tourney,” reports that
viscoelastic yield stress filtrate fluid was used to control
Additional laboratory and field investigations have been hole washout and depth of filtrate invasion. He reports
conducted to establish positive performance that the 5-10 Darcy Eocene sands in the North Sea are
correlations to the VETIP flow behavior of the drill-in poorly consolidated and prone to washouts even when
fluid and the resultant functional yield stress (TYS). drilled with low API fluid loss oil muds. changing to a
Theoretical, analytical, and field data are presented to xanthan drill-in fluid with effective polymer
explain the minimization of formation damage, filter concentration to develop a functional yield stress,
cake deposition, filtrate invasion, and stuck pipe controlled filtrate inva;ion and delivered guage
potential. wellbores,

Figure 3 shows a Fluids Classifications Tree and reveals

 lAVC/SPE 2940LI 3

why inconsistent results are often obtained from fluid When the shear stress drops below the yield stress as
models based on Power-Law or Bingham Plastic Fluids. the yield stress filtrate leaks off, filtrate invasion will
Conventional drilling fluids exhibit properties that fit stop. This has been observed in one rig drilling
both time-dependent thixotropic fluids, and complex operation on 100-1000 md sand, using a clear, solids-
fluids. Under static conditions, time-dependency free xanthan/brine drill-in f Iuid. It has also been
develops due to dehydration effects causing recently employed on 2 CTU horizontal drill-ins, where
temperature gelation, and due to progressive solids where drilled solids were kept below 3 lb/bbl with
reassociation of shear-dependent electrochemical aggressive centrifuging. There were no detectable fluid
associations between reactive solids and organic losses and no stuck pipe. Stuck pipe had been a
additives. While breaking circulation these fluids exhibit problem when using crude to drill underbalanced and
ver~ complex behavior, as the associations between when using a solids laden system in an over balance
gelled solids are broken down. The hysteresis between situation on the previous 10 CTU jobs. The solids-free
static and sheared rheology profiles increases with system @ 75,000 CPS improved ROPS and solved [he
reactive solids content, especially bentonite, giving persistent operational problems for these CTU drilling
them their characteristic thixotropy. However, their operations.
expected performance is extrapolated from calculations
derived from time-independent fluid calculations. The The mathematical explanation of yield stress controlling
VETIP xanthan drill-in fluid is a combination of filtrate invasion is explained by the following
viscoelastic, time-independent pseudoplastic behavior relationships:
delivering fluid performance that lies well outside the
approximations made with existing hydraulics and ECD No flow when:
calculations.

Figure 4 compares direct (G’) yield stress

Y=O, TCTY . . . . . . . . (2)
measurements to a insert table of LSRV and
extrapolated conventional Farm Yield Points. From Fig
2-B, Fluid C with an LSRV of 91,800, extrapolates to a Shear flow when:
Yield Stress Value of 37 dyneslcm’ which correlates
C-ry+r-)ply, rzry . . . . . . . . (3)
well with the measured G’ of about the same value at
a deformation rate of O. 1 sec’. Whereas the
extrapolated YP of 34 lbs/1 00ft7 converts to a yield
stress of 162 dynes/cm>. The correlations for Fluid invasion can also be explained as a function of
extrapolated YPs for HEC fluid are even more inverse to LSRV, when, as shear rate approaches zero, viscosity
the direct measurement, with an extrapolated Farm YP becomes infinite and filtrate leakoff becomes zero for a
of 145 (694 dynes/cm2, and a direct yield stress practical time scale:
measurement of 0.3 dynes/cm Z! Two other techniques
using the direct 3 rpm reading for YP, or calculating the
YP from the 3 and 6 rpm readings cut the the error to . . . . . . . . (5)
about 2-3 times the direct yield stress measurement
and the extrapolated Brookfield value.

The data clearly validates the good reliable correlations At infinite viscosity this reduces to:
obtainable with the Brookfield low-shear-rate-viscosity
measurements ~LSRV) to determine yield stress of vf’~ ........(5)
VETIP fluids. As pointed out in SPE 25767, careful P
measurements must be taken under standardized
conditions. The ultra-low shear rates make the
measurement valid only for time-independent fluids.
Extrapolated Farm YPs become even less valid for time-
dependen~ fluids which show no yield stress when
sheared (Fig 5). As shown later, observed field COMPARISON OF LEAKOFF RESULTS AND “RETURN
performance, filtrate invasion logs, and Triaxial PERMEABILITIES VERSUS TEST CONDITIONS: LINEAR
laboratory tests correlated well to the yield stresses VS RADIAL FLOW
extrapolated from LSRV measurements.
 4 I#CjSPE 29408

Laboratory investigations were conducted to find valid The FRT was also employed to determine the extent
test conditions which correlate to fluid field and depth of permeability impairment when using the
performance. Conventional tests, under static VETIP drill-in fluid with solids loading of 20 lb/bbl
conditions with API filtrale testers, or static or dynamic comprised of 10 Ibs each of calcium carbonate and rev-
core tests, will always indicate the presence of a filter dust. This is typical of the solids loading seen in the
cake regardless of fluid type or solids content. This was drill-in fluid while drilling the referenced wells. A 200
found to be due to the linear flow conditions under md core, measuring 1 in. by 10 in. long, was loaded
constant flow rate or constant pressure imposed on the into the FRT. The fluid was pushed against the core
fluids during these test procedures. with 200 psi for 1 hour at 120°F, Monitoring the
seven pressure taps along the length of the core
The API test is a 2 dimensional test. The permeability allowed the determination of depth of impairment and
of the Whatman #50 paper is so low (3u) that it pressure dissipation. Figures 6-7 illustrate pressure
induces the formation of a filter cake, even with drop recorded at the first pressure tap, 0.83 in. into the
clarified xanthan, unless the fluid is absolutely solids- core, along with pressure build-up ar the core face, and
free and has been carefully prepared. Either the fluid effluent collected for the first 10 minutes of the test.
must be pre-filtered or chemically hydrated and pre- The test provides a demonstration of the spurt loss,
filtered to assure injectivity without forming a polymer followed by filter cake deposition (under static
skin on the filter paper. Once a polymer skin is formed conditions) and pressure dissipation at the frontal
under static filtration conditions, the filtrate viscosity section of the core. This is not unlike the normal
rapidly declines. Similar anifacts are created by core expected result with conventional fluid filter cake
tests which simulate simple line drive linear flow, under deposition in linear laboratory as well as field results.
constant imposed pressure or constant imposed shear
rate. Regardless of whether linear core floods are After confinement, brine permeability was taken in the
conducted under static or dynamic flow conditions same direction as initial permeability to determine
across the face of the core plug, even pre-fikered reduction due to solids/fluid invasion prior to applying
polvmer forms a skin at the core face. Under our test a breaker. Two breaker systems were applied;
conditions it only averaged about 0.8”’ in depth and ammonium persulfate and lithium hypochlorite.
was easily removed by breakers. (Figs 6,7,8) Breakers were applied in the same direction as the
polymer fluid. Based on the data collected, it was
Under these conditions the VETIP yield stress fluids determined that permeability reduction took place
never see the reduction in shear rate which occurs in primarily in the first 0.8 in. of the core (47-50°A return)
radial flow. The shear rate reduction, as was pointed as opposed to 92 to 95°A return for the remaining
out earlier is necessary for development of the length.
exponential increases in viscosity, development of yield
stress and resistance to flow in its static gel state. The permeability impairment, under static conditions
Figure 9 shows how filtrate invasion radial tests mimics conventional testing and thinking: put down an
correlate with field results rather than linear core tests. impermeable filter cake and find a way to remove it.
As was discussed earlier, Browne and Smith have
DISCUSSION OF LABORATORY TEST CONDITIONS defined filter cake removal as a serious problem in open
hole uncemented slotted liner completions. Ongoing
A Formation Response Tester (FRT) was used to studies and a new CEA 73 Study is attacking this
measure the impact of LSRV and differential flow problem. However, field performance and Triaxial
pressure on flow rate through a 10“ core plug. Two testing show that this conventional type of filter cake
fluids were used, xanthan with an LSRV of 80,000 CP deposition and solids invasion damage with the VETIP
@ 0.3 rpm (Brookfield LVDV-11, #2 SS cylindrical yield stress drill-in fluid is an artifact of the linear
spindle], and HEC with an LSRV of 1,500 cP. At a testing versus the radial conditions in the wellbore.
differential pressure of 200 psi, the xanthan fluid Triaxial testing, well inflow data, and field performance
flowed at a greater rate, corresponding to its lower have confirmed that this fluid deposits a minimal or
viscosity at high shear rates. As pressure dropped non-existent filter cake in the wellbore. This lack of
below 30 psi, flow rate of the xanthan fluid was filter cake deposition is further optimized by running
significantly lower than the cellulosic fluid (Fig. 71, solids-free fluids and keepi~g solids at a minimal level
correlating well with the earlier figures showing yield with high speed centrifuges. Under 10 lb/bbi has been
stress comparisons. attained while drilling 2,400 ft. of 6 in. hole and under
3 lb/bbl while drilling 4.5 in. hole with a CT unit,
 lAVC?SPE 29408 5

Figure 10 compare solids-free xanthan brine system results were described by Stephens and published in
filtrate invasion with new and used xanthan brine drill-in SPE 25767. The second set of linear core tests were
fluids containing starch, calcium carbonate and drilled run on the FRT with protocol and results explained
solids. earlier.

Triaxial dynamic testing was used to simulate more While conventional fluids rely on bridging and tough,
realistic radial flow wellbore conditions. The Triaxial impermeable filter cakes to control filtrate invasion and
tests confirmed the absence of filter cake deposition in differential sticking, filter cake removal has not been
both solids-free and solids-laden VETIP y’ield stress fluid solved for these systems. Uneven well inflow
systems. A reduced rate of leakoff corresponded with performance can cause early gas and water coning
increasing polymer concentration and LSRV and also problems as well as compromised rate and cumulative
with a reduction in solids. The solids-free systems recovery. Remedial options are restricted with
allow leakoff of higher polymer filtrate concentrations uncemented, open hole, slotted liner, and pre-packed
which thicken faster as shear rate drops with increasing liner completions. To optimize their production benefits
distance from the wellbore. The absence of filter cake the wellbore must be completed in a non-damaged
deposition is unique to the VETIP yield stress fluids. In manner,
a recent anicle on conventional drill-in fluids, it was
stated that at least 50 lb/bbl of appropriately sized Maintaining wellbore stability while drilling shales at
bridging materials are required to form an adequate high angles and for extended periods of time
high-quality filter cake. The VETIP yield stress fluids necessitates that the fluid be inhibitive to these shales.
are run with and without solids. Minimum calcium The drill-in fluid utilizes KCI and NaCl to accomplish part
carbonate is added to new fluids, while the solids-free of this inhibition. The viscosified filtrate also plays a
systems are aggressively centrifuged to keep drill solids role. Early work done by Chenevert (SPE 2401)
as low as possible with actual field results described showed xanthan to inhibit shale hydration. At effective
earlier. For comparison a conventional HEC viscosified concentrations, xanthan has inhibited problem shales in
fluid system was tested and readily deposited a filter rolling tests, and inhibited bentonite pellets for over 6
cake. months. Field results include the trouble-free drilling of
problem shales at angles over 94 degrees and at high
It is not well-known that a non-damaging fluid system build rates. The wellbores are often open for extended
can be designed to minimize filter cake deposition and periods due to directional drilling changes to stay within
at the same time reduce filtrate invasion and prevent the target sands.
differential sticking. Please note that the Triaxial tests
showed a more rapid filtrate leakoff with the fluids REFERENCES
having lower API filtrate control. API filtrate in
conventional fluid systems is essentially Newtonian 1. Beck, Powell, & Zamora: “A Clarified Xanthan Drill-In
with no yield stress that increases with decreasing Fluid For Prudhoe Bay Horizontal Wells, SPE 25767.
shear rate. As mentioned above, conventional fluid 2, Browne, Smith: “ Mudcake Cleanup to Enhance
design is to deposit a tight filter cake, with a Productivity of High-Angle Wells, SPE27350.
permeability ranging as low as 10“s to 10-g Darcies, 3. Beck, Powell, Zamora, Turner: “The Effect of
excluding polymer from the filtrate. Rheology on The Rate of Penetration, SPE 29368.
4. Boger, Nguyen: “Measuring The Flow Properties of
(INSERT STEVE ROBINSON’S FILTRATE INVASION Yield Stress Fluids. -
WRITE-UP AND RESULTS OF FIL-INV LOGS) 5. Ranjbar: “Polymer Flow in Porous Media. ”
6. Tourney: ‘Darcy’s Law & Others. -
FORMATION DAMAGE

Well inflow data has indicated there is little or no skin

damage in these wells, which compares to skins of 2-
11 for other conventional oilbased and waterbased drill-
in fluids. The non-damaging nature of the VETIP yield
stress fluid is well-documented with field results and
with conventional return permeability tests. Two types
of tests were run. The first used conventional 1” short
cores, testing low solids fluids.’ Test protocol and
 VISCOSITY VS SHEAR RATE FLOW PROFILE

VISCOSIW, cps (Thousands)

250

200

150 FANN RPMS

-SRV @ ● 36

100 (------------’-
b
).064 SEC-1 ,
●
50
●

0
10 0,1 1 10 100
LOG SHEAR RATE,see-l

ASYMPTOTIC LSRV INDICATES A TYS

Figu.ke
1
 o
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o 0 0 0
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ml
 SHEAR STRESSVS SHEAR RATE

SHEAR STRESS, dynes/cm2

60 ●
●

50
-0
40 , .-’ -
k“

30

20
0 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
SHEAR RATE, see-l

TYS EXTRAPOLATIONOF NEAR-ZEROSHEAR STRESS MEASUREMENT

Fi.guhe
2%
 Fluid Classifications
viSCOUS Fluid

v v
‘ Newtonian Non-Newtonian
r Fluid
I Fluid
I I
1 I 1 1
+

Time
Time VIsco-Elastic Complex
Dependent
Independent Fluid Fluid
Fluid

lrqcLwE5 EsElm
Newtonian
I
Pseudo-PlanSic DilatantFluids
I_ + Fluid Fluids n> 1
I n=l I n< 1 I I
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 FRT Return Permeability Studies - A
Drilling fluid flood at 200 psi for 1 hour

Drilling Fluid Contained 2.2 PPB Clarified Zanthan,

10 PPB Rev-Dust, 10 PPB ID Carb, and 2% KCI

400 mD Core, unfired Berea Sandstone

Core: d=O.99 inch (2.52 cm): L= 10.08 inch (25.6 cm)

Core Length Initial Perm Return Perm Return Perm

No Breaker LIOCI Breaker

0-0.8” I 374~64mD I 47.4% I 56.9%

(),8’’- 1(’)” I 445~64mD I 91 .9% I 93m6%

0.1 ()” 437~19mD 84.4% 88.2%

 FRT Return Permeability Studies - B
Drilling fluid flood at 200 psi for 1 hour

Driliing Fluid Contained 2.2 PPB Clarified Zanthan,

10 PPB Rev-Dust, 10 PPB iD Carb, and 2% KCI

200 mD Core, unfired Berea Sandstone

Core: d=O.99 inch (2.52 inch); L=9.94 inch (25.25 cm)

Core Length Initial Perm ~0 Return Perm % Return Perm

No Breaker LIOCI Breaker

0-0.8” 206 +41 mD 49.8% 65.9%

(),8”+ ()” 194~9mD 95.6% 93.8%

().1 ()” 195~9mD 89.2% 90.8%

 Return Permeability Tests

D= Diesel F= Filtrate M=Whole Mud B= LiOCL Breaker

CA(C03) Sized For Measured Average Pore Throats of 60-100 Microns

Tight Core Average Core High Perm Core

K-initial 12.2 MD (D) 112.44 MD (D) 133.4 MD (D)
K-Return 7.5 MD (M) 63.51 (F) 96.5 MD (F)
%’o Return (D) 61.5%-o 56.5% 72.33%
K-Return 9.7 MD (B) 116.7 MD (B)
!XO Return (B) 79.570 87.5%
Calculated Skin 0.46 (B) 5.1 (F) 0.25 (B)
PTI Measured Skin -0.5 to +0.5
 Radial, Theoretical, & Linear Filtrate Invasion

Radial Theoretical Linear

(measured) (calculated) (measured)

Ciarified 3/8” , *t, , ~11

Xanthan
80,000LSRV

Test Conditions 30 min 30 min <1 min

100 psi 475 psi 50 psi

Core Perm 500 md 500 md 200 md

FiguAe 9
 Drill-In Fluid Depth Of Filtrate (Di)
Invasion Characterlstlcs of VariousFLO-PRO
Systems
AsMeasuredBy4 PhaseReslstivlty
Tools

MPJ-08: Solids-Free Fluld Formulation - (w/o CaCo ~/starch)(New Fluid, LSRV 75,000)
Time DI using S~ M~ & DP
O-5 hrs o-1o“
40 hrs MAD 30-40”
Time DI using X~ S~ & DP
O-5 hrs 15“
40 hrs MAD 25”
Q-05A: Fluld FLO-PRO Formulation - (w/l 5 ppb CaC03 /starch)(New FluId, LSRV 75,000 cp)
Time DI using SE M~ & DP .

O-5 hrs 30”

18 hrs MAD x 40” (10,975’ -11 ,052’)
S-02A: Fluld FLO-PRO Formulation - (w/CaC03 /starch)(Used Fluld w~drllledsolids)
Time DI using S~ M~ & DP
O-2 hrs 30’
15 hrs MAD 50’
20-25 hrs MAD 40-80’

Fi.guke 10