Chapter 2- LAND CLASSIFICATION AND SOIL CONDITION report in CE511

II. LAND CLASSIFICATION AND SOIL CONDITION

1. Land classification

Land classification shows, in a general way, the suitability of soils for most kinds of field crops.
The soils are grouped according to their limitations for field crops, the risk of damage if they are
used for crops, and the way they respond to management. The criteria used in grouping the soils
do not include major and generally expensive land forming that would change slope, depth, or
other characteristics of the soils, nor do they include possible but unlikely major reclamation
projects.

In the capability system, soils are generally grouped

 Capability class
 Subclass

Capability classes, the broadest groups, are designated by the numbers 1 through 8. The numbers
indicate progressively greater limitations and narrower choices for practical use. The classes are
defined as follows:

 Class 1 soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.

 Class 2 soils have moderate limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require
moderate conservation practices.
 Class 3 soils have severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require
special conservation practices, or both.
 Class 4 soils have very severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require
very careful management, or both.
 Class 5 soils are subject to little or no erosion but have other limitations, impractical to
remove, that restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
 Class 6 soils have severe limitations that make them generally unsuitable for cultivation
and that restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
 Class 7 soils have very severe limitations that make them unsuitable for cultivation and
that restrict their use mainly to grazing, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
 Class 8 soils and miscellaneous areas have limitations that preclude commercial plant
production and that restrict their use to recreational purposes, wildlife habitat, watershed,
or esthetic purposes.

Capability subclasses are soil groups within one class. They are designated by adding a small
letter, e, w, s, or c, to the class numeral, for example, 2e.

 e shows that the main hazard is the risk of erosion unless close-growing plant cover is
maintained.
 w shows that water in or on the soil interferes with plant growth or cultivation.
 s shows that the soil is limited mainly because it is shallow, droughty, or stony.

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 c, used in only some parts of the United States, shows that the chief limitation is climate
that is very cold or very dry.

2. Arable land and irrigable land

Arable land (from Latin arabilis, "able to be plowed") is, according to one definition, land
capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. In Britain, it was traditionally contrasted
with pasturable land such as heaths which could be used for sheep-rearing but not farmland.

A quite different kind of definition is used by various agencies concerned with agriculture. In
providing statistics on arable land, the FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization) and the World
Bank[2] use the definition offered in the glossary accompanying
FAOSTAT(FAO Statistical Databases): Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural
crops, temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and
land temporarily fallow (plowed but left unsown for a period in order to restore its fertility as
part of a crop rotation or to avoid surplus production.).

A more concise definition appearing in the Eurostat glossary similarly refers to actual, rather
than potential use: "land worked (ploughed or tilled) regularly, generally under a system of crop
rotation."

Irrigable lands

Irrigation refers to the artificial application of water to assist in the growing of crops, trees and
pastures. This can be done by letting water flow over the land (surface irrigation), by spraying
water under pressure over the land concerned (sprinkler irrigation), or by bringing it directly to
the plant (localized irrigation).

Area equipped for irrigation

 Worldwide, in 2012 over 324 million hectares are equipped for irrigation, of which
about 85 percent or 275 million ha are actually irrigated.
 Irrigated agriculture represents 20 percent of the total cultivated land, but contributes 40
percent of the total food produced worldwide.
 In Asia, At present, 41 percent of the cultivated land is under irrigation against 26
percent in 1970,
 The greatest potential for expanding irrigated agriculture, considering both land and
water resources, is in the Sub-Saharan Africa region, where only one fifth of the
irrigation potential has been equipped, or 7.7 million ha out of a potential of 38 million

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ha, and in the Southern America region, where only one fourth of the potential has been
equipped, or 16 million ha out of a potential of 60 million ha.
 The Asian continent, with almost 230 million ha equipped for irrigation, represents just
over 70 percent of the irrigation area worldwide. Almost 60 percent of these 220 million
ha—or 42 percent of the world total—is located in only two countries, China and India,
where also almost 40 percent of the world population is located.
 In Europe the part of area equipped for irrigation actually irrigated, 65 percent, is low
compared to the rest of the world. This is due to a moderate climate in a large part
which allows agriculture to benefit from the available precipitation and thus not always
needing to be irrigated.
 Localized and sprinkler irrigation account for about 14 percent of the total area
equipped for irrigation worldwide.
 Sprinkler irrigation equips more than 35 million ha in 2010.
 China is the country with the largest area equipped for irrigation, 69.4 million ha,
immediately followed by India with 66.7 million ha. Outside the Asian continent, the
countries with the largest irrigation areas are: the United States of America with 26.4
million ha, Italy in Europe with 3.95 million ha, Egypt in Africa with 3.65 million ha
and Australia in Oceania with 2.55 million ha.
 Irrigation is not limited only to the dry periods of the year. In numerous countries,
supplementary irrigation is also taking place during the rainy season—for example in
Myanmar for rice cultivation—to make up rainfall deficits during critical stages of the
crops in order to stabilize or increase yields.
 At least 111 million ha equipped for irrigation use a pump for water supply from the
source to the field.

3. Classes of land
The land class indicates the general capability of land for irrigation use in its present
state. Land classes are based upon the rating and assessment of soil and topographic features that
affect the suitability of land for irrigation. The land class represents a grouping of sub-classes
that have the same relative degree of limitations or hazards for irrigation use

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 Class 1 - irrigable: Land in this class is excellent for irrigated agriculture with no
significant limitations. Class 1 land is capable of producing a sustained and a relatively
high yield of a wide range of climatically adapted crops. The soils are of a medium
texture, well drained, and hold adequate available moisture. Harmful accumulations of
soluble salts are absent. This class is suitable for irrigation by gravity and sprinkler
methods.

 Class 2 - irrigable: Land in this class is good irrigation land with moderate limitations. A
narrower range of crops or slightly more input to development and management may be
required for Class 2 land than for Class 1. The limitations of Class 2 land are less
acceptable than those of Class 1. They can be maintained or possibly improved with
proper management. The soils in this class may have low hydraulic conductivity due to
fine texture or adverse structure. The available water holding capacity may be lower as
reflected by the coarser texture or limited soil depth. Salinity levels may be low to
moderate. Drain ability may be somewhat restricted. Class 2 land may be level to gently
sloping or undulating to hummocky. Land in this class is suitable for irrigation by gravity
and sprinkler methods or by sprinkler methods only.

 Class 3 - irrigable: Land in this class is fair for irrigation. Limitations of this land under
irrigation are moderately severe. The deficiencies may be due to either a serious single
factor or a combination of several limitations in soil and/or topographic features. The
soils may be inferior because of excess salinity, sodicity, very low hydraulic
conductivity, or low water holding capacity. Subsurface drainability or surface drainage
may be restricted. The range of crops that could consequently be grown may be
restricted. A greater management input, such as light, frequent irrigations or more
intensive soil conservation and improvement practices, may be required than for Class 2
land. Land in this class is suitable for. irrigation by gravity and sprinkler methods or by
sprinkler methods only.

 Class 4 - irrigable (restricted): Land in this class has severe limitations for irrigation and
requires special crop, soil, and water management practices. Limitations of Class 4 land
may include moderate to strong slopes or small irregularly shaped fields.

 Class 5R - temporarily irrigable (undergoing reclamation): Land undergoing reclamation

after the implementation of an appropriate improvement, such as drainage or canal lining.
Class 5R land shall be added to the assessment roll as acres subject to a terminable
agreement, for the purpose of promoting reclamation. Class 5R land shall be reviewed
after the land has undergone reclamation for five irrigation seasons, after which the land
shall be upgraded to an irrigable class (Class 1, 2, 3, or 4) if it meets the requirements, or
remain as Class 5R for an additional 5 years. If significant improvement has not been
achieved within a 10-year period to upgrade the land to an irrigable class, then the land

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shall be rated Land Class 6, nonirrigable . Land in this class is suitable for irrigation by
gravity and sprinkler methods or by sprinkler methods only.

 Class 5 -nonirrigable (pending): Land in this class is considered not suitable for irrigation
under existing conditions, but has sufficient potential to warrant segregation for additional
investigation or improvement. The limitations of Class 5 may include one, or more, of the
following:
1. poor drainability,
2. a high water table,
3. very poor soil structure,
4. excess salinity and/or sodicity.

Two subclasses are recognized in LAND CLASS 5:

1. Class 5 - Nonirrigable, pending a more detailed investigation. Limitations are such that a more
detailed soil, drainability or land development feasibility study may be required.

2. Class 5 - Nonirrigable, pending the implementation of an improvement. An improvement such

as canal lining or improved surface or subsurface drainage may be required to upgrade this land
to an irrigable class or Class 5R.

Class 5 is a tentative land class - changed to either an irrigable class or rated Class 6,
nonirrigable, upon completion of the detailed study or implementation of an improvement. The
topography of this land may range from level to moderately sloping, simple, or complex slopes.

 Class 6 - nonirrigable: This class may consist of steep, rough-broken, or badly eroded land,
or land having soils of very poor structure, very coarse texture, excess salinity and/or
sodicity, poor drainage, shallow soils over gravel or bedrock, or other deficiencies not
feasible to improve. Class 6 land may also include Land Classes 1 to 5 which cannot be
separated out due to small size.

4. Factors that affect the classification of land for irrigation

. The standard for land classification for irrigation should include several
criteria/factors:
 Soil
o Permanent factors
o Changeable factors

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 Topography
 Availability of water
 Climate
 Predicted response to irrigation
Soil factors such as parent material, texture, effective soil depth, water holding capacity,
and drainability are considered as the permanent land features.

Changeable factors include fertility, drainage, groundwater, salt content (salinity level),
soil pH, and erodibility. Soil structure may be modified by physical and chemical processes.
Relocation and chemical changes in soluble salts may occur as a result of irrigation. Micro -
relief and characteristics of the oil profile can be altered by land forming, stone and brush
removal, drainage, subsidence, or by increased erosion due to irrigation.

Topographic features include size and shape of fields, relief, stoniness, earth moving
requirement, bush/tree cover, surface drainage requirement. These features are important
because they determine the irrigation method. Topographic features also affect irrigation
efficiency, labor requirement, cost of land development, drainage, erosion, etc.

Land classification for irrigation also involves predicting how land will respond after
development and the application of irrigation water. The land classes must reflect the
predicted land–water–crop interaction. This principle of prediction recognizes that irrigation
shifts the natural balance, established over time, between water, land, vegetation, fauna, and
humans. If land is to be irrigated, it should be permanently productive under the changes
anticipated with irrigation.

5. Soil

What is Soil?

Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and countless organisms that
are the decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the surface of land – it is the “skin of
the earth.” Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on earth.

Soil performs many critical functions in almost any ecosystem (whether a farm, forest, prairie,
marsh, or suburban watershed). There are seven general roles that soils play:

1. Soils serve as media for growth of all kinds of plants.

2. Soils modify the atmosphere by emitting and absorbing gases (carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapor, and the like).
3. Soils provide habitat for animals that live in the soil (such as groundhogs and mice) to
organisms (such as bacteria and fungi), that account for most of the living things on Earth.
4. Soils absorb, hold, release, alter, and purify most of the water in terrestrial systems.
5. Soils process recycled nutrients, including carbon, so that living things can use them over and
over again.

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6. Soils serve as engineering media for construction of foundations, roadbeds, dams and
buildings, and preserve or destroy artifacts of human endeavors.
7. Soils act as a living filter to clean water before it moves into an aquifer.
.

Soil Profile

There are different types of soil, each with its own set of characteristics. Dig down deep into any
soil, and you’ll see that it is made of layers, or horizons (O, A, E, B, C, R). Put the horizons
together, and they form a soil profile. Like a biography, each profile tells a story about the life of
a soil.

The horizons are:

O – (humus or organic) Mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves. The O horizon
is thin in some soils, thick in others, and not present at all in others.
A - (topsoil) Mostly minerals from parent material with organic matter incorporated. A
good material for plants and other organisms to live.
E – (eluviated) Leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter, leaving a concentration of
sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials – missing in some soils but
often found in older soils and forest soils.
B – (subsoil) Rich in minerals that leached (moved down) from the A or E horizons and
accumulated here.
C – (parent material) The deposit at Earth’s surface from which the soil developed.
R – (bedrock) A mass of rock such as granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone or sandstone that
forms the parent material for some soils – if the bedrock is close enough to the surface to
weather. This is not soil and is located under the C horizon.

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Soil types

Soil is a natural resource that can be categorized into different soil types, each with distinct
characteristics that provide growing benefits and limitations.

Soil can be categorized into sand, clay, silt, peat, chalk and loam types of soil based on the
dominating size of the particles within a soil.

Sandy soil – are light, warm, dry and tend to be acidic and low in nutrients.
Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to their high proportion of
sand and little clay (clay weighs more than sand). These soils have quick
water drainage and are easy to work with. They are quicker to warm up in
spring than clay soils but tend to dry out in summer and suffer from low
nutrients that are washed away by rain. The addition of organic matter can
help give plants an additional boost of nutrients by improving the nutrient
and water holding capacity of the soil.

Clay soil – are heavy soils that benefit from high nutrients. Clay soils
remain wet and cold in winter and dry out in summer. These soils are made
of over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces found between clay
particles, clay soils hold a high amount of water. Because these soils drain
slowly and take longer to warm up in summer, combined with drying out
and cracking in summer, they can often test gardeners.

Silt soil – are light and moisture retentive soils with a high fertility rating.
As silt soils compromise of medium sized particles they are well drained
and hold moisture well. As the particles are fine, they can be easily
compacted and are prone to washing away with rain. By adding organic
matter, the silt particles can be bound into more stable clumps.

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Peat soil – are high in organic matter and retain a large amount of moisture.
This type of soil is very rarely found in a garden and often imported into a
garden to provide an optimum soil base for planting.

Chalk soil – can be either light or heavy but always highly alkaline due to
the calcium carbonate or lime within its structure. As these soils are alkaline
they will not support the growth of ericaceous plants that require acidic soils
to grow. If a chalky soil shows signs of visible white lumps then they can’t
be acidified and gardeners should be resigned to only choose plants that
prefer an alkaline soil.

Loam soil – are a mixture of sand, silt and clay that are combined to avoid
the negative effects of each type. These soils are fertile, easy to work with
and provide good drainage. Depending on their predominant composition
they can be either sandy or clay loam. As the soils are a perfect balance of
soil particles, they are considered to be a gardeners best friend, but still
benefit from topping up with additional organic matter.

Composition and Characteristics of soil

The scientific study of soil is called pedology. Soil is composed of both organic and inorganic
matter, and is essential for life on earth to exist. Soil are a composition of mineral particles 45%,
organic matter 5%, air 25% and water 25%

 Mineral particles

Mineral particles are the most largest ingredient and make up approx. 45% of soils. They
are the original rock that got broken down by weathering and erosion to form the basis of soil.
The type of rock that was broken down is called parent rock. The broken down rock produces
mineral such as calcium, phosphorus, and potassium in the soil on which plants feed. The parent

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material influences the soils colour, depth and ph value

 Organic Matter

Organic matter is decayed vegetation that is broken down by micro-organism in the soil
to form humus. Humus is a dark jelly substance that binds the soil together and improves its
texture. It increases the soil ability to retain moisture. The colour of the soil
is an indication of the amount of the organic material it contains with darker soils having more
organic matter.

 Air and Water

Air is vital for the survival of micro-organism and without these, there would be a
shortage of humus. Plants cannot survive without water present in the soil. Mineral particles
are soluble in water and the roots of plants can only absorb the nutrients of them after they
have been dissolved.

 Texture

Texture is how a soil feels when you touch it. The proportions of sand, silt and clay
determines the soil texture. The texture determines how well moisture and roots can penetrate
the soil and how well excess moisture can drain away.

 Colour

Lighter coloured soils deflect sunlight while dark soils absorb more light. This allows the
soil to heat up much more quickly and encourages seed germination and crop growth.

 PH

PH scale measure the acidity of a substance. The ideal PH value for agriculture is 6.5
which is slightly acidic. A soil which is too acidic lacks calcium and potassium which are
essential for growth and has low levels of organism which are vital for humficatiuon

Humification is a process that occurs in soils which sees organic material decompose and break
down.

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Water Relations

Soil can regulate the drainage, flow and storage of water and solutes, which includes nitrogen,
phosphorus, pesticides, and other nutrients and compounds dissolved in the water. With proper
functioning, soil partitions water for groundwater recharge and use by plants and animals.

Soil water relations can be assessed by measuring or observing the following indicators:

 Physical Stability Indicators

1. aggregate stability
2. erosion patterns
3. soil loss
4. soil depth

 Water Availability Indicators

1. available water capacity

2. hydraulic conductivity
3. infiltration
4. soil moisture,
5. water filled pore space, and
6. water holding capacity

When rain or irrigation water falls to earth, some of the water will infiltrate into the soil and
some will flow over the surface. If the soil is loose, porous, and has a stable structure, a drop of
water will be likely to infiltrate. If the soil has few openings and unstable structure so that a crust
forms and seals the soil surface, a drop of water will be more likely to run over the surface.
Plants are also important in determining the fate of water. Leaves intercept water so some
evaporates before it ever reaches the soil, and leaves and plant residue protect the soil so rain hits
more gently. Roots and residue slow down the flow of water over land so water has more time to
soak in.

If the soil becomes saturated, some water will drain down to groundwater. The remainder will be
held in the soil until it evaporates or is drawn into plant roots, eventually transpiring from leaves.

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At all these stages water is carrying sediment, organic matter, plant nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorus, pesticides, and other dissolved or suspended compounds. Water flowing over
the surface may carry sediment and nutrients into lakes. Water draining into groundwater may
contain nitrate or pesticides.

Soil Moisture

Water contained in soil is called soil moisture. The water is held within the soil pores. Soil water
is the major component of the soil in relation to plant growth. If the moisture content of a soil is
optimum for plant growth, plants can readily absorb soil water. Not all the water, held in soil, is
available to plants. Much of water remains in the soil as a thin film. Soil water dissolves salts and
makes up the soil solution, which is important as medium for supply of nutrients to growing
plants.

Importance of Soil Water

1. Soil water serves as a solvent and carrier of food nutrients for plant growth
2. Yield of crop is more often determined by the amount of water available rather than the
deficiency of other food nutrients
3. Soil water acts as a nutrient itself
4. Soil water regulates soil temperature
5. Soil forming processes and weathering depend on water
6. Microorganisms require water for their metabolic activities
7. Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil
8. It is a principal constituent of the growing plant
9. Water is essential for photosynthesis

Movement of Water in the Soil:

1. Infiltration:

When the water first enters or makes its downward movement through the soil surface. It
is called infiltration of water and the rate at which water and the rate at which water is
penetrating the surface of soil at any given instant is called the infiltration rate. It is most often
measured in millimetres per hour or inches per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes
saturated. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless
there is some physical barrier The rate of infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.

Factors affecting infiltration

1. Clay minerals
2. Soil Texture
3. Soil structure
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4. Moisture content
5. Vegetative cover
6. Topography

2. Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity:

It is the quality of soil that enables it to transmit air and water and is measured in cm/day.
Hydraulic conductivity depends on the properties of the soil. A soil that has high porosity and
coarse open texture has high hydraulic conductivity values.

3. Percolation:

The downward movement of water through the soil due to force of gravity is termed as
percolation. The percolation water goes into the soil unit it meets the free water table. On the one
hand, due to rapid percolation, there is practically no danger of soil suffering from bad drainage,
but on the other hand, there is a possibility of the dissolved plant nutrients like calcium and
magnesium being carried into deep into roots of common field crop.

4. Capillary Movement:

Once flow due to gravitational force has ceased the water moved in the form of thin or
capillary film from a wet regions to dry region.

Measuring soil moisture

1. Gravimetric method: This consists of obtaining a moist sample, drying it in an oven at

105°C until it losses no more weight and then determining the percentage of moisture.

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References

http://eagri.org/eagri50/SSAC121/lec12.pdf

http://www.agriinfo.in/default.aspx?page=topic&superid=8&topicid=2237

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YsEYs3YfkKE

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)

https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/irr4436

https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/AG.LND.ARBL.HA/rankings

http://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=4&topicid=274

http://soilquality.org/functions/water_relations.html

http://soils4teachers.org/physical-properties

http://lcgeography.preswex.ie/characteristics-of-soil.html

http://www.soils4kids.org/about

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_land

http://www1.udel.edu/FREC/spatlab/oldpix/nrcssoilde/Descriptions/landcap.htm

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/didyouknow/index3.stm

https://www.boughton.co.uk/products/topsoils/soil-types/

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