Communicare,: 1.1 Introdul"Tion

Business Communication
1.1 INTRODUL"TION
To live is to communicate. Every facet of existence needs communication. Business being

one of the facets of human existence requires communication. The term "communication"
comes from the Latin word communicare, which means 'to impart' or 'participate'. In
the course of our day-to-day living, we need to participate with other human beings and
also with things around us.
During the course of participation it becomes necessary to receive as well as to give. This
process of participation can take different forms, such as talking, writing, interacting, etc.
All of this means communication. In business people from all walks of life come together
to perform tasks that requires interaction with one another. Such a work situation makes
communication necessary and imperative.
The business world today has become global, which make communication even more
complex. Communicating across borders and cultures requires communication skills that
would enable people from different lands to interact with each other so as to achieve some
common objective. Hence, it is necessary to develop good communication skills.
However, one of the neglected areas of human development is communication. Peter

Drucker has made these observations about communication:
"Colleges teach the one thing that is perhaps most valuable for the future employees to
know. But very few students bother to learn it. This one basic skill is the ability to organize
and express ideas in writing and speaking.
As soon as you move one step from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your
ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your
job is from manual work. the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the
more important it will be that you know how to convey your thought<; in writing or speaking.
In the very large organization. .. this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important
of all the skills a person can possess."
1.2 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION
To tmderstand the nature of communication it is important to know its various dimensions.

Communication has five dimensions. They arc as follows:
1. Communication can be Intentional or Unintentional. Words are used to express

ideas and are intended to have a particular meaning. Sometimes these words
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Unit I Communication in Business
communicate something other than what is intended- they have an unintentional

meaning.
2. Communication can be Verbal or Nonverbal. Human communication is often

more nonverbal, involving the body and other objects and actions, than verbal, involving
words alone. Even when we do not speak, the way we walk, stand, and sit
communicates a message to others. It is told about Stalin that he worked on his
gestures that were so threatening and commanding that just a movement of his finger
was enough to pass death sentence on someone. Other forms of nonverbal
communication include letters, memos, arrangement of office furniture, and style and
condition of clothing.
3. Communication can be Internal or External. Internal, or intrapersonal

communication is the way we talk to ourselves, i.e. without putting thoughts into
words. This involves talking that takes place within our selves without speaking out
the words aloud. But the words that are actually written and spoken are external
communication. Nonverbal objects that arc chosen to express something are also
considered to be external communication.
4. Communication can involve Humans, Machines or Animals. Communication

obviously involves humans. It also involves machines- for example, computers.
Hu'mans use computers to improve communication between them. We also need to
learn how animals communicate, because the nonverbal behaviour of humans and
animals is quite similar.
5. Communication can take place between Two People as well as within Group.
A conversation between two people is called intetpersonal communication.
Communication within groups is classified as either small communication or mass
communication
2S Activity A :
Identify the different forms of communication that you employ in your daily life and
conversation.
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1.3 IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Because communication is so important in business, organizations want and need people

with good communication skills. Several surveys have indicated that communication is
important to business. Typical of such surveys is one conducted by Robert Half International
of the 1000 largest employers in the US. This study found that 96% of the executives
reported that today's employees must have good communication skills to get ahead.
Furthermore, in a survey of deans of 90 management programmes, conducted by the
Jones Graduate School ofManagement ofRice University, indicated that one of the greatest
teaching priorities of an MBA programme is the subject on Communication.
Unfortunately, the need for employees with good communication skills is often not fulfilled
in the business world. A recent study also indicates that there is a correlation between
communication and income. Another study conducted, concluded that good writing and
speaking skills, along with proper etiquettes and listening skills - dctennines career success.
In other words, having good communication skills would result in advancement of career
and thus, monetary gains in tenns of income.
The use of technology in communication makes the skills to communicate more obvious.
For instance, Email often displays one's written communication skills or use of language to
different people simultaneously, while audio and video will reveal one's verbal calibre and
diplomacy strength as well.
Over the years, many authors have recognized the importance of communication in an
organization. Chester Bamard, for instance, viewed communication as the means by which
people are linked together in an organization to achieve a common purpose. This is still the
fundamental function ofcommunication. Group activity is impossible without communication,
because coordination and change cannot be effected.
Henry Mintzbcrg's observation of chief executive officers showed them to spend 78% of
their time on communication-related activities involving direct contact with others, scheduled
and unscheduled meetings, telephone calls, etc.
Mintzberg also found that managers considered activities involving direct communication
with others, to be more interesting and valuable than more routine activities.
The skills that require attention, according to 100 randomly selected Fortune 500 executives
arc, oral presentations, memo writing, basic grammar, informational report writing, and
analytical report writing. Developing communication skills amount<:> to developing visual
skills, written skills, spoken skills, and reading skills.
Table 1.1 presents chronology of management views of communication from early in the
20ih century.
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unit I Communication in Business
Table 1.1 : Chronology of Management Views of Communication
I Management's View of Communication
~ Y~ I Pe~n Observation
--
1916 Fayol Managerial work is a set of composite functions thai includes
communication.
~30s I G~
1
Management has seven functional areas, including directing

and reporting (which include communication).
------
1938 I Barnard The first executive function is providing a system of
communication.
1--· -- - -- - - - - - ---
1957 Simon The administrative process cannot influence the decisions of
the individual without communication.
--,...-.- --
1966 Katz&Kahn The exchange of information and transmission of meaning
---r.-
1973 Mintzbcrg
are the very essence of an organization.
Managerial jobs have ten working roles; communication and

interpersonal relations arc found in three of the roles.
I
1974 Drucker Communication is one of five ba-;ic management functions.

-
1982 Peters & Open, infom1al communication is one of eight characteristics
I Waterman of the best-run American companies.
1983 Kanter The most common roadblock for managers to overcome is

poor communication.
~~~cMro - --
Communication is a basic skill for the effective one-minute
manager.
--
l l995 Gates Communication is the new revolution; the information
_ _j_ I
superhighway is part of it.
Source: John M. Pemvse, R. W. Rasberry & R.I. Myers. 'Advanced Business Communication'.
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2S Activity B :
Search for and write one sentence (that is not found in this book) on "importance of
business communication" from any book on Business Communication:
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

- - - - - - - -·- - - - - --
The basic objective of all human communication is to obtain an understanding response.
Here, we shall consider certain defmite objectives that the conunercial world is concerned
with. Every large and small business house is successful or unsuccessful, depending on
how well it can communicate internally and externally. Peter Drucker states: "Objectives
arc needed in every area where performance and result directly and vitally affect the
survival and prosperity of a business." Hence, we shall consider some of the major objectives
ofbusiness communication.
1. Information: The objective of business is to infonn, which means to transfer

knowledge to another person or group. Transfer ofknowledge is the most fundamental
objective of communication. Information can be given in writing, speaking or any
other system of signals or signs.
Businessmen thrive on information relevant to their business activities. They must

know what the demand for their goods or services is; how their competitors are
doing in business; what are the terms of credit available in the market; how to deal
with government rules and regulations; how to affect economies in production,
transport and distribution; how to expand their business, etc. Successful businessmen
are concerned not with maximum information but rather, pertinent information.
In order to expand or secure a place in a highly competitive market the businessman

needs information for planning the future. Information for planning can be of five
kinds:
a) Environmental Information- information pertaining to the geography, climate,
political, and socio-economic conditions.
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b) Internal Information- information about the strength and weakness of the

company with respect to capital, production, and sales capacity, degree of training
of the workers, their efficiency, etc.
c) External Information- information about sources of credit availability of
raw material, power, and the latest rules and regulations made by the go_vernment
or local authorities.
d) Competitive bifonnation -information relating to the strength and weakness
of the competitors and their past and present performance in the market.
e) New Development Infonnation- information concerning the latest research,
upgradation of the product, and availability of raw materials or substitutes.
Before accepting any information the successful business house will ensure that the
information is reliable, complete, and recent. Obtaining information has become so vital to
the world of business that in developed countries industrial espionage has become quite
common, and highly paid spies are sent to fmd out the secrets of their rivals. Businessmen
have no difficulty in obtaining information from old files, maga£jnes, internet library research,
chamber of commerce, trade fairs and exhibitions, etc.
However. a~ the worldwide web gets complex, it is becoming more and more difficult for
business houses to surf through the maze of information. So the problem is not of lack of
information, but of immense quantity of information. To help the businessmen out of this
problem a number of organizations have taken the role of infomediaries.
lnfomediru.ies are like intermediaries or middlemen, only they do not deal with goods but
with information.
They perform variety of functions like delivering select information, bringing together
scattered professionals, maintaining statistical data on economy, industry, commerce,
commodities, demographics, stocks, mutual funds, finance and investments.
Just as business organization receives information, it also has to provide information both
to the outside world and, to workers within the organization.
• The progress and profitability of the company has to be made known, which could
be done through advertising, organizing seminars, conferences, and exhibition<>. Public
should be informed about the quality of products, the facilities provided to workers,
the research conducted, social services rendered to the community and country.
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• Business organization also needs to communicate information intemally to its workers,

such as:
1. Information relating to job assignments and procedures goveming them.
n. Information concerning exact designations of the officers and their decision-
making powers.
111. Information. which gives a clear understanding of authority
tv. Infonnation. which will make possible better reception of instmction.
In India. with the coming of liberalization and increased competition. receiving and giving
information has become more important today.
In earlier days, the ammmt of information available was directly propottionate to the
worker's power within an organization. In most modem organizations power is getting
increasingly dccentnlliscd and with it there is an increase in the give and take of information
at all levels.
2. Motivation: To motivate means, "to cause to act". It has been defined as "that
inner state that encrgiY.cs, activates, or moves and which direct<; or channels behaviour
towards cettain goals."'
Jn an organization, when workers are motivated they work eagerly. willingly and
often without supervision. Another objective of communication is to increase motivation
among workers.
Organizations usc communication process to overcome motivation problem. Following

aspect~ of the problem of motivation could be considered:
a) Emotional Climate. The management should use communication in such a

manner that the right emotional climate for motivation is created. This can be
done by fostering healthy competition among workers and also by recognizing
and giving publicity to achievement.
b) Setting Goals or Objectives. Set defmite objectives before the workers so

that they know what they are working towards and they can enjoy a sense of
satisfaction when objective has been attained. This will mean infonning them of
the pl:m that the management has in mind and the detailed working of the plan.
8
\.;nit I Communication in Business
c) Organizational Information. With the help of house journals, direct talks or

training programmes the management should give much information to the
employees as possible about the organization for which they are working.
Creating a favourable image of the organi:t_ation in the minds of the workers will
give them a sense of pride in working for the organization.
d) Participation in Decision-making. When subordinates are encouraged to

report directly to their superiors or give suggestions to improve the working of
the organization they will experience a powerful sense of belonging to the
organization. One management writer states that "the higher the degree of
participation the stronger will be the resulting inclination to cooperate with company
plans".
e) Establishing Human Relations. When supervisory and junior staff can meet
in an atmosphere of infonnality and exchange views, when supervisory staff
uses tact in conununicating orders, admonitions and warnings to the junior staff,
and when the staff is encouraged to think out and take the initiative in minor
matters, there is less friction and resentment and the organization functions
smoothly.
3. Raising Morale : In war it is not the number of soldiers that matters, but their
morale that makes the big difference between losing and winning. Napoleon even
went so far as to assert that morale "makes up three-quarters of the game; the relative
balance of manpower account~ for the remaining quarter''. In a business organization
the morale of the workers can seriously affect the success of the business. One of the
objectives of communication [internal] is to keep the morale of the workers high so
that they work with vigour and confidence as a team.
Low morale is ollen the result oflack of confidence in the management on account of
its poor communication skills. The usual characteristics of low morale are lack of
discipline, no appreciation or reward for good work well done, bad relations between
the supervisors and the workers and sometimes among the workers themselves.
When the morale is low, unfound rumours about the state of the company and the
calibre of the management usually circulate among the workers.
It should be remembered that high or low morale is not a permanent feature of a

company. The same organization could have a high morale among its workers one
year and find that the workers have lost their morale the next year.
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It is like a disease that requires immediate attention and diagnosis and cure.
Management can keep high morale through communication by:
a) Maintaining a steady stream of communication between workers, their

supervisors and top executives.
b) Permitting open discussion of problems affecting the workers and their families.
c) Employing communication devices such as employees' conferences, audio-visual

aid, employee-get-togethers, etc.
d) Keeping a watch on the grapevine and not allowing harrnful rumours to circulate.
c) Stopping false rumours about favouritism, strikes, retrenchment or lock outc;.]
t) Giving fair hearing to employee grievances and accepting their suggestions,

thereby giving them a sense of participation in management.
g) Expressing appreciation for good work done and rewarding it.
h) Introducing changes gradually so that the workers are not mentally upset by
sudden and abrupt changes in staff or working conditions.
Since morale is like a barometer, which indicates the well being of an organization, some
business houses study morale periodically. This is done by:
a) Informal meetings at which the workers arc encouraged to speak freely.
b) Collecting information through the different channels and
c) Circulating specially prepared questionnaires.
4. Order and Instruction : An order is an oral or written communication directing the

starting, terminating or modifying of an activity. It is a form of communication by
which management directs it<> subordinates and employees and seeks to achieve its
objectives. It is communication that is peculiar to the internal organization of a business
house, because superiors can issue orders to their subordinates. Before issuing an
order there should be proper planning by the order issuing person. There should be
a plan of action prepared in consultation with other managers so that there is no
confusion or conflict.
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Unit 1 Communication in Business
Orders may be oral or written. Written orders are given when the nature of the work
is very important or when the person being ordered is far away. Care should be
taken to keep a copy of the order so that follow-up action can be taken.
Oral orders are given when the work is of an urgent nature or when the person being
given the oral order is nearby. In both the cases it is necessary to follow up and find
out whether the order has been properly executed. This is called the stage of appraisal.
Instructions are oral or written orders on a recommended manner in which the

work is to be done. For instance, the office superintendent will instruct a new clerk
on the manner in which letters are to be filed and the manner in which the outgoing
mail is to be entered in the register. In both the cases the clerk has been shown how
the work has to be done. The instruction canies and implied order- i.e. the clerk is
expected to follow that particular method of doing the a<>signed work and no other
method. From this we may conclude that while all instructions contain an implied
order, all orders arc not instructions.
(Note: It should be remembered that order also refers to the request to supply goods.
Here the term order is with reference to operations I performing work).
5. Education and Training : Communication in business can be used to widen the

ever-widening circle of knowledge. Process of education that takes pJace in the
business world is a part of its activity.
Business communication can achieve the objective of Education at three levels of

management, of employees and of general public.
a) Education for Succession: 1bis means training junior persons in the organization
to handle important ac.;signments involving responsibility so that they are trained
to succeed their seniors in executive and managerial positions. These trainees
may not go through a formal course in staff training but may be opportunities to
work in different departmentc.; under the guidance of senior executive. They may
also be asked to attend conferences and meetings in order to watch the decision
making process. The purpose behind this is to develop a quality of excellence
among the future managers of the organization.
b) Education for Promotion: It has been found that most senior managers arc
behind the times. They employ management techniques and control systems
that are outdated. Seniority is an important factor in promotion. However, if the
seniors arc not competent then their promotion is in question. To overcome this
ll
prob1em it is necessary for these seniors to undergo special training, refresher

and orientation courses, before they can be considered for promotion.
c) Education during Induction: When new personnel join an organization they

are inducted by educating them in the culture of the company, code of discipline.
and methods of manufacturing, etc. This is done through training programme or
orientation programme. lt not only acquaints the new recruits with organizational
functioning but also gives them an idea of the organization they are going to
work in.
d) Educating the Public: Educating the outside public usually takes the form of
advertising, infonnative talks, publication in newspaper and journals. This is
done to inform the general public as well as the professionals about the product,
functioning of the company, and various schemes offered by the company.
Besides these objectives there arc other objectives of business communication

such as:
e) Counselling
f) Advice
g) Persuasion
h) Altering Behaviour
i) Effecting Change
j) Promoting the Image of the Company
k) Increasing Productivity
0 Establishing Better Relations
m) Influencing Potential Customer
~Activity C :
a) State the type of objectives of communication for the following instances:

1. Insubordination_ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _
n. Animosity_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ __
b) Give an example of an organization which you feel communicates well with the external
public: _ _ _ _ __ ______________________ ___________
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Cnit 1 Communication in Business
1.5 I!'ORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
The importance of communication in business becomes more obvious when we consider

the communication activities that go on in an organization. Communication in an organization
takes three main forms. They are:
• Internal-Operational Communication
• External-Operational Communication
• Personal Communication
1. Internal-Operational Communication.
All the communication that takes place within an organization, during the process of work,
is known as internal-operational communication. 'This is the form ofcommunication among
the employees that is done during the implementation of the business-operating plan.
The term operating plan means the procedure that an organization has developed to
perform a particular task- i.e. manufacturing a specific product, providing a particular
service, etc.
Internal-operational communication takes many forms. It includes the orders and instructions
that supervisors give workers, a-; well as ordl exchange among workers about work matters.
It includes repmt that workers prepare concerning sales, production, inventories, fmance,
maintenance, and so on. It also includes e-mail messages that workers write in order to
carry out their assignments. Much of this internal-operational communication is performed
on computer network.
Communication is essential for the internal functioning of enterprises, because it integrates

the managetial functions. Internal-operational communication is especially needed to:
a) Establish and disseminate goals of an organization
b) Develop plans for their achievement
c) Organize human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way
d) Select, develop, and appraise members of the organization
e) Lead, direct, motivate, and create a climate in which people want to contribute
f) Control performance.
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2. External-Operational Communication.
The work-related communicating that a business does with people and groups outside the
organization is extemal-opcrational communication.
This is the communication activity of a business with its public- i.e. suppliers, customers,
service companies, stockholders, Government, and the general public.
Extemal-opcrational communication includes all the efforts of business in direct selling,

such as descriptive brochures, telephone calls, follow-up service calls, and so on.lt also
includes the advertising that the business docs, which is one of the ways of commwlication.
Radio, television messages, newspaper and magazine advertising, website advertising,

and point-of-purchase display material play a role in business's plan to aclli.eve its work
objective.
Also in tllis category is all that a business does to improve its public relations, including its
planned publicity, the community service of it<; employees, and the environmental friendliness
of itc;; products and facilities.
An important aspect of external-operational communication is that it displays a company's

image and its etiquette with respect to the external environment and public. Business
messages do more than communicate information.
They take the place of human contact, and thus, they have the effect of human contact.
The clarity, warmth, and understanding they display also send a message.
The positiveness of tllis message is what is called as good business etiquette.
And good business etiquette contributes to the image of the company.
External-operational commtmication facilitates managerial functions. It is through information

exchange that the managers:
a) Become aware of the needs of customers
b) The availability of suppliers
c) The claims of stockholders
d) The regulations of govemment
e) The concems of the community.
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Unit l Communication in Business
It is through communication that any organization becomes an open system interacting

with its environment.
3. Personal Communication.
Not all communication that occurs in a business organi?.ation is operational-deiiliug with

operation of the business objectives. In fact, much of the personal communication within
an organization ha~ no connection with the operating plan of business. Such communication
is called as personal communication.
Personal communication is the exchange of information and feelings in which human beings
engage whenever they come together. Since human beings are social animals, there is a
need to communicate, even when there i~ nothing to say.
We spend much time with friends in communication. Even total strangers are likely to
communicate when they arc placed together, as on an airplane flight, in a waiting room, or
at a party. Such personal communication also occurs in workplace, and it is a part of the
communication activity of any business. Although not a part of operational plan of business,
personal communication can have a significant effect on the fulfilment and success of any
business operation. This effect is a result of the influence that personal communication can
have on the attitudes of the employees.
The employees' attitudes toward the business, each other, and their assignments directly
affect their productivity. The nature of personal communication or conversation in a work
place affects the attitude of a worker, which then affects his/her performance. In a work
situation there are often heated words and tempers, the employees will not come out with
their best efforts. However, a situation where there is constant joking and laughing will also
have equally bad effect on productivity. Somewhere between these extreme situations lies
the ideal productive attitude.
Furthermore, the extent to which personal communication is permitted within an organi7.ation

can also affect the attitude of the employees. Absolute denial of personal communication
could upset the emotions of the employees, because the very need of human beings to
communicate is denied. On the other hand, excessive personal communication could cause
interference with work. Again, the middle path is probably the best.
Personal communication docs have its value in an organization. It has an emotive function.
In other word~. personal communication pemlits the expression of feelings and satisfaction
of social needs. It may also help vent frustrations.
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_.__________________________________________ _____
1.6 COMMUNICATION NETWORK OF THE ORGANIZA110N
All the forms of communication Lintemal, external, and personall indicate an extremely
complex network of information flow. It shows an organization feeding on a continuous
supply of information. In today's world of business, information must flow faster than
before.
Another important element is the amount of information, which has greatly increased over
the years, frequently causing an information overload. What is needed is not more
information but relevant information.
It is necessary to determine what kind of information the manager needs to have for effective
decision-making. To be effective, the manager needs information necessary to carry out
managerial functions and activities. Obtaining such information frequently requires getting
information from superiors and subordinates and also from departments and people
elsewhere within shortest period of time.
Communication channels, for the flow of information, may be linked in a vruiety of way to
fonn a communication networks. These networks arc used to structure the information
flows among the network members. Business organil'..ations have well-established channels
of information flow. These are the formal channels- i.e. the main lines of operational
communication. There is another type of network of communication that is more personal
in natme than operational. This is the informal network of communication.
Thus, there are basically two types of communication network in an organization:

• The Formal Network
• The Informal Network.
1. The Formal Network: As stated above the formal communication network has to
do with operational communication (communication that is required to perfom1 a
specific organizational task).
In an effective organization, communication flows in the following directions:

Downward, Upward and Crosswise Communication.
a) Downward Communication: This is the flow of communication form people

at higher level to those at the lower level in the organizational hierarchy. This
kind of communication implies the authorita.Iian structure of an organization. It is
used for such purposes as giving instructions, providing information about policies
16
t:nit 1 Communication in Business
and procedures, giving feedback about performance, and indoctrinating or

motivating.
The kinds of media used for downward oral communication include instructions,
speeches, meetings, the telephone, and even the grapevine. Downward written
communication takes the f om1 of memos, letters, handbooks, pamphkts, policy
statements, manuals, and so on.
Unfortunately, infom1ation is often lost or distorted a<; it comes down the chain
of command. Although some companies make a point oflctting management
decision be known, many employees arc dissatisfied with both quality and quantity
of information. In fact, many directives arc not understood or even read.
The real problem may lie in the differing communication priorities of top
management and lower level workers. Employees are particularly interested in
things that pertain to them directly. For instance. they want to know how secure
their jobs are, how their salary is determined, and when they will get a raise.
Often, this is the type ofinformation that management prefers to keep confidential.
Furthermore, downward flow of information through the different levels of
organization is time-consuming. Delays may be so frustrating that some top
managers insist that information he sent directly to the concerned person or
group.
b) Upward Communication: This type of communication travels from

subordinates to superiors and continues up the organizational hierarchy.
Unfortunately, managers in the communication chain, who filter the information
-especially unfavourable messages - to their superiors, often hinder this flow.
Companies try to guard against this by creating reporting system that requires
employees to furnish vital information on a routine basis.
To solve problems and make intelligent decisions, management must learn what
is going on in the organization. Because they cannot be everywhere at the same
time. executives depend on lower-level employees to furnish them with accurate
and timely report. Upward flow of communication is also useful in providing
ideas for improvement of activities, and information about feelings on work.
Upward communication is primarily nondirective and is usually found in

participative and democratic organi7.ationa1 environment. Techniques for upward
communication- besides the chain of command- are suggestion system, appeal
and grievance procedures, complaint system, counselling sessions, joint setting
17
of objectives, the grapevine, group meetings, the practice of open-door policy,

morale questionnaire, exit interviews, and attitude survey.
In recent years, many companies have also set up systems that give employees
a confidential way to get a message to top management outside the normal chain
of comm~md. If an employee has a problem or an idea that might be difficult to
discuss with the person's immediate superior, he or she can talk to a neutral
third party [sometimes called an ombudsman] who will consider the issue and
see that appropriate action is taken without putting the employee in an awkward
position.
Effective upward communication requires an environment in which subordinates
feel free to communicate. Since the organizational climate is greatly influenced
by upper management, the responsibility for creating a free flow of upward
communication rests, to a large extent, with the superiors.
c) Crosswise Communication: This form of communication includes the
horizontal flow of information ramong people on the same or similar
organizational levelsJand the diagonal Oow of information [among persons at
different organizational levels who have no direct reporting relationships].
This type of communication is used to speed information flow, to improve
understanding, and to coordinate activities for the achievement of organizational
objectives.
A great deal of communication does not follow the organizational hierarchy but cuts across
the chain of command. As organizations become more diversified and individual tasks
become more specialized, the need for crosswise communication increases.
1be organizational environment provides many occasions for crosswise oral communication.
They range from informal meetings of lunch hours that employees spend together to more
formal conferences and committee and board meetings. Thi<~ kind of communication occurs
when individual members of different departments arc grouped into task teams or project
organization. This also occurs when staffs with functional or advisory authority interacts
with line managers in different dcpattrnents.
In addition, crosswise written communication keeps people informed about the

organization. These Wiitten forms include the company newspaper, magazine, or bulletin
boards. Modern enterprises use mat1y kinds of oral and written crosswise communication
patterns to supplement the vertical flow of information.
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Because information may not follow the normal chain of command, proper safeguard
need to be taken to prevent potential problems. Specifically, crosswise communication
should rest on the understanding that a) crosswise relationships will be encouraged wherever
they arc appropriate, b) subordinates will refrain from making commitment<> beyond their
authority, and c) subordinates will keep superiors informed of important interdepartmental
activities.
2. The Informal Network : Formal organizational chart illustrates how infonnation is

supposed to flow. However, in actual practice, chart cannot prevent people from
talking with one another. This is the informal communication network that is found
within any organization. In the management language it is called as "grapevine". Just
as the grapevine has no definite or orderly path of growth, so also the informal
communication bas no definite path in its flow as the formal communication.
The informal network is not a single network but a complex relationship of smaller
networks consisting of groups of people. The relationship is made even more complex
by the fact that these people mat belong to more that one group and that group
memberships and the links between and among groups are continually changing.
As people go about their work, they have casual conversations with their friends in
the office. They joke around and talk of many things besides their work. Although
many of the conversations deal with personal matters, business matters are also
discussed. In fact, 80% of the information that travels along the grapevine pertains to
business. Furthermore, many employees rely on the grapevine as their main source of
information about the organization. Grapevine usually canies far more information
than the formal communication system. In every organization, certain people seem to
know everything, regardless of the position they officially hold. As a result, their role
in the company's informal communication network is an active one.
Despite the fact that the grapevine usually carries information and sometimes rumours
that could be harmful, the management to its advantage uses it. Wise managers
recognize the presence of grapevine and give the talk-leader the information that will
do most good to the organi?.ation.
In a situation where two individuals from different departments have to work together
to accomplish a task, it is often efficient for them to talk directly to each other rather
than passing the message through the formal network. In an era when mergers,
acquisitions, and reorganization are the norm, the informal communication network
often plays a particularly vital role. Keith Davis states: ·'People cannot resist the
grapevine. It offers the latest news, and usually that news is reasonably accurate.
19
Much of the news is about people, such as their friendship, conflict<>, and experiences.
Since formal communication carries very little of this type of information, we must
listen to the grapevine in order to be fully informed. In addition, much of the grapevine
occurs by person-to-person contact, which helps us become a part of social groups
and receive social satisfaction."
~ Activity D :
a) Give an example of crosswise communication in your department.
b) Give an example of horizontal communication in your organization.
1.7 TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Technology is developing so rapidly that what is new today become commonplace

tomorrow and outdated the day after. The changes brought about by new technology arc
leading to an exciting new information age in which more people will have faster and
broader access to data than ever before. Most developments in computer technology
make us more productive, so we can perform our jobs more effectively with less effort.
Following are some of the major technologies that are being used in the world of business:
1. Telephones and Voice Mail : Telephones arc not new, but new technology has
extended the value of telephones. Voice mail is a computerized message system, a
more sophisticated version of an answering machine. It allows people to communicate
by phone even when they cannot connect directly.
Given this development, it has become necessary to examine the usc of telephones
more carefully. Many companies have reali:t.cd that each employee's telephone skills
contribute to the image of the company, thereby affecting its ability to sell its product<>
and services. The first impression people receive of a company comes form the
20
telephone. Therefore, telephone skills are among the most important technological
skills to be developed.
2. Computer Network: Only a few years ago, each desktop computer stood alone,
and data were transferred on disks. However, today desktop computers can
communicate directly via computer networks, allowing information to be shared
effortlessly. There are two types of networks: the local area network !LANl that
links users in a single office; and the wide area network [WANJ that links remote
users. Such networks now allow workers to share files easily among oHices in nearby
buildings and in some instances across the country.
The "infom1ation superhighways" which are such a popular topic these days, arc
huge computer networks. At present, the Internet is the only network big enough to
b~ called an information superhighway. Internet users can exchange messages with
other Internet users. access electronic databases, and subscribe to electronic
"newsletters" on thousands of topics. The system wa.c;; originally developed to serve
scientist<> and then it expanded to researchers, professors, and students. It is now
expanding quickly into the business and public arena. Many business enterprises are
networked through commercial providers of data. Specialized networks are being
developed to provide specific information.
3. Electronic ~tail : Electronic mail (e-mail), the electronic transmission of messages

from one person to another using computers, has become commonplace in business.
E-mail system has a significant influence on business communication. One of the
advantages of the e-mail system is that it keeps the expenses of communication low.
Many firms program their computers to send external e-mail at night, when the
telephones rates arc lower and most business telephones are not in use.
E-mail seems to have an interesting effect on organizations that usc it for communication
among employees. In such organizations employees tend to send more messages to
their co-workers and superiors than those organization that do not usc e-mail system.
'lbe result of encouraging the use of e-mail system is a healthy levemng of organi1..ational
hierarchy. In low-tech organizations, people tend to believe that they are permitted to
communicate only as per the formal communication chart established by the
management.
In business organizations with electronic-mail facilities and capabilities, employees

arc more likely to contact those at the top with their ideas and comments and bypass
their immediate supervisors. Making those at the top more accessible has given many
21
employees a greater feeling of involvement in their organization. As a result, more

new ideas and suggestions are corning to the attention of decision makers, resulting in
improved operations. services. and products.
4. Electronic Bulletin Board : Electronic bulletin boards are computer systems that
allow the posting of information so it may be accessed and read by many other
people. They disseminate information within a company to a broader audience. With
a modem, someone with a computer can call up the bulletin board and seek infonnation.
Others who read the notice and question mat respond directly if a telephone number
is displayed on the board. One can even post information in the same space on the
bulletin hy the help of a modem.
Companies arc using electronic bulletin boards to keep their employees informed
about all kinds of things. Employees also use this facility to inform everyone about a
vexing technical problem.
5. Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing: Teleconferencing allows groups who

are geographically separated to meet via telephone and discuss issues. This is
substituting the use of telephone to call a meeting. Since most of the executives spend
at least half their time in meetings and travelling for meetings, teleconferencing enables
discussion over the telephone, which is more convenient and less expensive.
Videoconferencing is used for more formal meetings, especially in companies that

have this facility. This type of conferencing is done via the video camera. It enables
people to have the conference being in different geographical locations and yet seeing
each other. After an environmental disaster, one large company was able to get solution
to its cleanup problems by videoconferencing with an 84-year-old Swedish expert
whose health did not pennit him to travel to the site of problem.
6. Telecommuting and Home Offices : As technology makes it easier to communicate

with people in other locations, some employees have begun working from their homes.
They may visit the home office periodically or send the product of their labour to their
employers or client'> electronically.
Many companies are providing workers with computers and other equipment that enables
them to work more efficiently at home.
Companies that downsize may contract, with individuals who are not employed, to
undertake projects that the company's remaining workers do not have time to do.
Telecommuters and horne workers arc often regarded as essential and dependable
members of the corporate world.
22
l:nit 1 Communication in Business
One advantage is that widely dispersed employees can be called on to react quickly
during emergencies or to reach distant clients.
Concerns about traffic congestion, parking problem, office space, and personal preferences
all contribute to the decision to allow telecommuting and home office.
16 Activity E :
What kind of technology would you use for the following types of communication situations?
a) Reporting to your boss that you are unable to attend work.
b) General information to be given to all employees of your organization.
c) Interviewing a candidate for your department who is living in another city.
1.8 SUMMARY
Communication is participating in the process of informing and being informcd.1bis process
is becoming more complex with business becoming global. However, one of the
inadequacies of the business world is lack of development of communication skills. With
the globalization ofbusiness there is a felt need to emphasize development of communication
skills.
23
Communication is seen in its various dimensions - such as its nature of being verbal or
nonvernal, intentional or unintentional, internal or external; having characteristics of involving
humans, machines and animals; and occurring between two people or groups of people.
Communication is important to business because of its nature and objectives. It is used in

business to achieve the objectives of an organization such as motivation, disseminating
information, raising morale, educating the employees, and training and development.
Communication activity in an organization takes three forms- i.e. the internal-operational,

extemal-operational, and personal. These forms of communication have their own functions
and usefulness in an organization.
In an organization the flow of information takes place through a network. For the purpose
of smooth functioning of an organization there is a fom1al network, which is designed by
the management. However, communication cannot be controlled by the f01mal network,
but also t1ow in an infonnal manner. This inf01mal network is known as the grapevine,
which can be destructive, but efficient management could use it to their benefit.
Communication has been influenced by the development of technology, which has made
communication in the business organil'.ation simple, efficient and faster.
1.9 SELF -ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q 1. Discuss the importance of communication in the context of business organization.
Q2. Explain the various forms of communication and how they facilitate managerial
functions.
Q3. Explain the Communication Network in an organization.
Q4. Fill in the blanks:
a) When we speak without putting thoughts into words, then the communication is
b) When words communicate something other than what is meant, then the
communication is said to be --------------------------
c) Middlemen who deal with information arc known as
24
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is an act, which consists of various events, and hence, it really is a process.
In the process of communication there is interplay of the communicator, the message and
the audience. Effective communicators arc aware of the process and spend considerable
time and effort in preparing and rehearsing the act of delivering their message. They will
take into consideration the various elements of the communication process during the
course of preparation.
lt takes a conscious etTort on the part of an individual to develop the ability to deliver
message effectively. In the world of business, which has become very sophisticated, it is
imperative that people in the management cadre develop effective style of communication.
Specially, while dealing with business counterparts in a cross-cultural milieu one has to
weigh the whole process of communication carefully so as to avoid any misunderstandings
and loss of time and money.
Services industry in particular has brought communication to the fore and it has become
the most essential aspect of business in present times. Corporate as well as small enterprises,
in India, arc spending sufficient time and money in training their personnel in developing
effective communication skills.
2.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: EXISTING VIE'WS
We can view communication process from different points of emphases. From each point
of emphasis communication process takes on a different form. Business Communication,
by Helen R. Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, describes communication process from different
points of emphases. They are a<; follows: imparting information, sharing information, or
a<;sumptions underlying while communicating information.
Communication process can be described either from the perspective of imparting, or

sharing, or assumptions. Each of these perspectives can be explained by use of models.
The communication process can take any of the following forms:
1. Transmission Model
2. Reciprocal Model
3. Model HighlightingA-;surnptions.
30
l!nit 2 Process of Communication
1. Transmission Model : When the emphasis is on imparting information, then the

transmission model could understand the process of communication. This model
(Fig 2.1) enables us to understand communication process in terms of information
being transmitted from a sender to a receiver.
I Communicator L1
t---:,--.,.-....,..--~J.---M-e-s-
Production ·1
sa-g-c--,1t----=-----,..--~J.---A-u-di-en-c-e--,llI
I Reception 'I
Information and Channel com'cys Reader/Listener

ideas coded into communicator's ideas decodes
words and communicator's
visuals message
t1daptedfrom Helen R. Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett. 'Business Communication', 1997. pg 36
Fig 2.1 : Transmission Model of Communication Process
Through this model communication process is seen as a linear process- i.e. message
moves in one direction along a line or channel, with infonnation travelling from the
source to the audience. This model assumes that, in the absence of disturbance Inoise],
the audience will interpret the message as the sender intends.
2. Reciprocal Model : When the emphasis is on sharing information, then we usc

the reciprocal model of communication process. In this process of communication
the infonnation or the meaning evolves through the participation of each member of
the audience. The flow of communication is simultaneous in all direction, and in this
flow of communication the composing of message takes place. Reciprocal model
shows the interactive nature of communication process. It could be graphically
expressed as in Fig 2.2.
lnformat~
l
:Communicator
L.
~1caning
- -
I ~ Audience
----'-
j
comes through interaction among the communicator, the information [subject], and the
I
I
I
audience within a specific occasion for communication
l
Adapted from Helen R. Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, 'Business Communication'. 1997. pg 37
:Fig 2.2 : Reciprocal Model of Communication Process
31
.......
3. Model Highlighting Assumptions : In this model of communicating infonnation,

we focus on the assumptions, which are commonly shared by the communicator <md
the audience. Assumptions refer to that which is taken for granted by the communicator
and the audience, and that which can become the common ground in understanding
the message.
For example, when you go to a shop to make a purchase, the assumption that you
and the shopkeeper share is that once the goods arc purchased by you or sold by the
shopkeeper the money given shall not be refunded. Say you purchase a non-stick
frying pan, and after going home you discover that you already have one. You then
decide to return the frying pan and get a refund. However, you realise that the
shopkeeper refuses to refund the money, which you cannot contest. He, being a
reasonable man, agrees to allow you to choose another item in place of the frying
pan.
In the above example you accept the common assumption, but refuse to accept it at
that moment. Realising that you cannot get the refund you agree to co-operate with
the shopkeeper and accept his offer for an exchange. This is known a-, the Cooperative
Principle.
25 Activity A :
Which of the models would you apply to the following?
i) Board meeting _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
ii) Weekly Departmental meeting _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
iii) \Yorkers· meeting with their Manager _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2.3 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

- -·---·---- - ----------------------
As mentioned earlier, communication is a process, which consists of events or phases that
are linked together. ·whether you are writing, speaking, listening, or reading, all these
phases are present in the communication process. The process of communication can he
divided into five phases. They arc:
I. The sender has an idea.
2. The idea becomes a message.
32
__ _ _ ___ - -
;.____ - - - -
Unit 2 Process of Communication
3. The message is transmitted.

4. The receiver gets the message.
5. The receiver responds and sends a feedback to the sender.
These five phases of the communication process link the sender to the receiver. Let us
examine each of these five phase.r.:;.
1. The Sender has an Idea : We experience reality and that experience is filtered by
our mind. Our mind abstracts some important aspects of the experience and turns
them into an idea. In other words, mind constructs the important aspects of the
experience into a meaningful thought, which is idea. However, mind deals with the
invisible, because our thoughts are invisible. So the idea, which is invisible, has to be
expressed in some form or the other in order to communicate it to others.
Since you do not think in the same manner as others, and yet you want to express
your idear.:; to them, your mind filters out the details to highlight only those aspects that
are relevant. 'This process is known as abstraction. Thus, in the process of abstraction
you leave out many aspect.;;, which you assume the others know. So in the filtering
process you make assumptions and judgements or conclusion.
What we are saying here is that our mind simplifies the real world that we observe
and experience by breaking it down into parts and then reconstructing these parts
into an idea, which we then turn it into a message that we express. What we express,
however, is not the whole of reality, but rather only a distorted image that our mind
pictures.
2. The Idea Becomes a Message: When we wish to express our ideas to others,
then the idea has to take a form and become an expression. Expression is an idea put
"in-form" to become information. This is also called 'encoding' the message. Idea
can be expressed in different ways, depending upon the following:
a) Subject - what is that you want to speak about?

b) Purpose- what is it that you want to achieve?
c) Audience- who is the recipient of your ideas?
d) Personal Style or Mood- what is your speaking style or what mood are you in
when you making a speech?
c) Cultural Background- the choice of your words depend on your cultural
upbringing.
33
Business C..ommunication
During the process of encoding the idea into words all these factors come into play.
The choice of words indicates one's style, mood, culture, audience, and purpose.
For instance, when a supervisor speaks to his subordinate concerning a job, not
done well, he will use words that will indicate displeasure, and even anger. But, if he
has to report the same instance to his boss - his choice of words and approach would
be different.
One of the major factors that influence encoding ideas into message is the vocabulary
available at one's disposal. In other words, at any given time we do not have total
vocabulary at our command to convert our ideas into words. This results in using
words that are not apt or desirable, which could_lead to misunderstanding. Similarly,
language differs from discipline to discipline -language of a lawyer differs from the
language of a doctor or anTI' professional. This could become a hindrance in recogni'l.ing
or expressing ideas. For example, when we go to a doctor we only are able to tell
him what we suffer from. We cannot express our ailment in medical terms.
Therefore, it is imperative that we develop the ability to express our ideas in the code
that is fitting for a given profession.
3. The Message is transmitted : In this step of communication process there is a

physical transmission of the message from the sender to the receiver. The message
transmitted from the sender to the receiver should have a medium, because transmission
cannot take place in a vacuum.
The essential element for this transmission is a medium/channel. Channel is a medium

that enables the message to be transmitted from the sender to the receiver. The choice
of medium/channel depends on the message, audience, urgency and situation.
4. Reception of the Message : The first step in reception of message is "decoding"

- i.e. converting the message into thought [words arc converted into meanings]. The
second step is "understanding" - i.e. communication is not complete unless it is
understood. This involves interpretation of the message by the receiver. Third step in
the reception of message ic; "response" to the message- i.e. action.
5. Feedback : Receiver sends his/her response back to the sender. This enables the
sender to determine whether the message has been received and produced the intended
response.
6. Noise : This term refers to those factors that cause hindrance to the intended message.
These are the barriers to communication process. See Fig 2.3.
34
FEEDBACK
- - -- -- - -
Idea Encoding Transmission _ Receiving Decoding
of Message --------,... Understanding · Action
--
SENDER MEDIUM RECEIVER
< - - - - -- -- o - - - - '
NOISE
Fig 2.3 : Process of Communication
2S Activity B :
a) Consider that you have to inform your sales personnel about an increase in their sales
target. Encode this idea into a message of about two lines.
b) Identify the channel that you would use to transmit the above message to your sales
personnel.
2.4 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN COMMUNICATION

During the process of communication-i.e. translating the idea into message and sending
it to the receiver-there are barriers that can give rise to lllisunderstandings in communication.
Barriers can arise while the message is being developed, transmitted, receivcd or processed.
35
1. Problems in developing the message:
a) Indecision about the message content

This is due to the fact that the sender has too much information on the subject,
which gives rise to the difficulty in choosing what to include and what to exc1udc.
When the message has too much of information then the receiver can get confused.
b) Lack offamiliarity wit the situation or the receiver

The sender should get all the necessary information and fmd out to whom the
message is to be sent. This would enable the sender to state the message in a
language that is appropriate to the situation cmd clearly understood by the receiver.
c) Emotional conflicts
There are times when the message has to be delivered that would cause emotional
disturbance to the receiver. In such case, without being defensive, the sender
should state the message in a manner that would avoid emotional conflict.
d) Difficulty in expressing ideas

This is due to the lack of experience in writing or speaking that the sender may
have and cause difficulty in expressing his/her ideas. One must possess sufficient
knowledge of language to express using appropriate words.
2. Problems in transmitting the message:
a) When speaking, the sender may find that the acoustics in the place is poor, or
there may be no proper facilities for the audience to hear the speaker.
b) In case of written transmission of message there could be instances when the

message is not legible- unable to read due to poor quality of printing.
c) When more than one message is sent on the same subject there is a good
possibility of contradictions. In such a case the receiver is uncertain and
interpretation may be confused.
d) When there are too many links in the communication line there could be distortion
of message. For instance, when the message has to pass through many people
there is a possibility of each person interpreting the message in his/her way. By
the time the message gets to the actual receiver the message would have
undergone change that would be far from the intended meaning.
36
3. Problems in receiving the message:
a) Physical distraction: The receiver may have physical impairment (hard of hearing,
poor eye sight) that could cause hindrance in understanding the message.
b) Lack of concentration: 'lbe receiver may not have enough capacity to concentnttc
and may Jet his/her mind wander off the message- i.e. sometimes we arc thinking
of some other issue when a person is telling us something else. This is a big
hindrance in communication process.
4. Problems in understanding the message :
a) Differentcultmal background, such as education, social status, economic position,

etc. could become a hitidrance in the process of understanding the message.
b) Different interpretation of words: Tills happens when the receiver is not familiar
with a particular language. For example, the receiver may not be computer
literate and hence, may not understand the computer language that the sender is
using.
c) Different emotional reaction: The message consists ofboth the content meaning
and relationship meaning. The me.<;sage may be clear, but the manner in which it
is expressed or worded may not be acceptable to the receiver. When the message
is not acceptable, then it may give rise to negative feelings and the communication
can breakdown and not receive proper response.
~ Activity C :
Identify the problems that you encountered while developing the message for your sales
personnel regarding the increase in their sales target.
37
2.5 SPECIAl, PROBLEMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

All communication is prone to misunderstanding, but business in particular is more prone
to misunderstanding because of its complex nature. Besides being complex, business
communication has limited opportunities for feedbacks and hence, difficult to correct
misunderstandings.
l. Complexity of the message :
a) In the process of business communication. one must communicate both as an

individual as well as a representative of the organization. These two roles could
conflict with each other. For instance, there could be a situation where as an
individual you may not agree with the content of the message, but as a
representative of the organization you may have no choice but to send the
message.
b) At times you may be called upon to develop and deliver message that may be
difficult to express due to the difficult nature of the subject matter. This could
become a problem as well as a challenge to develop the message in clear terms.
c) Business situations are not always easy and smooth sailing. There are momentll
when you may be asked to prepare a message under difficult conditions. or
within the constraints of time and money, or even in collaboration with people
with little or no knowledge of the subject. All these situations could become
problematic in communication process.
d) Another problem of business communication is to develop message, in the

capacity of a responsible representative of the organization, in a manner that
would please everybody in the chain of command.
2. Difficult conditions for transmission and reception:
a) One of the major problems of business communication is to get across your

message to your audience. This is due to the fact that there are many layers of
message processors or filters between the sender and the receiver- such as
secretaries, assistant<;, receptionist<;, and answering machines. Getting through
these filters can become a problem in business communication.
b) If filters pose a problem in business communication, distillers also become equally

problematic. Distillers are those through whom the message gets translated,
interpreted, distorted, and even added upon before it is received.
38
t:nit 2 Process of Communication
c) Once the message is received, the receiver may be distracted by much other
interference from work or other sources, which may not allow him/her to
understc:md the message in peace. In other words, the message docs not get the
receiver's undivided attention due to the nature of business situation.
3. Differences between the sender and the receiver:
a) In business the communication process is often between people who are

separated by differences in function, status, allegiance, etc. The sender deals
with the unknown or less known receiver/audience. This makes commm1ication
more difficult. In order to overcome this problem, it is necessary for the sender
to establish credibility through the message- i.e. getting the unknown or less
known audience to trust the sender of the message.
b) If the business communication involves the sender and the unknown or less
known audience, then it is equally important for the sender to anticipate the
needs and reactions of the receiver. Each time the receiver of the message is
different, the approach of communicating the message must also change.
~ Activitv D ;
a) As the Manager of a Sales Division, what steps would you take to overcome the
various filters that would distort your message to your sales personnel about the
increase in their sales target?
b) Give an example of communication where one can see that the differences between
the sender and receiver has caused a problem.
39
2.6 APPROACHES TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

- - - - - -- -- - - --- - - -- - - ---- - - - - - - - --
Many approaches have been developed to make business communication effective. Here
are some of the approaches.
1. Important C's in Communication:

Correct Correct facts, right time of delivering message, and suitable style.
Clear Clarity of thought and expression.
Candid Communication should be without bias; objective a-;sessment of
facts.
Complete Full details should be given, without leaving room for doubts.
Concise Communication should contain just necessary but sufficient
infonnation.
Consistent Communication should be consistent with organizational
objectives.
Coherent Communication should be well organized and logically ammged.
Courteous Communication should be delivered in polite language.
Credible Whatever is said or written should be believable.
Chronological There should be a sequence of time and priority in the message.
Considerate Consideration should be given to the receiver rather than the
sender.
Compassing Communication should encompass all organizational needs.
2. ''PRIDE" Model :
George T. Vardaman & Patricia B. Vardaman have developed this modeL The word
PRIDE stands as an acronym for Purpose, Receiver, Impact, Design. and Execution.
All these factors are necessary for effective communication.
Purpose It refers to the purpose that the sender is trying to achieve- i.e.
target of communication. This means to idcntify the exact purpose
of communication.
Receiver The sender should know the psychology and competence of the
receiver in order to communicate the message.
40
Gnit 2 Proces~ of Communication
Impact Communication should be such that it has the necessary affect

upon the receiver so as to achieve the purpose of the
communication.
Design This refers to the planning of the communication. It should be

organized and developed so that it can achieve the des~ impact
upon the receiver.
Execution The final stage ofcommunication is implementation ofthe planned

message. Communication will fail if it is not properly carried out.
3. Ten Commandments of Effective Communication:

(Prepared by American :\-fanagemcnt Association).
a) Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating.

b) Examine the true purpose of each communication.
c) Consider the total physical and human setting whenever you communicate.
d) Consult with others, where appropriate, in planning communication.
e) Be mindful of the overtones as well as of basic content of your message.
f) Take opportunity, when it arises, to convey something of help or value to the
receiver.
g) Follow up your communication.
h) Commw1icate for tomorrow as well as for today.
i) Be sure your actions support your communication.
j) Seek not only to be understood, but also to understand.
2.7 GUIDELINES TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION

1. Create the Message Carefully :
Communication is a creative act; an act in which you help your audience to understand
and accept your message. As a creative act one must follow the given steps.
a) Purpose- to bring the audience closer to your views.
i) Define your goal in communication [Why are you sending the message?
What do you want your audience to know or do?]
41
ii) Know the position of your audience LWhat do they know at the present?
What do they need to know? What is their general background?]
iii) Usc words in a manner that will bridge the audience from their present
position to your point of view.
b) :Frame of Reference - give your audience a framework for understanding the

message.
i) At the outset tell the audience what they can expect to gain [if there is
nothing to gain your audience will have nothing to look forward to].
n) Give a broad outline- general map of your message [this will help the
listeners/readers to follow the path of your thoughts].
iii) Guide the audience along the path of your thought and message.
iv) Emphasize on the major landmarks [ideas, concepts] of your message [this
will help the audience to easily link your thoughts in a cohesive manner].
c) Memorable- help your audience to understand and remember the message.

0 Since business communication involves subject that is technical, abstract,
and difficult use concrete language- i.e. balance general concepts with
specific illustrations.
n) Give specific details, which will be remembered by your audience.
d) Select information that directly contributes to the present message.

i) Focus on few selected ideas that need to be conveyed [too many ideas or
concepts will result in deviation from the point of the message].
ii) Develop each idea/concept adequately and explain them sufficiently.
iii) Arrange the selected ideas/concepts in a logical sequence Lthis will help
your audience to grasp your message and evaluate it rationally1.
e) Connect your message to the receiver's frame of reference.

Mind plays an important role in the process of communication. During the proce...;;s
of communication the mind is actively involved in selecting and judging the ideas
presented with its existing ideas [frame of reference].
42
Ifnew ideas are not connected to the existing idea<; of the mind there is a possibility
of the new idea<; being lost- i.e. the receiver cannot understand the new ideas
and hence his mind rejects them. Hence, the sender must be able to link the new
ideas to the existing ideas of his audience. This means the sender should be in a
position to assess the frame of mind of his audience.
f) ffighlight and summarize the key ideas or point'i.
This is important because just as the sender helps to open the mind of his/her
audience so also he/she should be able to close the mind of the audience when
the message is ended. A message has a beginning and an end. Just as how to
begin the message is important so also how to close the me.o:;sage is important.
The best way to close the message is to briefly re-view the ideas presented-
emphasizing the key ideas, concepts, or thoughts and summarizing the whole
message in a brief but cohesive manner.
2. Minimize Noise I Interference:
Even the most carefully constructed message will fail to achieve results if it does not
reach the receiver. In other words, there arc many possibilities for the message to get
distorted on its way from the sender to the receiver. Ultimate goal of any communication
is that the receiver gets the meaning of the message as close to as intended by the
sender. To achieve this goal there factors that have to be remembered.
If the message is in print or written fmm it should be physically appealing as well as

easy to comprehend. Here the choice of material used along with the choice of format
is important. Attention must also be given to the quality of type used for writing the
massage.
In the case of oral delivery, attempt should be made to eliminate environmental

disturbances, which can cause interference in hearing and understanding the message.
Location of the delivery of the message must be conducive with adequate lighting,
good acoustics, and few visual distractions.
As the sender of the message you should be as inconspicuous as possible- i.e. your
dressing should not be very loud, which will catch the attention of the audience. Be
modestly and appropriately dressed so as not to become too obvious. Otherwise,
you outfit would become a major distraction to the audience.
43
Another way to minimize noise or interference is to deliver your message directly to

the intended audience- i.e. without any intermediaries.
3. Facilitate Feedback :
This me<ms to provide opportunity to the audience for feedback. However, in business
communication there is very little chance for feedback, because of the nature of
message delivery that does not provide feedback loop. In case of face-to-face
conversation, feedback is immediate and clear.
The main objective of the feedback is to know whether your message has been
clearly understood and accepted. To achieve this the sender should plan his/her
message in a way that would encourage feedback. Although feedback is useful, it can
become hindrance for the sender who may not have control over the communication
situation.
To maintain control over the communication the sender should choose an appropriate
way of obtaining feedback. For instance, if you want immediate feedback then face-
to-face communication is useful , but if the feedback is not required then written
document is good enough.
Feedback is not always easy to get. When there is a need for feedback then you may
have to draw the feedback by asking specific questions pertaining to the message.
One impmtant factor to remember in getting feedback is to be a good listener.
Concentration is required when feedback is being received.
In business situation feedback plays an important role, because it from the feedbackc;
that openness and improvement comes. It helps build congeniality in the business
environment
RS Activity E :
Consider that as a Manager of a Sales Division you are conducting a meeting with your
sales personnel regarding the ways to improve the sales of the company.
a) How would you encourage feedback from you sales personnel?
--------------------------------------------------------- ---
44
b) What precautions would you take to minimize interferences?
2.8 SUMlVIARY
Communication process can be described form different perspective, such as imparting,

sharing, or assumption. When the emphao;;io;; is on imparting information then the Transmission
model is used; when sharing of information is the emphasis then the Reciprocal model is
used; and when the emphasis is on the shared assumption then the Highlighting Assumption
model is used.
Process of communication has five chains of events- the sender ha<; an idea; idea becomes
a message; message is transmitted: receiver gets the message; and receiver responds and
sends feedback to the sender. In each of these chains of events there is a possibility of
noise- i.e. disturbances of interferences, which could hinder the message being received
as intended. These interferences or barriers in communication could be due to factors
such as developing the message, transmitting message, understanding message, or even
receiving the message. Business communication has its own special problems due to the
complexity of the business environment.
To build effectiveness of communication care should be taken in developing the message,

using appropriate medium, giving consideration to the receiver, and the environment in
which the delivery ofthe message takes place. There are various approaches to effective
communication such as the Important C's, PRIDE Model, and the ten Commandments of
Communication. Guidelines to improve communication have been listed for effective
conummication.
45
-
Business Conununication
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It has often been said that the business of business is to make profits. However, behind
making profits, there lies a more fundamental function ofbusiness that is vital for the business
of business. That fundamental function of business is communication. Imagine if there was
no communication in a business organization; would there be any function at all? Therefore,
it would not be out of place to state that to accomplish the business of business
communication is essential. Communication is the very essence of business.
Communication is very closely associated with human behaviour. Understanding of human

behaviour enables us to apply itc;; principles to communication psychology. Psychologist<;
study individual behaviour; sociologists study group behaviour; and anthropologists study
cultural behaviour. These studies have provided us with theories that are useful in
understanding humcm behaviour.
Despite the fact that so much studies have been done in the field of human behaviour- i.e.
how and why most people behave the way they do- there are always exceptions. We can
never have a complete know ledge of human behaviour, and this lack of understanding
gives rise to mishaps in communication. Consequently, much time is lost in rectifying these
mishaps in communication. Hence, it is imperative that we understand what communication
is made-up of and develop skill for them.
Behaviour- what we do and say- tells us much about ourselves. Remember, all behaviour
is communicative; and communication is the index of our behaviour. Therefore, developing
the communication skillc;; imply tnmsforming our behavioural pattern. This transformation
is not an easy task, but a conscious and a deliberate act.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION PSYCHOLOGY
By communication psychology we mean the study of human behaviour that affects the
communication process, ac;; well as communication that affects human behaviour. According
to Abraham Maslow. a famous psychologist, most people will respond positively to
messages that will meet their particular needs at particular times. In other words, our
needs determine our reaction to the message. To be a successful communicator, you should
be able determine the needs of the people to whom you are communicating. Furthermore,
you should also be able to discern the affects of your communication, through your body
and language, on the audience.
The principles of communication psychology are as follows:

• Needs determine behaviour in the communication process.
50
Cnit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
• Body language determines behavioural pattern.

• Verbal language detenninc behavioural pattern.
1. Needs Determine Behaviour :
Here we shall make usc ofMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs to understand the influence of
needs on the communication process. According to Maslow there arc five sets of needs:
a) Physiological needs Basic physical needs

b) Security Need to be safe
c) Social/Affiliation Need to belong
d) Esteem Need to be somebody
e) Self-actualisation Need to help others and to be creative
All these needs influence human behaviour in the process of communication.
a) Basic Physical Needs : Consider that you are attending a business seminar, which
begins at 8 am. You are thereafter having had a good breakfast, and you are
comfortable and attentively listening to the speaker. Come 12 noon and your behaviour
begins to change. You are beginning to feel hungry and arc restless, and beginning to
loose concentration. Your physical need has impacted your behaviour and the message
is meaningles..<:>.
b) The Need to be Safe : While attending the seminar you receive a message from one
of your relatives that your father, who is living in another city, has suddenly taken ill.
Such news shatters your sense of safety and security, and you arc disturbed. You can
no longer pay attention to what the speaker is saying. There could be many other
reasons that could affect your sense of security and alter your behaviour. This altered
behaviour could influence reception of communication adversely.
c) The Need to Belong: We communicate freely with family and friends, who provide
us with a sense ofbelongingness. Even at workplace we need to belong to a group to
communicate without being inhibited. Opposed to the idea of belonging is alienation.
This is one of the most dreadful experiences that anyone could have. To be alienated
means to be ex-communicated. During the medieval age Christianity used
excommunication as an instrument of punishment. Any person who was
excommunicated was cut-off the entire society, to the extent that he would not even
be given water when thirsty. To be a member of a society means to be an integral part
of it.
51
d) The Need to be "Somebody": Another important need of human beings is to be

recognized or respected. We can be somebody provided others recognize us as
somebody. Often it is the attitude of others that indicate whether they respect us or
not Have you ever had your boss call you into his office that makes you feel that you
were called in for what you think would be an important meeting? You think that your
boss recognizes you as someone with whom he could discuss serious matters. Yet
while you were with the boss he pays little attention to what you are saying by allowing
interruptions. Soon you begin to get the feeling that the boss does not recognize you
and that makes you feel insignificant, and perhaps even want to leave. When the need
to be "somebody" is not fulfilled the communication process is interrupted.
e) The Need to help others and to be Creative: At all the above levels we need to
help or be helped to overcome anxieties and fears. As coll1.I1i.unicator we need to
develop sensitivity to the needs of our audience. This would make two things to
happen:
i) Willingness to help people who are still struggling on the lower rung of the ladder,
those still striving to meet the physical, safety and security needs, and
ii) Become more creative, because creative people make a better quality oflifc for
everyone around.
2. Body-Language Determines Behaviour :
This could also be captioned as non-verbal communication, which has been defined by
Bartol & Martin as "communication by means elementli and behaviours that arc not coded
into words". This definition suggests that non-verbal mode of communication indicates the
behavioural pattern of the communicators. Cultural and environmental differences contlibute
to conscious or unconscious body movements that communicate our true feelings. Most
people believe that the manner in which you say something is more important than what
you say with words.
Non-verbal communication often accompanies verbal (oral) communication. However,

another vital feature of non-verbal communication is that most of the time we are
communicating (generally to the people around us) without using words, by the way we
walk, sit, dress, etc. In the process of developing communication skills, it is essential that
we also make a conscious effort to improve our non-verbal communication pattern.
a) Facial Expressions: Aspi Doctor & Rhoda Doctor in their book Principle and
Practices ofBusiness Communication suggest that Charles Darwin believed that
52
L'nit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimem,ions of Business Communication
facial expressions show emotions, which originated in our evolutionary past Hence,
people from all over the world, even if they speak different languages and belong to
different cultures, usc a common pattern of facial expressions to show emotions.
Facial expressions, which result from the usc of eyes, eyebrows, and lips, are universal
in their nature and application. Universal facial expressions arc used to show the
following emotions: happiness: surp1ise, fear, smTow, etc.
In Asian countries like India the eyes have a special role to play in conveying message.
For instance, eyes convey definite meanings in the dance form ofBharatnatyam and
Kathakali. When used with verbal communication, facial expressions can enlarge
and sometimes even change the verbal message. They can also either encourage or
discourage feedback. Non-verbal communication using eye movements is called
''oculesics''.
b) Gestures: They arc movements of the hands, the head, or the body to indicate an
idea or a feeling. Gestures are culturally based. In other words. ce1tain gesture may
be acceptable in one culture, while it may be deplored in another culture. For example,
laying h~md on someone's head in India would indicate giving blessings, while in the
Buddhist culture one is not suppose to touch another's head, since it considered
sacred. Crossing one's ankles over the knees while sitting is considered rude in
Indonesia. Thailand, and Syria. Pointing your index finger toward yourself insults the
other person in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
Gestures arc indicative of the behavioural patterns that are unique to specific culture.
Hence, they should be seen or perceived in the proper manner and context. This calls
for developing an awareness of how to interpret gestures.
c) Body Movements and Posture: While ge.">tures pertain to the movements of parts
of the body, posture has to do with the manner in which we carry ourselves. Posture
is an impmtant element in body language as it often gives a key to the personality of
a person as well as tells us about the person. We are very familiar with the references
made by cricket commentators to the body lang11age of the players- confidence or
diffidence of the team members is obvious in their body language. Body movements
and posture appropriate for one person may not be suitable to another. Por instance,
how do we perceive a man who has the body movements like that of a lady? Posture
and movements also convey definite message about one's age or state of health.
"Kinesic" behaviour, which includes all body movement~ and gestures, mean diiierent
things in different cultures. Sometimes behaviours that are meaningless in one culture
have distinct meanings in another culture.
53
d) Silence: Paradoxical as it may sound, we do communicate with the help of silence.

Sometimes we are so overwhelmed by emotions that we arc speechless- our silence
speaks of our strong feelings. There arc certainly many occasions when "silence is
more eloquent than words". Come to think of it our speech is always punctuated by
silence. Good communicators are aware of the value of silence.
Silence communicates messages in silence. A long silence could mean one thing,
while a short silence may mean another. Silence conveys meanings that indicate the
behaviour of a person- such as lack of interest, apathy, indifference, etc.
Writer Joseph DeVito mentions the following functions of silence:

i) To allow the speaker time to think
ii) To isolate one's self
iii) To hurt someone
iv) To prevent further communication
v) To communicate emotional responses
vi) To say nothing
In business communication too, silence is often made usc of.
e) Space and Proximity: Each one of us a sense of personal space around us that is
guarded against intruders. We also try not to intrude on the personal space of others.
Space and proximity play an important part in the communication process. The
influence that space and proximity have on communication is known as "proxemics".
For instance, when we enter the office of a senior executive we keep a certain distance.
The more senior the executive, the more the distance or proximity we maintain.
Thble 3.1 : Proxemic Categories
Space Category Typical US Proxemics

Public Space > 12 feet
Social Space 4 to 12 feet
Personal Space 1.5 to 4 feet
Intimate Space < 1.5 feet
54
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Busincs~ Communication
i) Intimate Space or Zone is what we could identify as that space where all our
body movements occur. This is the zone that belongs to each one of us and in
which we move throughout the day. Business associates do not enter this space
frequently, but only to shake hands or to pat someone on the back.
ii) Personal Space or Zone extends from 18 inches to about 4 feet in which
conversation with close friends takes place. This is the space where normal
talking is frequent. Some business interactions take place in this zone, such as
business lunches.
iii) Social Space or Zone extends from 4 feet to about 12 feet. This is an importcmt
zone for business, because most business exchanges occur in this zone. such as
informal business conferences and staff meetings
iv) Public Space or Zone extends from 12 feet and beyond. This is the most formal
zone, and the least significant interactions occur here. Because of the great
distance, communication in the public zone is often one way- from the speaker
to the audience.
We can also draw some generalizations about intcrcultuml Proxcmics. In gencml.

most people from Latin America. Middle Eastern, and southern European
countries are comfortable with less distance between the individuals than most
people from the United States. Similarly, people from many Asian cultw·es prefer
more distance between them than do most people from the United States. This
explains why you may take a step away from or toward a person you arc working
with from another culture.
f) Dress & Grooming: The manner and style of dressing also plays an important role
in non-verbal communication. Every morning when we ask ourselves "What should I
wear today?" we mean, ''What do I want the people around me to know about me?"
Dress and grooming informs the people about us. We wish to make a good impression
upon the people, because people judge you by the way you dress -the colour of
your dress, how well it is unwrinkled, the looks of your shoes, etc. Your appearance
is also judged by the tidiness of your hair, body odour, etc.
In many developing countries, workers, whether in offices or industries, are provided

with facilities whereby they will always look fresh and dean. In these countries you
may not get a job if you don't dress well or appear clean, or smell good. Dress code
and grooming has become an important element of corporate culture.
55
r
g) Colour: Colour plays such an important role in our lives that, as far as English is
concerned; colour symbolism has become a part of the language. Thus, in English we
use phrases such as "green with envy", "pink of health", feeling "blue", etc. Business
world also makes use of the colour-language- "in the red" refers to a company going
in a loss, or "in the black" when it does well.
Colours arc used to convey messages, not only at the individual level, but also at the level
of community and nation. For example, Hindu clergy wear saffron, Christian mourners
wear black; and each country has its own flag with distinct colours, so do many army
regiments, schools, and colleges.
Besides all these usc of colours, they also have significant psychological effect Fro instance,
light colours have soothing effect on people, white colour excites and dark colours depress.
When a classroom in US was painted red it was found that misbehaviour among students
had increased.
Colours not only inform us about people but also affect the behaviour of human beings.
Henry Dreyfuss, after considerable research, offers the following table to show the positive
and negative messages of certain colours.
Table 3.2
Colour Positive Message Negative Message

- -
Warmth Death
Pac;;sion War
Red I
life Revolution
j
Liberty Devil
Patriotism Danger
Religious Doubt
Blue Feeling Discouragcment
I Devotion
I 'Iruth
Justice
- -
Intuition Coward·ICC
Yellow Wisdom Malevolenee
Divinity Impure Love
- -
56
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
Nature . Envy
Hope Jealousy
C'.rreen Freshness Opposition
Prosperity Disgrace
.
Power Mourning
Royalty Regret
Purple Love of Truth Penitence
Nostalgia Resignation
-----
Source: !bpi Doctor & Rhoda Doctor, 'Principles and Practices of Business Communication'.
Mumbai: Sheth Publishers Pvt.l.td., pg 41
3. Language Affects Behaviour :
The words we use can make us behave in different ways. To communicate successfully,
we must remember that words are only symbols, to which people add meaning. Two
people may interpret the same word differently. Here is an anecdote that illustrates the
affect of language on our behaviour.
Once when the Master [enlightened person} spoke of the hypnotic power ofwords,
someone from the back of the room shouted: "You are talking nonsense! If I say
God, God, God will that make me divine? And if I say Sin, Sin, Sin 'fvill it make me
evil?
"Sit down, you stupid idiot!" shouted the Master.
The man became so livid with rage that it took some time to recover his speech.
Then he screamed a torrent of abuse at the Master.
The Master, looking contrite, said, "Pardon me, sir, I was carried away. I truly
apologize for my unpardonable lapse."
The man calmed down immediately.
"Well, there you have your answer: all it took was a word to give you a fit and
another to sedate you, " said the Mastet:
Source: Anthony De Mello, One-Minute Nonsense
57
Rusincss Communication
25 Activity A :
a) What proxemics would you allow yourself in the following situations?
i) Talking to your boss
ii) Talking to your colleague _ _
iii) Making a speech,_ __ _ _ _ _ __
iv) Speaking to your spouse_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
b) Identify the types of needs the following situations depict:

i) Your boss is unhappy with your performance_
ii) Isolated from grapevine group_
iii) Your boss invites you to share your inputs_ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ _
iv) You are called upon to assist your fellow-worker_ __ _ _ _ _ _ __
3.3 COMMUNICTING ACROSS CULTURES

Compared to the last two decades a very large number of young Indian executives and
professionals now routinely communicate with people from other cultures, especially
American and European. Here we shall take a look at some aspects in which cultural
values that shape our lives are fundamentally different from the Western ones. Understanding
the differences between our cultural values and those of the West will help us communicate
better with the Westerners.
1. What is "Culture"?
Culture is our understanding of acceptable actions and beliefs. Each of us grows up in a

culture that provides pattern of acceptable behaviour and belief. It is the background over
against which all our actions and beliefs become meaningful. We are not aware of this
background most of the times - like the glasses that we wear through which we see, but
are not aware that we are seeing through the glasses. However, not until we come in
contact with someone different from our culture that we become aware of our cultural
background.
Culture can be seen as the way we live, the clothes we wear, and the thoughts we think. It
is the collection of values that sustain and direct or lives. The influence of culture on
communication is so strong that anthropologist Edward Hall says," culture is communication
58
and communication is culture". Differences in cultural values and perceptions can be an

invisible source of great misunderstanding between people of different regions.
Until a few years ago, before the globalisation of the Indian economy, and before information
technology exploded on the Indian scene, it was just a small minority of middle and senior
managers and senior bureaucrats who needed to communicate across cultures. Their age,
experience, and exposure to the world in general perhaps protected them from serious
communication problems stemming from inter-cultural differences. But today even young
executives, fresh from colleges, have to interact with people from different cultures.
Not all of them may go abroad, but most of them would have to communicate with foreigners
through e-mail or phone. Attempting to communicate across cultures without adequate
preparation may lead them into serious problems.
2. The East versus the West :
Anyone who want<; to deal with people from a particular country should prepare themselves
by studying it..:; culture and history, so that they can avoid at least the more serious problems
of communication that result from cultural differences.
We shall consider some fundamental Indian values and compare them with the Western
ones, primarily because we have to communicate with them whether we like it or not.
They control the world trade; they control money matters; they control science and
technology. They set the rules for the world and we have to play by their rules.
There is another reason why we should take Western culture seriously. Western values
and practices are being adopted all over the world. The rest of the world is exposed to
them through electronic media that is totally dominated by the West, and through their
multinational companies.
We should, however, remember that the West is not one whole culture with unifmm values.
There are many countries, culture.<>, languages, and peoples that makeup what we call as
the West.
There are differences, yet there are similarities that bind them into together. For instance,
America and Europe arc Westerners yet they arc different in many ways.
Hence, it is important that we make proper distinction and avoid over generalisations and
simplifications.
59
a) Heart versus Mind
We Indians are driven more by our heart than our mind. I jke everyone else, we have
rules and regulations, but we tend to succumb to the demands of the present. Take
the instance of traffic lights at a crossing. We will break the traffic rules if we have to
in order to meet our appointment, or for that matter. we do not need a reason for
violating any rules, if we can.
We have long-term plans, but those plans could easily change if we encounter any
hurdle. The here and now is important for us, for which we arc more than willing to
change our plans or break the rules.
M.M. Monippally, in his book Business Communication Strategies, puts it aptly:

'We sacrifice the future at the altar of the present". We are capable of taking decisions
without much planning. This might sound ridiculous, but a cursory glance around us
will indicate that we take so many decisions without planning.
For example, the manner in which our cities are built- no proper plans for housing,
roads, utilities, etc. Our actions are without plans; they are based on ad-hoc decisions.
Westerners are fundamentally different in their approach to planning. They sacrifice

the present for the sake of the future, which they create with thorough planning.
The future drives them says Monippally. They are less flexible towards the demands
of the present situation. They invest heavily in planning the future and are confident
that they will pull through the present situation, if any.
b) Particularists versus L'niversalists
Fons Trompenaars, in his book, Riding the Waves ofCulture, calls the Westerners
as "Universalists". Universalism believes that what is good and right can be defined
and can be applied always everywhere. For example, rules and regulations must be
obeyed. Westerners like to change rules rather than bend them to accommodate
individual cases. We Indians arc quite capable of bending rules to accommodate
individuals who happen to be influential. The Westerners believe that what is good
for all is applicable to everyone; if something is not good for one then change it and
make it applicable for all. Indians believe that what is good for one need not be
applicable for all.
However, Westerners, driven by universalism, go to the extent that what is good for
them is also good for the rest of the world. They try to impose their logic, their values
60
Cnit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimension~ of Business Communication
and their system on the rest of the world. They write down in detail the standard
operating procedure for manufacturing a product or rendering a service. Then they
insist that the procedure be followed in all respects. So whosoever manufactures the
product or renders the service in whatever country or under whatever conditions, the
quality is the same. Our approach is more informal. We do not follow the procedures
as long as the work is accomplished. This has adverse affect on the quality of
workmanship.
Westerners are also known for their meticulous nature in gathering data and using
statistics extensively to draw universal principles, and this enables them to lead the
rest of the world. They do not depend upon the intuition of the people, but rely on the
sciences and the power of statistics to draw their inferences and conclusions.
Monippally hac; put it very aptly: ''Their predictions arc based on analysis of the well
documented past and the well-studied present".
These fundamental differences in perspectives can cause serious problems when we

communicate with the Westerners. Here are some tips Pons Trompcnaars gives
particularists on how to deal with the universalists.
i) Be prepared for 'rational', professional arguments.
ii) Do nottake 'get down to business' attitude as rude.
iii) Carefully prepare legal ground with a lawyer if in doubt.
iv) Suive for consistency and uniform procedures.
v) Institute formal and public ways of changing the way business is conducted.
vi) Seek fairness by treating all like cases in the same way.
c) Specific versus Diffused Relationship
Another noticeable feature of the Western culture is the compartmentalisation of

relationships between people. A colleague is a colleague. nothing more and nothing
less. Someone docs not become the member of one's circle of friends just because
they work together. Similarly, a neighbour is only a neighbour, even if two people live
side by side for a long time. Such relations arc kept separate. Work and personal
lives are distinctly separated. Privacy is tightly guarded and highly prized.
In contrast. our relationship with people tends to be diffused. For instance, in a work
situation a colleague can make demands on us that arc not work-related. We may be
expected to do things for our boss that is not related to the work in the office. Refusing
61
to do such favours could have bad repercussions. We do not separate our relations
tightly. Moreover, when requests are turned down we tend to take it seriously, which
affects our relations.
Making requests for us is not easy, because the person we request might say 'yes'
when he really means 'no'. We arc not straightforward in our approach to request<;.
Westerners will not hesitate to say 'no', if they do not wan! to comply with your
request. Here is an anecdote that Monippally narrates from Trainload ofJokes and
Anecdotes, edited by K. R. Vaidyanathan.
In a train, a personable young man asked the pro.sperous rniddle-aged man

sitting opposite him: "Excuse me, sir, can you tellrne the time please?"
"No!" barked the other man.
"B-but... "
"No buts! I've got my reasons. You're a nice young fellow. If I tell you the time,
we'll start up a conversation. Then we'll get offat the same station; you'll offer
me a drink. I'll invite you to my place for dinner alld you' II meet my daughta"
Shes a charming girl," continued the middle-aged man, "and you'll be pleasant
to ha Next thing you !mow~ you'll be asking my permission to marry her. You
don't expect me to consent to my daughter marrying a man who doesn't even
have a watch, do you?"
d) Nepotism versus Meritocracy
In the West nepotism is remarkably low compared to India. Here even the private
sector, leave alone the government and public sector. is not entirely free from employing
the relations of top managers. The merit for employment is kinship, not competence.
And kinship can encompass not only blood relations, hut also people from the same
village. The Western way of separating work from life helps companies hire people
who, in their judgement, will perform the tasks best. Without such compartmentalise
relationships between and life, meritocracy would not have taken such strong roots in
the US.
e) Hire-and-Fire Policy
In the West hire-and-fire policy is widely practiced. This practice is also derived
from their ability to compartmcntalise relationships. A person is hired on the basis of
how much he/she can allow the system to extract the work out of them. Just as an
62
Unit 3 Psychological and Culturnl Dimc:nsions of Business Communication
object is selected to perform a function in a machine, so also a person is selected, not

only on the basis of ability, but also on the basis of the willingness to be used by the
system so that the system can function. When the person cannot be functional within
a system, then the person is discarded from the system.
In contrast the Indian approach to employment is different. Many employees are

kept in their job not because the employer needs them but because they need the job
for their livelihood. The best example is the government and public sector, where the
objectives are not economic in nature but social. In India everyone perceives as
harsh and heartless firing a person when his services are no longer needed or when
the person is unable to perform. In fact, the public sector undettaking goes so far as
to offer a job to a dependent in case of the demise of the earning member.
This is done on the grounds of compassion and not the basis of merit. An Indian
employer does not hire just certain technical or professional skills relevant to the
firm's requirement, but the whole person. This makes it difficult for the employer to
assess the performance of the employee without considering the person as a whole.
For instance, if a person is not efficient in his/her work but has a good nature that
appeals to his/her boss then the person is retained at work.
f) Individualism
This is another characteristic of the Western society, particularly the American, in

which everyone is for one's self. Everyone in the US is expected to take care of
himself/herself. A person's self-interest is dominant as long a~ one takes care of one\
self.
Here is an interesting way in which Jacob Braude answers the question "What is
Americanism?" in his book Braude s 1t-easury of Wit and Humour:
·'If you want your father to take care of you, that is paternalism. If you want your
mother to take care of you, that is maternalism. If you want Uncle Sam to take care
of you. that is Socialism. But if you wantto take care of yourseu·, that is Americanism".
l Quoted by M. M. Monippally in Business Communication Strategies I

An average Westerner is more self-reliant and capable of taking independent decision
then most Jndian counterpart. Independence is a very strong value that is inculcated
in Westerners from their childhood. Most young men and women leave their homes
when they turn eighteen and earn their own livelihood. They make their own decisions
for every facet of their life.
63
In contrast, we arc brought up in a group/family that comprises, not only of father,

mother, brothers, and sisters, but also of aunts and uncles, cousins. and elders, in the
family or outside the family. We arc not encouraged to be independent, but rely most
of the times upon the elders to make decisions for us. To compensate this limitation
on independence the fan1il y, or the extended family offers the individual a wide safety
zone. An individual can always return to this zone of safety for support in case of
misfortune.
'This has its bearing on work-situation. The importance given in the West to individualism
and assumption of responsibility for one's actions, there is generally less consultation
and quicker decision-making. Consensus on a decision is not very important. If there
is no consensus then the majority decision is accepted by all.
In India, when there is a difference of opinion, then serious and sustained cffmts arc
made to arrive at a consensus. When there is no consensus there is a possibility to
defer decision taken. People in authority try to get the support of others concerned
for decision-making. At times meetings are convened merely to make it appear that
decision-making is collective.
g) Notion of Time
Time is yet another fundamental aspect of life, in which different cultures have different
perceptions. Punctuality is a fundamental value for most Westemers. ·fhe importance
of time in industrial society has it"> roots in the affects of Industrial Revolution of the
19th century.
Alvin Toffler points out in his book The Third Wave, that with the advent of
industrialisation many social institutions can1e into existence. One such institution that
came into prominence wa.<; educational institution. In it there were two types of curricula
- one that was overt and other the covert.
The overt cutriculum had subject such as history, geography, mathematics, etc. While
the covert curriculum, which was geared to preparing people from rural areas for
factory jobs, consisted of obedience and punctuality.
In the West time is treated as being linear- i.e. it flows only in forward direction. For
the Westerners time is money, and hence one must make the most of the time available.
They allocate time for each activity and stick to their schedule. Their diaries nm their
lives. They do not like to alter their plans once they are made.
64
Unit 3 Pl>ychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
In the US you just cannot decide to go and visit you friend or son or daughter without
phoning them and fmding if it is convenient to visit them.
For us, in India, time is not a linear, but cyclic in nature. Hence, it is not a limited
resource. Monippally opines: "Perhaps the idea of the cycle of rebirth, lodged deeply
in our collective psyche, takes urgency out of our concept of time''.
Westerners have just this life to achieve whatever they want to, therefore, they must
work hard and fast.
The Indians have many lives; hence, they have no need to be in hurry.
We do not take schedule or appointments too seriously. People with more important
issues are also accommodated in a schedule without appointment. Or we may readily
cancel earlier appointment<; if more important issues or people come up.
Perhaps nothing illustrates our casual attitude to time and to planning than committee
meetings. Often meetings arc called without notice, without giving the attendees the
agenda. Even when the attendees get the agenda with the staring time clearly
mentioned, meetings nu·ely start on time.
When dealing with Westerners we have to take schedules and appointments seriously.
They generally mean what they say. Arriving late causes resentment; arriving early
causes embarrassment.
It is unwise to assume that the Westerners take time the way we do.
h) Social Ladder
Our values differ from those of the West in the way we put people on the social
ladder. In India one's status depends, to a large extent, on the caste and the family
one has been born into, the position one holds currently or has held, the educational
qualification one has acquired, the connection one has, and of course age.
Hierarchy is very important in our families and organisations. Money power is

recognized, accepted, and feared but not admired.
Unless a family has been traditionally wealthy, there is a general belief that the present
prosperity might be ill gotten. Society may envy the new rich but show little respect to
them.
65
The West also has hierarchies. There is a special respect to people belonging to illustrious
families.lt recognizes educational achievements, the position one holds, and of course, the
connection one has. It, however, gives greater importance to what an individual has achieved
in the recent past, which is this tlue of the American society.
However, the French society values class more than cash.
Within organisations the hierarchy is somewhat flat in most of the Western countries.
American companies tend to have the flattest hierarchies, while Indian companies the
hierarchies are very steep. Employees, in India, at the lower end may not have access to
the top management, which is especially true of government and semi-government
organisations.
The cultural differences between the West and the East are many, and it is very easy for
people who interact cross-culturally to fall into traps that would result in misunderstandings.
Deliberate effort should be made to acquaint us with culn1res of different countries that
would enables communicating across cultures effectively.
16 Activity B :
Locate someone. preferably a businessperson, who has spent some time in another country,
and interview him or her about the experience.
a) What preparation did the person have before going to the country?
b) In what ways was the preparation adequate or inadequate?
66
c) In retrospect how would he or she have prepared differently?
d) Ask for an anecdote about particular communication problems or mistakes.
3.4 CATEGORISING CULTURES

All people acquire meaning from both verbal and nonverbal messages, but some people in
some cultures rely more on verbal communication than nonverbal communication. In
contrast, people in other cultures rely more on nonverbal communication than on verbal
communication.
Edward Hall believed that cultures vary in the reliance people place on nonverbal signals
or on verbal signals. He defined these extremes a "low-context culture'· and "high-context
culture". These categories, of course. describe broad cultural characteristics, not necessarily
individual behaviours.
• Low-context Culture refers to the dependency of the people on direct verbal

messages to communicate. These peop1c prefer explicitly stated information.
Directness is considered desirable.
• High-context Culture refers to the dependency of the people on indirect nonverbal

messages to communicate. Directness is often considered rude.
In low-context cultures, most transmitted information is contained in the message il()e}f.
On the other hand, in high-context cultures. the interpretation is primarily determined by

the communicator's nonverbal signals, which implies shared social and cultural knowledge
of the context.
67
1bis distinction has important implication for communication in organisations. Communication

in low-context cultures is more cumbersome, while comrmmication in high-context cultures
is rich in meaning.
Table 3.3
Views of Communication in High-Context and Low-Context Cultures
-
High-Context Culture Low-Context Culture
(Examples: Japan, (Examples: Germany,
United Arab Emirates) Canada, United States)
·-
Preferred communication Indirectness, politeness, Directness, confrontation,
strategy ambiguity clarity
Reliance on words to Low High
communicate
Reliance on nonverbal signs High Low
to communicate
·-
Importance of words Low High
Agreement made in writing
-
Not binding Binding
I
Agreement made orally Binding Notbindin~
Attention to detail Low High
Source: David A. Victor, 'International BusinPss Communication' .
Table 3.4 indicates the various motivational factors and how they arc perceived in different
cultures.
These motivational factors fall under the nonverbal communication. On the other hand,
oral communication requires cultural understanding.
As Table 3.5 shows, the purpose of and the information exchanged in business introductions
differs across cultures.
68
Table 3.4
Cultural Contrasts in Motivation
- -
I United States Japan Arab Countries

IEmotionalAppeal Opportunity Group Participation; Religion; Nationalism;
Company success Admiration
-
Recognition based Individual Group Achievement Individual Status; Status
on Achievement of class/society
-
Material Rewards Salary, Bonus, Annual Bonus; Social Gifts for self/family;
----f;fitsharin• Service, Fringe Salary
~ss
0
Benefits --
Threats - . - ofjob Loss of Group Demotion; Loss of
Membership Reputation
Values Competition, Group harmony; Reputation; Family
Risk taking, Belonging security; Religion
Freedom
-
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural
In sights for Global Business Success.
Table 3.5
Cultural Contrasts in Business Introductions
I 1
United States Japan Arab Countries
Purpose of Establish status Establish position in Establish personal
Introduction and job identity; group, build harmony rapport
Network
Image ofindividual Independent Member of group Part of rich culture
Information Related to Related to company Personal
business
Use of language Informal, friendly; Little talking Formal; Expression of
use first name admiration
-- -
Values Openness, Harmony; respect, Religious harmony,
directness, action listening hospitality, emotional
I
I support
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural
Insights for Global Business Success.
69
Busine~s Cnmmunication
Table 3.6
Cultural Contrasts in Written Pcrsua~ive Documents
·----------- r---------
I •
United States Japan
----------+
Arab Countries~ I
I Opening Request action or Offer thanks; i Offe: personal I
! I get reader's attention i apologize greetmgs
----'~-----'::..... - ---------
Way to persuade Immediate gain or Waiting Personal connection;
I
I
Style
Closing
loss of opportunity
Short sentences
- - - ---1---
Specific request
- ---------
Modesty; minimize
own standing
------~-
Desire to maintain
future opportunity
Elaborate
expressions; many
signatures
Future relationship;
----l
---
I
harmony _ _ _--+-]_pc_rsonal greeting~ :
;!~~enc~; directnes-s;_.__~_·~-~-\~-~-~-~-~-ss_,_ _Li

Value.<;
StaluS: continuation J
I_ _ 1 1
relationship _
Source: Farid E/aslunawi & Philip R Harris, Multicultural Managemellf 2000: Essential Cultural J
Insights for Global Business Success.
In the process of communicating through writing to international audiences, usc titles, not
first names as the Americans do. For most cultures, buffer negative messages and make
!
requests more indirect. Table 3.6 suggests that you need to modify style, structure, and i
strategy when you write to intemational audiences. Make a special effort to avoid phrases
that could be seen as an·ogant or uncaring. Cultural mistakes made orally float away on
the air: those made in writing arc pennancntly recorded.
RS Activity C :
Considering Table 3.4 how would you describe Indi<ms with respect to the:
D Emotional appeal ___

ii) Recognition based on
iii) Material rewards -
iv) Threats
v) Values --- -
70
Cnit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
3.5 TIPS FOR COMMUNICATION WITH PEOPIJE FROM OTHER

CULTURES
You may never completely overcome linguistic and cultural barriers or totally erase
ctlmocentric tendencies, but you can communicate effectively with people from other
cultw·es if you work at it. Here are some tips for handling intercultural bt!sincss
communication more effectively. These tips have been taken from J.V. Thill & C.L. Bovee,
Excellence in Busincs.s Communication.
1. Learning about a Culture :
The best way to prepare yourself to do business with people from another culture is to
study their culture in advance. Ifyou plan to do business there repeatedly, learn the language.
Even if you transact business in English, you show respect by making effort to learn the
local language. Concentrate on learning something about their history, religion, politics,
and customs. but don't ignore the practical side of life. Seasoned business travellers suggest
the following:
a) In Spain, let a handshake last for five or seven strokes; pulling away too soon may be
interpreted as a sign of rejection. In France, however, the handshake is a single
stroke.
b) Never give a gift ofliquor in Arab countries.
c) 1n England, never stick pens or other objects in your front suit pocket; doing so is
considered awkward or clumsy.
d) Allow plenty of time to get to know the people you're dealing with in Africa. They arc
suspicious of people who are in a hurry.lf you concentrate solely on the task at hand,
African will distrust you and avoid doing business with you.
e) In Arab countries, never turn down food or drink; it is an insult to refuse hospitality of
any kind. But don't be too quick to accept, either. A ritual refusall"I don't want to put
you to any trouble" or ''I don't want to be a bother"] is expected before you finally
accept.
f) Stress the longevity [age, span of life] of your company when dealing with the Germans.
Dutch, and Swiss. If your company has been around for a while, the founding date
should be printed on your business cards.
71
2. Handling Written Communication :
Intercultural business writing falls into the same general categories a-; other fonns of business
writing.
Unless you are personally fluent in the language of the intended readers, you should write
your letters in English or have them translated by a professional translator.
If you and your reader speak different languages, be especially concerned with achieving
clarity:
Some tips for handling written communication :
a) Use short, precise words that say what they mean.
b) Rely on specific terms to explain your points. Avoid abstractions altogether, or illustrate
them with concrete examples.
c) Stay away from slang, jargon, and buzz words. Such words rarely translate well. So
also avoid idioms and figurative expressions, abbreviations and acronyms. These
may lead to confusion.
d) Construct sentences that are shorter and simpler that those you usc when writing to
someone fluent in English.
e) Use short paragraphs. Each paragraph should stick to one point or topic and no
more than eight to ten lines.
f) Help readers follow your train of thought by using transitional devices. Precede related
points with expressions like in addition and first, second, third.
g) Use numbers, visual aids, and pre-printed forms to clarify your message.lbese devices
are generally understood in most cultures.
3. Handling Oral Communication :
Oral commmrication with people from other cultures is more difficult to handle than written
communication. Some transactions cannot be handled without face-to-face communication.
When engaging in oral communication, be alert to the possibilities for misunderstanding.
Be conscious of the non-verbal messages that you may be sending or receiving.
72
t:nit 3 Psychological anJ Cultural Dimensions of l3usiness Communication
To overcome the language and cultural barriers, follow these suggestions:
a) Keep an open mind. Don't stereotype the other person or react with preconceived
ideas. Regard the person as an individual first, not as a representative of another
cu1ture.
b) Be conscious of the other person's customs. Expect him or her to have different
values. beliefs, expectations, ~md mannerisms.
c) Try to be aware of unintentional meanings that may be read into your message. Clarify
your true intent by repetition and examples.
d) Listen carefully and patiently. If you do not understand a comment, ac;k the person to
repeat it.
c) Be aware that the other person's body language may mislead you. Gestures and
expressions mean different things in different cultures. Rely more on words than on
nonverbal communication to interpret the message.
f) Adapt your style to the other person's. If the other person appears to be direct and
straightforward, follow suit. If not, adjust your behaviour to match.
g) At the end of the conversation, be sure that you and the other person both agree on
what has been said and decided. Clarify what will happen next.
h) If appropriate, follow up by writing a letter or memo summarising the conversation

and thanking the person for meeting with you.
3.6 SUMMARY
The two dimensions of communication that this unit presented were the psychological and
the cultural.
The principles of communication psychology are as follows:
• ~eeds detcnnine behaviour in the communication process.
• Body language determines behavioural pattern.
• Verbal language detetmine behavioural pattern.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs that determine human behaviour in the process of

communication are. The next principle of communication psychology is the body language,
73
which influences the communication process. Body is always used in the process of
communication- such as facial expressions, gestures and posture, personal space, dress
and grooming. and colours. Equally affecting the human psychology is the use of words.
In the cultural aspect of communication we studied the differences in perspectives between

the West and the East. The differences between cultures were observed in the manner in
which business introductions are performed, ways in which documents are written. Finally
tips were given for communicating with people from different cultural backgrounds.
3.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q1. "Needs determine the behaviour in communication process". Discuss.

Q2. Explain the various aspects of nonverbal communication.
Q3. Describe at least five areas in which the Westerns differ from the Indians.
Q4. Write explanatory notes on the following:

a) High- and Low-Context Cultures
b) Culture
c) Proxemics
Q5 . State whether the following statement~ are True or False.
L We can be somebody provided others recognize us as somebody _ _ _ __
n. Non-verbal communication using eye movements is called kinesics. ____
m. Creative people make a better quality of life for everyone around. _ __ __
iv. Facial expressions cannot enlarge the verbal message._,________
v. Black colour refers to a company that is going in a loss. _ _ _ _ _ __ _
74
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A Chinese sage said: "Speech is difficult; Silence is impossible". lt is only in silence that
listening can take place. So the Chinese sage knew the importance of listening in the
process of communication. Communication can take place when both the communicators
will listen to each other. Ao;; one author put it: ''Listening is the mother of all speaking".
There is something special about face-to-face oral communication. It is the most fundamental
and natural mode of human communication. Yet human beings have not mastered the art of
communication enough to become effective communicators.
Just the ability to produce words effortlessly does not make one a gocxl oral communicator.
There is something else that is involved in communication that human beings find it hard to
master- i .c. listening.
Listening actively and attentively is vital to oral communication. Several writers on oral
communication point out that gocxllistencrs are perceived as good conversationalists even
when they speak very little. In a conversation both the speaker and the listener have to
listen simultaneously to each other for their communication to be effective. The speaker
has to listen not only to any verbal responses but also to the nonverbal symbols or signs
that the listener displays. Based on them the speaker has to detennine from moment to
moment what to say and what nonverbal signs to display with the words. Speakers who
don't care to listen to their listeners might as well talk to the walls. They cannot be good
communicators no matter how well they articulate of how knowledgeable they may be.
On the other hand, the listener's job is just as active as the speaker's. The listener has to
process the speaker's verbal and nonverbal signs and symbols and respond by his/her
own verbal and nonverbal signs and symbols to let the speaker know how his/her message
has been reconstructed. The two- speaker and listener - influence each other and alternate
their role constantly. In other words, the speaker is also a listener; a listener is also a
speaker.
Listening and listening intently is a mode of awareness. In The Dance ofChanp,e, Peter
Singe says that we have to learn to listen between the words in order to get to the deeper
level of meaning. He goes on to ask: "Have you ever been in the presence of someone
who listens closely to you? It feels discomfiting, like being stared at. People in society are
not used to living at the level of awareness .. ." lQuoted by M.M. Monippallyl Listening
intently raises the level ofcommunication; tx)lh the partners take the communication seriously.
78
Unit 4 Listening
Despite the fact that listening is essential to communication, human beings are not good
listeners. Carl R. Rogers & F.J. Roethlisbcrger state: "The biggest block to personal
communication is man· s inability to listen intelligently. understandingly and skilfully to another
person. This deficiency in the modern world is widespread and appalling". [Quoted by
M.M. Monippally] The world has shrunk; our knowledge has expanded tremend~usly;
but our awareness about listening, which is of utmost importance for communication, has
not developed.
4.2 THE ANATOMY OF POOR LISTENING
1. Why is it that our listening is not as good as it ought to be'?
M.M. Monippally gives the following explanation:
"Our brain is capable of processing 500 to 750 words a minute while people only speak
120 to 150 words a minute. The listeners use only a part of their brain to listen; they usc
their brain's spare capacity to think of other things that interest them. The result is dissipation
of attention, which leads eventually to poor listening."
We have often experienced that when someone is speaking to us our mind tends to wander
away from the speaker's message. We are listening, and yet we are not listening. We are
merely hearing, but not listening.
2. How does Listening differ from Hearing?
Too often people think that listening and hearing is the same thing, but there is a big
difference. Hearing depends upon the ears, while listening uses the mind and eyes as well.
The ear permits you to hear sounds; the mind enables you to interpret these sounds, to
recognise some of them as words, and to fashion the words into thought~ or ideas. With
your mind you are able to determine that an oral message is important, interpret the message,
and react to it.
Stark reality is that as human beings we are poor listeners. Most of us do not really listen;
we just wait to talk! Many a times, we are so preoccupied with our own thoughts, priorities,
and agendas that we do not actually listen to what the other is saying. No one can be
forced to listen. It is a skill over which every individual has complete control and it is
influenced totally by internal motivation.
Listening as a skill tends to be untaught and untrained. Schools teach us reading, writing,
speaking, and other subject<;, yet no curriculum focuses on listening. Nor is listening generally
79
a part of the training offered in today's organisations. People are expected to listen effectively,
yet they are not being prepared with the necessary skills.
l.,ee lacocca states :
"I only wish I could ftnd an institution that teaches people how to listen. After all, a good
manager needs to listen at lca<;t as much as he needs to talk ... real communication goes in
both directions."
Among many reasons for poor listening is the fact that speaking is more valued than listening.
There arc professional speakers who speak for a living. We do far more listening than
talking, yet we rarely put much cffmt to focus on reception of other's messages. When
communication problem occurs, we usually blame everyone else and do not consider that
our listening quality may be poor. We rarely see ourselves as the problem. Everyone else
has co111111unication and listening problems, hut not us!
George Eliot says :
''The people of the world are islands shouting at each other across a sea of misunderstanding."
Another problem of poor listening is that it become retaliatmy- "we don't listen to them
because they don 't listen to us". We punish others hy not listening to them. One of the
rudest things we can do to another human being is to tune him or her out.
I j stening to other people is a valuable gift that we can extend to them and it conveys
respect, esteem, and a strong sense of their dignity. Failure to listen sends a negative
message of placing low value on other person. Listening is not only a skill of communication,
hut it is also a skill of building relationship.
The only choice we have as listeners is to listen or not to listen. Often we choose not to
listen; we merely pretend to listen. So we fail to notice many verbal and nonverbal signs
and symbols displayed by the speaker. We may jump to conclusions.
'(bus, om reconstruction of meaning remains incomplete or far from the intended message.
80
Unit 4 Listening
25 Activity A :
Observe two of your fii.ends in conversation/discussion and list down some of their poor
or inadequate listening qualities:
4.3 CONTRIBUTORS TO POOR LISTENING
There are several factors -linguistic, physical, and psychological- that contribute to
poor listening.
1. Inadequate Language :
Poor listening may result from the listener's weak command over the language and narrow
range of vocabulary.
Certain words that the speaker uses may not make sense to the listener. These words
could either be technical or rare. They could even be words that are common, but used by
a particular community or a group of people in particular sense, and may be used by
speaker without realising that the particular listener may not be able to make of them.
Faced with words that arc beyond the range of the listener, he/she may not ask for
clarification because of fear or shyness or because there may not be an opportunity for
clarification.
It may also be that the listener does not ask for clarification because he/she may be expected
to know the words and their meanings. Whatever the rcac;on, it ultimately results in poor
listening.
It is also possible that the words a speaker uses may give the listener a valid meaning that
is different fi·om what is intended by the speaker.
For instance, an employer may have a gross salary in mind when quoting salary to a job
seeker. The job seeker, on the other hand, may take that figure as net salary, and not be
aware about the various cuts. In such instance the communicators have interpreted the
word "salary" differently, which may later cause misunderstanding.
81
While we nonnally ac;sociate listening with spoken words and phrases, we ought to include
nonverbal symbols -listening between words- in the process oflistening.
Inadequate familiarity with regional conventions and cultural values also may become a
hindrance for full and active listening.
2. Difficult Physical Conditions :
Poor listening may also be result from the difficult conditions in which one has to listen.
Public places and shop floors of manufacturing units can be so noisy that listening could
become a problem. Not wanting to embanass the speaker by repeatedly asking to be
louder, slower, or clearer, the listener may settle for a meaning that makes sense to him/
her.
This is true especially when the speaker is of a higher status. A listener may not have the
choice of the context in which he has to listen. If one does have a choice to improve the
physical condition and is too lazy to opt for it, then he/she is guilty of being a poor listener.
3. Non-Serious Listening :
Some listeners allow themselves to be distracted. They do not take listening seriously
enough to devote full attention to it. They may try to combine several activities such as
flipping through a file of letters, signing documents, arranging papers on the desk, and so
on while listening to someone.
The temptation to combine listening with other activities is particularly strong when the
people speak on the phone. They feel that the energy they save by not having to look at
the speaker could be invested in doing other things. This could cause problem in listening
because words on the phone line come with fewer nonverbal symbols that face-to-face
conversation.
It is also not good to indulge in partial listening while one is face-to-face conversation. It
can demoralise the other party, who may feel that he/she is being snubbed.
Children are so sensitive to this kind oflistening that they force their parents to turn their
face toward them and look at them when they speak.
82
Unit 4 Listening
4. Antipathy towards Speaker :
One ofthe biggest causes ofpoor listening has little to do with language or physical conditions.
It consists of the psychological barriers of the listener. These barriers are treacherous
because the listener neither see them nor recognizes them as barriers even when seen.
For example, if we dislike a speaker or disapprove of him/her, the message that we

reconstruct is always distorted. This dislike might he for any reason- such as we may not
like the appearance of the speaker, or the speaker's mannerism, or some deep-rooted
prejudice that we harbour within us- and the speaker becomes the victim. Consequently,
we close our mind and this becomes a hindrance to our listening. Or it is possible that we
may misinterpret the speaker's nonverbal signs.
5. Impatience :
Impatience is born out of overconfidence. Before they hear out the speaker some listeners
assume that they know what is coming. Sometimes such listeners find the speaker too
slow. Such listeners do not wait for the speaker to finish, tend to jump to conclusion,
which annoys the speaker.
Another fonn of impatience is to plan one's response while pretending to be listening to

what the speaker is saying.
This happens when the listener, guesses too soon what the speaker is going to say, and on
that assumption, concentrates on fonnulating his/her response.
There i..:; yet another fom1 of impatience that many of us suffer from. Everyone tends to
value their own thoughts and issues more highly than those of others. What we have to say
is always more important than what others have to say.
As a result we arc always anxious to talk. We want to demonstrate our knowledge base,
correct the errors and rnisperceptions of other, and at times, be the centre of conversation
or discussion. Because you may be in command of knowledge and have passion for your
expertise, it is common to want to actively participate in or dominate the di..:;cussion.
The desire to contribute often occurs at the expense of others; instead oflistening to them,
you are planning what you are going to say.
83
6. Strong Convictions :
Our mind is like a sieve- that utensil that is used to separate husk from the flour. The grid,
which forms the net to separate the husk from the flour, corre.c;;ponds to our pre.c; uppositions
[convictions] that we have received during the proce.c;;s of our growth. These pre.c;;uppositions
enable us to comprehend whatever we experience or that which our senses receive. Now
if the grid is woven very closely, then very little will pass through it. If our mind is like that
then we are narrow minded.
On the other hand, if the grid is so woven so as to have big openings then more will pass
through it. When our mind is like that then we are gullible- accept everything that everyone
says.
But if there are no openings in the sieve then nothing passes through it. When this is the
state of our mind, we say that there is a mental block.
The trouble is our minds arc often closed. We are so sure of certain things that we don't
see the need to reconsider them. Our beliefs and our convictions can act as a shield that
stops new ideas and new proofs from reaching our minds.
This is the very reason why there are so many disharmonies between religions. People
from one religion cannot see the viewpoint of the people of another religion because of
their strong convictions; each party is convinced that their point of view is the right one.
Strong convictions make you deaf and you cannot listen to the other.
Strong convictions will always lead to a monologue during a conversation or discussion.
In the words of Stephen Covey we are reading our "autobiography into other people's
lives". On the other hand, active listening will result in a dialogue.
Careful listening will help us to become aware of the speaker's framework, which will
enable us to understand the message better.
7. Information Overload :
We are deluged with so much information that it is humanly impossible to process it all.
From this volume of information that is available to us it is difficult to determine what is
relevant and what is not.
When we are faced with such immense amount of information our listening becomes
selective and thus, miss out pertinent information. When we are overloaded with information
we tend to be distracted and this hampers our listening ability.
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Unit 4 I .istening
PS Activity B :
ldentify the main contributor for poor listening that is likely in the following situations:
i) Argument between two persons - - - - - -- - -- - - - --- - --
ii) Someone stating an allegation against you - - - - - - -- - - ---=--
iii) Giving a 5-minute speech on the use of computers in your organisation
iv) Your boss, who docs not like you, speaks to you about a new assignment
v) You arc listening to a report that you already are aware of
4.4 LlSTENING STYLF..S
1. 'Ineffective' Listening Styles
There are at least four ineffective styles of listening. The ineffective styles of listening are
counterproductive or can be dysfunctional.
The four ineffective listening styles arc as follows:

a) The "missing-in-action" listener
b) 'The ''distracted" listener
c) The "selective., listener
d) The "contentious'' listener
a) The Missing-in-Action Listener
This is typically a passive or detached listening style. The..-;c listeners, although physically
present, are clearly mentally or intellectually absent They may be preoccupied with
personal issues and at times even appear to be in a trance [they have a blank lookj.
Jtis obvious that they are disengaged from what is being said. It is state in which there
is total lack of reception of message, and not lack of comprehension.
You could become a "missing-in-action" listener if you have little interest in what is
being said to you. It is as though the communication does not exist. It is not the
question of misunderstanding the communication: you just don't hear it. A person
85
might go missing in action if they feel unable to understand a complex message. Putting
it differently, if the message is complex it could intimidate the listener and as a way to
escape the listener will shut himself from the communication process.
b) The "Distracted" Listener
This is an active dysfunctional style of listening. It is active dysfunctional because the

ljstener is actively engaged in his/her more immediate concerns, which makes the
listening ability dysfunctional. You will find them doing two or more things at the same
time.
They try to appear to be listening while reading, writing, or pursuing some other
activity. Common behaviour of distracted listener is to repeatedly glance at the watch.
This indicates impatience, or boredom, or even sending a nonverbal message to the
speaker to stop speaking. Such listeners usually have very little eye contact with the
speaker.
Some people can camouflage their distraction so well that the speaker gets the
impression that he/she is being carefully listened to. They appear to be engaged in the
process of listelling by constantly nodding in agreement or using appropriate verbal
cues. This is dishonest inasmuch as it is intentional distortion. Their only goal is to try
to bring the communication to a quick conclusion.
You can become a distracted listener when you are under pressures to meet deadlines
or wrapped up in your own thoughts or emotions.
When you are unwilling or unable to slow down your thought process enough to
allow the introduction of additional information, you are the distracted listener!
c) The "Selective" Listener
In this style oflistening the listener listens only that which conforms to previously
determined opillions and positions. These listeners sift through the message to glean
information to support what they already think, hearing only what they want to hear.
They are not listening to the total message, but selecting only that part of the message
that would validate their own beliefs. They screen out or ignore information that docs
not fit their preconceptions.
Selective listener can be either positively or negatively inclined. For example, if you
were to pay a series of compliments while offering one small criticism, all that would
86
Unit 4 Listening
be heard would be the cfi.ticism In organisations this type of listening is very common.
Many superiors tend to be selective listeners, who choose to hear only the negative
comments. lt is also possible that someone whom you have complimented is so
wrapped up in your compliment that he/she fails to listen further to your subsequent
message.
You become a "selective'' listener if you do not discipline yourself to listen to someone's
total message. It is an rumgantlistening style and should be avoided because a selective
listener dismisses the message of others and confums only to his/her own self-righteous
position.
d) The "Contentious" Listener
A contentious listener is one who uses a combative or negatively aggressive listening

style. It has been described as "listening with a chip on your shoulder". These listeners
are always on a warpath, and listen only to find poinLc; of disagreement. They listen
only to reject, not to actually process the entire message. They are determined to
disagree. You may offer five points out of which four points would be of mutual
agreement, but one point of disagreement is what the "contentious" listener would
focus on- that would be the point of contention. Disregarding any area of agreement,
they only wish to focus on areas of disagreement.
You can become the contentious listener when listening with your emotions. Emotions
such as fear, anger, jealousy, resentment, etc., often result in combative listening
patterns. This is subjective, reactionary listening. If you feel threatened in any way by
someone's message, contentious listening is a common response.
2. 'Effective' Listening Styles
Various situations call for different listening skills.
The four types of listening differ not only in purpose but also in the amount of feedback or
interaction they entail.
They are:
a) ContentListening
b) Critical Listening
c) Empathic Listening
d) ActiveListening
87
All four types of listening can be useful in work-related Situations.
Regardless of whether the situation calls for content, critic;tll, empathic, or active listening
skill, it is essential to develop them to be effective listener.
a) Content Listening
The goal is to understand and retain information by the speaker. You may a<>k question,
but basically, information flows form the speaker to you. Your job is to identify the
key points of the message, so you concentrate and listen for clues to its structure:
preview, transitions, summaries, and enumerated points. In your mind, you create an
outline of the speaker's remarks; aftetward, you silently review what you have learnt.
You may take notes, but you do this sparingly so that you can concentrate on the key
points. It does not matter whether you agree or disagree, approve or disapprove-
only that you understand.
b) Critical Listening
The goal is to evaluate the message at several levels: the logic of the argument, strength
of the evidence, and validity of the conclusion; the implication of the message for you
or your organisation; the speaker's intention and motives; and the omission of any
important or relevant points. But absorbing information and evaluating it at the same
time is difficult, therefore, reserve judgement until the speaker has fmished. Critical
listening generally involves interaction as you try to uncover the speaker's point of
view.
c) Empathic Listening
The goal is to understand the speaker's feelings, needs, and wants in order to help
solve a problem. The function of the message is only to act as the vehicle for gaining
insight into the person's psyche. However, your purpose is not really to "solve" the
problem. By listening, you help the individual vent the emotions that are preventing
him/her from dealing dispassionately with the problem. You may be tempted to give
advice, but do not do it. Try not to judge the rightness or the wrongness of the
individual's feelings. Just let the person talk.
d) Active Listening
The goal is to appreciate the other person's point of view, whether or not you agree.
This is done in the manner psychiatrist, Carl Rogers, developed the technique to help
people resolve their differences.
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Unit 4 Listening
Here is how it works: Before·)!Q&can reply to another person's comment with your point
of view, you must restate the idea-; and feelings behind the comment to the other person's
satisfaction. You go back andt6rth-this way, until each of you understands the other's
position.
To put it differently, active listening involves listening to what is said as well as that which is
not said. That which is not said S~Ruld be made clear to the other person by spelling it out.
This would enable both the c.o~municators to become acquainted with each other's
background and thus message WQuld be clearer. This is so because the words that we usc
in our commwlication arc mere indicators of our idea"i and feelings. When these indicators
are explained the cornmunicatio~ i,s less prone to misunderstandings.
2S Activity C :
Picture yourself in five situations - a prayer meeting, an official meeting with a boss on
your appraisal, co1lcgc principal's talk on1ndependence Day, a friend narrating an accident
he had on his way to your house, and an interview with your favourite actor.
What would be your listening style per situation?
4.5 DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LISTENING SKILlS
Your listening efforts are completely under your control. If you arc willing to be an effective
listener you can become one. In becoming effective listener one has to make deliberate
and conscious efforts. There has to be a commitment to accomplishing the task of improving
listening skills.
Learning is a process that cannot be accomplished in privacy, but must be carried out in
the presence of people.
Since there is no formal education process for developing listening skills, it must be done
with the help of people around us and with who we ar~ in constant communication.
89
Six Communication Realities
a) Effective listening skills can be learned:

Good listeners arc made, not born. Some people ina)thave inherently better listening
skills than others, yet everyone can learn to become a more effective listeners. Because
the skills arc acquired, the field for developing is open to all. No one has a listening
advantage.
b) To become an effective listener you must be committed to your personal skill

development:
There has to be willingness to learn. These skills, however, arc not easy to learn; if
they were, everyone would have them. You will experience success in direct proportion
to the effort you are willing to invest in the learning process. Increasing your listening
skills must become a personal goal. Do not expect to become a more effective listener
in one giant leap. Listening is a journey of constant improvement.
c) Active listening skills must be practiced:

Increases in your skill level will diminish if they arc not constantly practiced. Repetition
is the key. Practice will enable eiTective listening to become a second nature to you.
The first time you try you will experience only limited success. The fact is, some of us
would easily give up if we do not find success. A limited number will keep at it until
increased level of effectiveness is achieved. Just as professionals spend endless hours
practicing their skills so also it is essential that we invest time and effort to improve
our listening skills.
d) Time is an important tool:

If your emotions are high and you are on the verge of giving up, buy sometime and
allow your emotions to ebb away. Remind time and again that you have to become
an effective listener. Find time and opportunity to develop the skills. Many of your
learning opportunities are within your control. Make time work in your favour.
e) How well you listen to others depends on your internal communication:

Your listening skills evolve around your ability to manage your own internal
communication - what you say to your self when the listening process is on. The
internal dialogue --i.e. listening to instructions you give yourself~ has tremendous
influence over your abilities to accurately absorb the messages of others. To be a
good listener, you must have the self-discipline to identify and overcome the listening
90
Unit 4 Listening
impediments. The internal conditions you set for yourself when you encounter a listening
opportunity determines whether you will listen objectively or prejudicially.
f) Some effective listening techniques are more difficult to implement than

others:
The unique nature of individual listening strengths and weaknesses places, varying
degrees of importance and challenge on active listening skills for different people.
You have to assess your listening abilities and find where your greatest problem lies
and work on that area for improving your listening skills.
4.6 STI:PS TO I<:FFECTIVE LISTENING SKILLS
For effective listening skill one has to develop a listening ritual. Rituals are important part
of many of our repetitive behaviours. For instance, we have a routine for going to bed
(changing into sleep attire, brushing our teeth, etc.) or rituals for eating, and so on. It is
important to develop a ritual for listening. Ritualised behaviour is ingrained, habitual
behaviour.
You can develop a ritual for listening by following these five steps:
1. State your intention to listen.
2. Manage the physical environment.
3. Make an internal commitment to listen.
4. Assume a listening posture.
5. Participate actively in the listening process.
Step 1: State your intention to listen
Making an audible announcement of your willingness and commitment to listen accomplishes

two things.
a) It creates an environment of respect and dignity, and helps your communication partner
realise their message is welcomed. The risk of approaching you is immediately
diminished and the partner is encouraged to be very open in his/her communication.
Simple statement on your part would help ease the tension between you and your
partner, such as:
"Speak for I am all ears!''
91
"I am anxious to hear what you have to say." ..:.-i...
b) Your statement of intention to listen also prepares you internally to shift from your
current thoughts and activities into active listening rple. You are giving yourself an
internal command, literally instructing your ears, mind, and body to focus on the
incoming message. It helps you in transition form whatever you are doing to the
process of receiving the message. This is the very first step in becoming a committed
listener.
Step 2: Manage the physical environment
Managing the physical means cleaning all that is lying on your desk or table that may cause
any kind of distraction..'>. We cannot remove our listening distraction, but we can surely
eliminate the physical distraction around us. This would help in incTeasing your awareness,
which the physical distraction have the potential to interfere with your listening effectiveness.
The main objective of managing the physical environment is to help increase your awareness.
Eliminate as many distractions as possible, such as:

a) Hold telephone calls.
b) Reduce as much background noise as possible.
c) Put down whatever you are doing and focus on the speaker.
d) Clear your desk or put papers, letters, etc., into closed file folder.
e) Position yourself so that you may not have the view of distracting activity.
f) Turn off the computer or reposition the screen away from your immediate line of
VISIOn.
g) Changing your position to one that is more conducive to listening sends a very powerful
signal to your communication partner. It tells him/her that you arc interested in what
he/she hac; to say and are willing to give a quality listening.
It may also be well if you suggest to your communication partner to change the venue and
go to the conference room or some place where both of you would be comfortable and
away from distractions.
Step 3 : Make an internal commitment to listen
This is far the most important step in being an effective listener. Unless you make a
commitment to yourself you cannot achieve effectiveness in listening. Here are some
recommendations.
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(nit 4 Listening
a Remove Internal Barriers: This technique primarily addresses the problem of

preconceived notions, assumptions, and prejudices that may become a hindrance in
the listening process. Sql{suggestion to overcome labelling, judgement of people
who may be different from you in background, function, or discipline, etc., will help
you to separate the message from the messenger.
b Avoid the assumptions of negative motives: This is very common in a work

situation where you may not have a very good opinion about a person. This could
become an assumption and question of the very motive, if the person wishes to
communicate with you. This also occurs when you have reasons to believe that the
other person may disagree with your thought processes and activities. To avoid
assumptions of negative intent, say to yourself: ''Even ifwe disagree, he is doing what
he thinks is right"; 'Their intentions areas valid as mine, even though we disagree".
There arc times when communication becomes contentious or it develops into an

argument. In such situation there is a possibility of emotions taking the better of you
and you arc not communicating intemally.
At such times stop for a while and get back to yourself and have a moment of intcmal
communication. This will help you to gather yourself and proceed more cautiously.
No matter how much you and your partner disagree, learn to give enough latitude to
your partner. As a good book says: "A good word turns away anger". Only in an
environment of tmst and goodwill can the communication process be fmitful.
c) Challenge yourself to remember what has been said: Challenging yourself

sharpens your wits. Challenge yourself to listen so intently that you could accurately
write a detailed summary of the conversation, even at the end of the day. As a ritual,
put down in writing your perceptions and recollections while they are still fresh in
your mind. This could be of help for the future conversations or taking subsequent
actions and decision-making.
d) Prioritise and process the communication from the messenger's viewpoint:

Any communication process has two viewpoints- one of the speaker's and the
other of the listener's. Each person's viewpoint is impottant for him/her. As an effective
listener it is essential, not only to understand the other person's viewpoint, but also to
understand its priority.
The Golden Rule suggested here is: "Listen to others as you would want them to
listen to you''. In other words, avoid listening your partner from your viewpoint.
93
In the process of communication, try to identify the values that your partner
emphasises. Begin to understand your partner from his/her point of view. This would
help in prioritising other's viewpoint and your ability to listen to other's message
would be enhanced. Such listening is empathetic or partnered listening.
e) Manage your emotions: To be an effective listener you should learn to distance

yourself from impulsive, negative emotional responses. Do not allow yourself to be
provoked by other person's intentional or unintentional messages. If you allow yourself
to be provoked and respond with a negative emotional reaction, you allow them to
be victorious. When this happen you have lost the control over the communication
process. Good and effective communication is when both the partners are equally in
control of the communication process.lf your partner is using aggressive method by
using you-based massages (which increa~es negative reaction and reduces listening
efforts) do not allow yourself to be swayed by them, but exercise your internal
communication to overcome any negative emotional reactions.
However, should your communication bring out some negative reactions and emotions, it
is worthwhile to take stock of things after the communication has ended. Often it is the
negative that brings out the positive in us. Let the negative responses be a learning experience
for you.
Step 4 : Assume a listening posture
In addition to managing the physical environment, you must aL<;o manage your physical
readiness to listen. The visual demonstration of your physical readiness to listen- or the
lack of it- has significant impact on your communication partner. The nonverbal messages
that you send via your body could encourage, inhibit, or perhaps intimidate them.
Body language is just as important a factor in receiving messages as it is in delivering them.

You can alter a person's message and create incomplete, abandoned, or distorted
communication by means of your nonverbal reception.
Body language that conveys readiness to listen includes the following:

a) Establish and maintain appropriate eye contact.
b) Avoid staring at fixed objects or off into space.
c) Limit your field of vision.
d) Keep your eyes alert and interested.
e) Lean slightly towards your communication partner.
94
Unit 4 Listening
f) Maintain an open posture. Avoid crossing arms and legs, slinnping your shoulders.
g) Do not present the speaker with anything that would cause distractions.
Furthermore, show your communication partner that you are listening to him/her by giving
verbal affirmations. For instance, you could give your affirmation by words such as "I
sec", "Good", "That's interesting", and many others. ·
Your verbal and nonverbal listening responses can either increase or decrease the self-
esteem and confidence of your communication partner. Any tangible signs of intimidation,
disinterest, or negative judgement on your part would inhibit your communication partner
and it would bring an end to the communication without completion. You may never know
the importance of what they did not say.
I recall an incidence that one of my university professors shared with me.
It so happened that one of the students, from some other department, wanted to talk to
this professor. He, however, being too busy, said that he would talk some other time. Next
that the professor heard was that the same student had committed suicide.
Listening is not a science, but it is art of making one's life meaningfu1.
Step 5 : Participate actively in listening
The six actions listed below are powerful strategies for participating actively in the listening
process.
a) Take notes
b) Ask approptiate questions
c) Prevent yourself from talking
d) Summarise internally
e) Seek and acknowledge areas of agreement
f) Summarise and restate.
a) Taking notes: Be prepared to take down notes of points that you feel are important.
However, always ask the permission and tell them why you want to write down the
main points of their message. Prior to note taking process, ask: "Tiris is important and
I want to be sure that I am listening effectively. Do you mind ifl take some notes?"
95
Warning: l.. - -
If the speaker objects to you taking down notes, then.honour his/her wishes.
Do not a<>swne the role of a stenographer and start writing word for word everything
that is said.
Avoid the temptation of playing with the pencil or pen that is used for writing.
b) Ask appropriate questions: Questioning can be a very effective technique for good
listening. It helps you to keep your communication partners focused on their topic,
especially if they should begin to stray away. It also helps in clarifying your perceptions
of their message.
Warning:
Exercise extreme caution to make sure that your questions are perceived as positive
inquiry and are not misunderstood or challenge to the speaker's competence or
authority.
Increase your listening and decrease miscommunication by prefacing your questions

with a phrase or statement that communicates your desire for clarification, not argument.
There arc four types of good-listening questions:

0 Closed-ended questions- intended to evoke one- or two-word response.
Usually it is "Yes" or "No" or a specific point of information.
Examples:
"Did you say you agree or disagree with the conclusion?"
''Were the results seven or twenty-seven parts per million?"
ii) Open-ended questions - are asked to elicit a less structured and discursive
response. Open-ended questions are very effective in helping people to expand
their communication.
Examples:
"How did you handle the situation?"
''Tell me more about. .. "
·'If you could, what would you do differently?"
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Unit 4 Listening
iii) Duplicate question- asks for the same infommtion two or more times in different
ways. It helps in verifying and bringing out inconsistencies; and is usually asked
at the end of delivery of information.
Examples:
''Tell me the sequence of events."
"Earlier you outlined the actions you took. What steps did you go through to
make that choice?"
iv) Hypothetical question- asks what would happen in some hypothetical situation.
They usually begin with ''What if. ..?"They are used to weigh different possibilities.
Examples:
"What if everything goes exactly as scheduled? What wi11 the positive outcome
be?"
''Just suppose we cannot get the support from management that we need. What
would we do in that circumstance?"
c) Prevent yourself from talking: The temptation to talk is great when others are
talking. There are people who do not give others a chance to talk. They love to hear
their own voice that they are oblivious to other voices. This usually happens in a
communication process involving the senior and the subordinates. The juniors are not
often listened to.
I remember having a friend who was far advanced in age and wisdom. He loved to
talk, and was very good conversationalist. However, he had one habit; be would put
his index finger on his lips when someone was speaking. He would thus stop any
temptation to speak when others were talking.
It would be worthwhile if you could usc simple techniques to hold yourself from
talking when others arc. You may feel that putting fingers on your lips looks silly.
(Remember the times when we were small children and could not control the temptation
of talking in the class. The punishment the teacher would give us was to put our finger
on our lips).
As grown ups, we should practice this in communication process, which would indicate
to our partner that we are seriously listening to them.
97
d) Summarise internally: This is a quality of a good listener, who is able to construct

an overview of the message that he/she is receiving. It is a difficult task, yet not
impossible." You should be able to grasp the flow of thought of the speaker and
identify the transition from one thought to another.
If the speaker is able to present his message in a logical and cohesive manner then it
is easy to follow the train of thought. As a listener you should be able to identify the
main issues of the delivery and find a logical sequence that will tic them together.
Helping yourself to summarise would keep your listening antenna always focused.
e) Seek and acknowledge areas of agreement: It is imp01tant to identify and

acknowledge all areas of commonality, consistency, and agreement between you and
your communication partner. This docs not mean that you overlook the points of
disagreement. Take in the total message. Once the delivery is complete, and time for
interaction is allotted, then you could give your response. The response should highlight
the areas of agreement and then seek clarification on the points of disagreement This
is the mark of a good listener, as well as a mature conversationalist.
f) Summarise and restate: Just as it is vitally important for you to seek a summary of
your message from people with whom you are communicating, it is equally important
for you to summarise when you are on the receiving end of someone else's message.
When you summarise and restate your perception of the message it does the following:
• You offer concrete proof of your listening efforts.
• You prove your willingness to understand the message.
• You verify the accuracy of your comprehension of the message.
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t.:nit 4 Listening
,.,. . , Table 4.1

Listening Guideline
.---------- - -------·- -
Don't I Do
Avoid listening if the subject is Devote time and effort to trying to understand
complex or difficult. what the speaker is saying.
- - -- ------------------~
Remain close-minded, denying the Maintain an open-minded attitude, willing to
relevance or benefit of the entertain the speaker's point of view.
speaker's ideas.
1------ - - --- -- ---~------------- -------------- -
I
Be opinionated when arguing Present your differences with the speaker
(outwardly or inwardly) with the calmly, and look for shared clements in your
speaker. bclief.c;.
----~
Avoid eye contact while listening Maintain eye contact with the speaker if
(in some cultures; in other cultures, appropriate, and assume that the speaker has
this would be sign of respect). good intentions.
I
Demonstrate a lack of interest in the Take notes and nod in agreement where
speaker's subject or become appropliate.
preoccupied with something else
when listening.
Concentrate on the speaker· s Be prepared to ask relevant questions at the

mannelisms or delivery or even conclusion of the speaker's talk.
outside noise rather than on the
message.
Source: H.R. Ewald & R.E. Burnett, 'Business Communication' , NJ: Prentice-Hall lmernational,
Inc., pg 49
fe'S Activity D :
a) What kind of questions (open ended, closed ended, duplicate, or hypothetical) arc
most likely to be asked in the following situations:
L Someone conducting an opinion poll_______ - -----------------
n. A travel agent helping a vacationer plan his/her itinerary
99
l ...oillll
n1. A teacher preparing an essay type exam_.:.._;__:..:,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
iv. A personal counsellor probing for more information in a sensitive area.
b) Imagine you are trying to listen to what an opponent is telling you as he explains why
you lost a match. What guidelines will you follow for listening?
c) How can you participate "actively'' in listening to your boss giving you a summary of
the overall plan for the next six months? Write down 5 or 6 points.
- - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
4.7 SUMMARY
- - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
In this unit the subject of effective listening was explained.
Listening is essential and vital in the process of communication, which is never formally
taught in any institution or organisation.
As a result we have enumerable problems in communications. Most ofthe misunderstandings

arise out of poor listening skills. The reasons for poor listening skills was explained and the
challenges that it posed to the listeners.
Factors that contribute to poor listening skill was expounded and the ways in which to
overcome these impediments.
Listening is a skill that has to be developed with conscious and deliberate efforts for which
some techniques were mentioned.
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5.1 INTRODUCTION
Business communication is of two types:
• one that involves the members within an organisation, and
• another that involves the organisation and the external agencies.
We could term the former as intra-organisational communication and the latter as inter-
organisational communication.
The inter-organisational communication is far more complex than the intra-organisational

communication. Inter-organisational communication involves interaction between the
organisation and its myriad external agencies, upon whom the organisation depends for it<;
business activities.
Dealing with external agencies such as suppliers, consumers, shareholders, etc., the
organisation has to be extremely careful. The external audience that the organisation docs
business with comprises of people, who are not in close proximity. Hence, any business
message that is directed towards this audience has to be carefully planned. Failing to do so
would have adverse affect upon the organisational functions. Fro instance, if the organisation
has to create goodwill with its customers, it must make a favourable impression. To do so,
the message that the organisation wishes to impart to its customers should be well thought-
out and planned.
Some of the business communication assignment will be routine; others will require reflection
and research. But regardless of the complexity of the task, same basic process, for preparing
both written and oral messages, will be employed.
The basic process consist<; of :

1. Planning: Determining what the purpose of the message is, who the reader will be,
what information you need to give the reader to achieve your purpose, and in what
order to present the information.
2. Composing: Composing the first draft of the message.
3. Revising: Revising for content, style, and correctness.
4. Formatting: Arranging the document in an appropriate format.
5. Proofreading: Reviewing the document to check for content, typographical, and
format errors.
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Cnit 5 The Writing Process- Planning
In this unit you shall learn about planning the message.
5.2 DEFINING YOUR PURPOSE

The first step in planning a business message is to think about your purpose. This has to be
carefully thought out, or else the message would loose its relevance. The purpose should
be specific enough to serve as a yardstick for judging the success of the message.
1. Why you need a clear purpose :
When an assignment is given to communicate to an audience concerning a particular topic,

the communicator has to decide what to say about it. Unless the communicator is clear
about what he/she has to say, the message will not have the desired affect.
The purpose of the message determines content, organisation, style, tone, and format.
a) To decide whether to proceed. Unnecessary message can backfire, even if the

material is excellent. You can also loose credibility by writing messages that will have
no impact. So when you are tempted to send a message, pause and ask your self, "Is
it really necessary?" "Will it make an impact or difference?" If you suspect that your
ideas will have little impact, then hold it. Wait until the time is ripe to send your
message, when it will have an effect.
b) To respond to the audience. You need to consider the motive of the audience.
Why will they pay attention to your message? What do they hope to gain? Are their
expectations compatible with your own? If not, both you and your audience will fail
to get what you want.
c) To focus the content. Establishing a clear purpose will also help you focus the
message. You should include only the information that is necessary to accomplish
your objective. Eliminate all material that is irrelevant and unnecessary, even though it
may be interesting. Irrelevant material will divert the attention of the audience form
the main objective of the message.
d) To establish the channel and medium. Depending on your purpose, you will choose
a channel [either oral or writtenJfor your message. Corresponding to the chatmel you
will also select the medium. Inviting people for your wedding will require of you to
send them a wedding card, but an oral message will be sufficient to invite your friends
home for dinner.
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Business Communication · r; u·1
2. Common purposes of business messages.
There are three general purposes common to business communication: information,

persuading, and collaboration with the audience. In addition, every presentation must
accomplish a specific objective. To formulate this objective, ask yourself, ''What should
my audience do or think after reviewing this message?" Be as precise as possible in stating
your purpose, and identify the individuals in the audience who should respond. Here arc
some examples:
Table 5.1 : Purpose of Business Messages
General Purpose --~ific Purpos_·c_.___-_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - 1
To inform ~resent last month's sales figures to the Vice President of

I
Marketing.
~--- ---+-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- ----
Topersuade To convince the Vice President ofMarketing to hire more sales
representatives.
To collaborate To help the personnel department develop a training

programme for the new members of the sales staff.
Source: J. V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, Ktcellence in 'Business Communication', pg 49
Sometimes you will want to accomplish several related purposes with the same message.
In such a case ask yourself whether they are compatible. Can two or more purposes be
accommodated in the same message? To determine the specific purpose, think of how the
idea'> or behaviour of the audience should be affected by the message.
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Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
A
u
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1
D HIGH Coll•bomto 1
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c ~--+---~---~~~~---- ---~1----+---- ---~---·r-~
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------- -+---+ ~-- -- -
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I f----·+---t---+---+---1----·---~~~ form
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1----f---+----+- - - - -· - -- - r--t----1
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N COMMU~ICATOR CO:'IITROL
Fig 5.1 : General Purposes of Business Messages
Source: J. V 1hill & C.L. Bovee, 'Excellence in Business Communication ', pg 49
3. How to test your purpose :
Once you have established your purpose, pause for a moment to consider whether it is
worth pursuing at this time. Ask the following questions:
a) Is the purpose realistic? If your message proposes a radical shift in action or

attitude, then instead of suggesting the whole idea or programme at once consider
proposing it in stages. View your message at the beginning and ao;;sess whether your
purpose is realistic enough to he informed in one stage or in different stages.
b) Is it the right time? Timing is vital in transmitting the message. An idea that is
unacceptable when the profit-; are down may be acceptable when the profits improve.
If an organisation is undergoing a change, then is would advisable to defer your
message till such a time when things are stabilized and people can concentrate on
your ideas.
c) Is the right person delivering the message? Many a times it happens that your
boss asks you to gather some information and draft it into a message, hut finally it is
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Business Communication I,'
he who would send the message. Tllis is a better option because he being in position
of authority, the message from him would be well received.
In the final analysis, achieving your objective is more important than who delivers the
message. Or it may be that there is someone who is a better communicator, and so
he/she will be asked to deliver the message.
d) Is the purpose acceptable to the organisation? As the representative of the

organisation you are obligated to work toward the goals of the organisation. For
instance, you receive a nasty letter from one of your customers. When you read it
you arc tempted to fire back an angry reply. However, on the second thought you
reconsider your feelings. You realise that the letter is not a personal one, but directed
towards the organisation. Your duty would be to defend the organisation, and at
same time retain the customer's goodwill. Your message should reflect the organisation's
priorities.
.25 Activity A :
a) List two situations, one official and the other personal, where you had to communicate.
b) How would you defme the purpose for each occasion?
5.3 ANALYSING YOUR AUDIENCE

- - - - -- - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - --
To maximise the effectiveness of your message, you should perform an audience analysis.
Tllis means that you should identify the interests, needs, and personality of your audience.
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Following are the reasons for,carrying out an audience analysis:

• Writer-reader relationship's influence how a message is interpreted.
• The content of the message needs to he appropriate to the reader being addressed.
• A reader's motivation for reading a document can influence how it is received..
• The information in a message must meet the reader's needs.
• Conventions for writing may be adopted or adapted depending upon the audience.
When analysing your audience, consider the various factors shown in Table 5 .2.
Table 5.2 : }'actors Basic to Audience Analysis
Characteristics of the audience • Factors that can be discovered by consulting

secondary sources or databases (demographic
data, geographic data, purchasing behaviour).
• Factors that are inferred hy directly interviewing
or surveying the audiences.
The writer-reader relationship • Status of and distance between writer and reader·
Interpersonal aspects.
The message itself • Infom1ation needed (excluded, included).

Convention used/not used
The occasion for communicating • Type of reader.

• The reader's stance; resistant or cooperative.
Source: H. R. Ewald & R. 1:.:. Burnett, 'Business Communication', pg 102
1. Factors associated with characteristics of the audience:
To know your audience, you need to be able to create a profile of your readers'
characteristics. These characteristics fall into two categories:
a) Data-based }'actors that can be discovered by consulting databases.
b) Value-based }'actors that are inferred or derived from interviewing or surveying

the audiences.
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Hu~iness Communication . •.·1
Note:
• Data-based factors include concrete facts about an audience's age, income, and
marital status. '·
• Value-based inferred factors involve your perception of the audience's attitude and
beliefs.
Much of audience research in business communication has been connected with

marketing a company's goods and services or promoting corporate image. For
instance, purchasing behaviour often tells marketing experts what kind of products to
develop, promote, and advertise in a particular geographic area.
Data-based audience research can draw from a range of sources - such as census,
credit card records, list of license plate numbers, etc.
Value-based research, which uses personal interviews and surveys to determine values
and lifestyle preferences, has become increasingly important to business
communication.
Even if you are not in marketing, knowing data based and value based information of
your audience is important.
2. Factors associated with Writer-Reader Relationship:
You shouLd know three interrelated factors that define the writer-reader relationship
when planning a communication:
a) Relative status
b) Distance
c) Interpersonal relations
The relative status between the writer and the reader depends on job duties, rank,
and personal credibility. The status that the writer holds in an organisation will determine
the nature of communication, when writing to another person. If a manager is writing
to his subordinates the pattern would be different from when he is writing to the
managing director.
The emotional and physical distance between the writer and the reader will also
affect the document planning. You may feel close to the CEO because you have a
llO
good working relationship, while you may feel distanced from a colleague with whom
you have trouble collaborating.
Interpersonal relationship also affects the planning of the document. Your likes and
dislikes would be reflected in your communication depending on the relationship that
you have with your reader. For example, a decidedly fonnal tone or exceedingly
polite approach between colleagues can be good indication of dislike.
3. .Factors associated with the Message :
The message itself affect~) your planning for audience in terms of:
a) The nature of the information needed by the reader.
b) The conventions that can be appropriately drawn upon in the message and
understood by the reader.
The readers need particular information depending on the expertise or company role.
When evaluating your reader's expertise, you need to consider both the reader's
knowledge with the subject as well as the situation or the political climate sunuunding
the proposal. When writing to a colleague for information or feedback on certain
proposal, and not being sure of the surrounding political climate, it would be wise to
get a second opinion from a reader who is acquainted vvith the company politics.
As you plan your message, you should also consider the appropriateness of the
conventions you will be using. Communication convention is an established way of
approaching an occasion for speaking or writing. Conventions are strategies that
have been to be successful over time. For example, when you want to send a message
regarding certain technical or legal matter you have to follow certain specified pattern
of writing using certain specified vocabulary. Or when you want to send formal
information do not do it in an informal way.
4. Factors associated with the Occasion :
You have many occasion-based factors to consider when planning your documents
for a particular audience. This would include the type of readers and the reader's
attitude- resistant or cooperative. The types of readers would be:
a) Initial Audience: Those people to whom the document is first directed and
who then pass on to the primary readers.
111
b) Primary Audience: Those people directly addressed by the communicator.
c) Secondary Audience : People, who arc not addressed to yet have an interest
in the communication and sometimes act on its contents.
d) Other Audience : People who are outside the immediate occasion but stlll
retain an interest in the communication or in the decisions based on it.
~Activity B : •'
While attending a talk by some renowned person, if you could observe the audience and
its reactions, how would you analyse the database factors of the audience? Write down
some points.
5.4 DEVELOPING AN AUDIENCE PROFILE
Audience analysis is essential because each person perceives a message differently

depending upon his/her unique mental filters. The analysis would require the following
questions to be answered:
Who is the primary audience?
Here you need to identify your primary audience- the person whose cooperation is crucial
if your message is to achieve itc; objectives.
Your secondary audience are those who would also read and be affected by your message.
What is your relationship with the audience?
How will the audience react?
If the reaction is positive your task is relatively easy. If the reaction is likely to be neutral,
you may initially want to get the reader's attention and convince him/her that your message
has impmtantinformation.
112
If you expect the reaction to be negative (either to you personally or to your topic) then
you will have to use external evidence and expert opinion to bolster your position.
What does the audience already know?
Understanding the audience's present grasp of the topic is crucial to making decisions
about content and writing style.
What is unique about the audience?
Learn about the personal interests or demographic characteristics of your audience that
you can build into your message. Make the reader feel important by personalizing the
content
1. Satisfying the Audience's Informational Needs :
The key to effective communication is to determine your audience's needs and then
respond to them. Tell your audience what they need to know in a language that is
meaningful to them.
Here are some steps:

a) Find out what the audience wants to know.
b) Anticipate un-stated questions- include any additional information that might
be helpful, even through the reader hac; not specifically asked for.
c) Provide all required information -make sure your document answers all the
important questions.
d) Be sure the information is accurate.
e) Emphasize ideas of greatest interest to the audience.
2. Satisfying the Audience's Practical Needs:
Remember that your audience:

• May have little time
• May be distracted
• May give your message low priority.
Therefore, make your message brief and as convenient as possible to grasp. Ifyour written
message has to be long, make it easy for the reader to follow. Put important information in
113
point form and list it down. Less important information can he compiled in a separate
enclosure as appendixes. . '"'· '; .
~Activity C :
Try and remember an occasion where you had to addr~s§,an audience. How would you,
on hindsight, analyse the audience that you addressed?
5.5 DEFINING THE MAIN IDEA

Main idea is different from topic. The topic is the broad subject of the message. Main idea
is the gist of the topic. The main idea is that which sums up why a particular audience
should do or think as you suggest. Defining the main idea is important especially when you
want to persuade someone or have disappointing information to convey. fu these situations,
you have to look for a main idea that will establish a good relationship between you and
your audience. The main idea can take the form of some point of agreement or common
interest.
In longer documents and presentations, for which vast amount of material needs to be
unified, establishing a main idea becomes still more challenging. A good writer of articles
would, at the very onset, make a statement of thesis that he/she wants to develop.
Brainstorming Techniques :
Identifying main idea requires creativity and experimentation. More often than not, single
mind cannot do this work. You need to have someone who could act as a "sounding box"
-one who would help you hear yourself; or you may need someone to help brainstorm
with you. Here arc some techniques:
1. Storyteller's Tour
Tum on the tape recorder and give an overview of your message, focusing on your
reasons for communicating, your major points, your rationale, and the implication of
the message for the reader. Afterwards listen to your presentation critically, till such
time that you are able to give a summary of two minutes that will convey the gist of
your message.
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Unit 5 The Writing Process- Planning
2. Random list - ..
),., ,
On a clean sheet of paper,, list every essential point that comes to your mind pertaining
to your message. When you have exhausted the list, group them according to their
relationships. Look for common denominator. As you do this sorting process your
thoughts will also begin to narrow down on what is important and what is not.
3. FCR "Vorksheet
This is helpful when your message involves finding solution to a problem. .F = fmdings;
C= conclusion; and R =recommendation. For example, you might find that you are
losing sales to a competitor, who offers lower prices then you do (this is your findings
F). From this, you might conclude that your loss of sales is due to your pricing policy
(this is your conclusion C). This conclusion would lead to recommending a price cut
(R). To carry out this process, divide a sheet of paper into three columns, list the
major findings in the first column; then extrapolate conclusions and write them in
second column. These conclusions form the basis for the recommendations, which
are listed in the third column.
4. JournaliliticApproach
For informational message, this approach is good. The answers to six questions-
who, what, when, where, why, and how- should clarify the main idea.
5. Question-and-answer chain
Perhaps the best approach is to look at the subject from the perspective of your
audience and a.;;k yourself questions till you have reached the point of identifying the
main idea.
5.6 SELECTING THE CHANNELAND MEDIUM

Business messages have to suit the occasion, or the message is ineffective. You can present
your message in one of the two basic channels: oral or written. Within these channels,
you can vary the length, format, style, and tone in an almost infinite variety of ways to
create the ideal vehicle for your purpose.
1. Oral Communication:
a) Use: This channel is useful when your message is relatively simple, when you do
not need a permanent record, and when you can assemble your audience
conveniently and economically. Oral approach is also useful when you are
115
presenting controversial information, because·y ou can observe the reaction of

the audience and read their body language, an~ thus, adjust your message
accordingly. '
b) Fonn: Oral communication takes many forms - such as unplanned conversation,

telephone calls, interviews, group meetings, seminars, workshops, training
programs formal speeches, and major presentations.
Genemlly, smaller the audience, the more interaction there will be among the members.
If your purpose involves reaching a decision or solving a problem, you should select
oral channel. Such program should be relatively informal and unstructured. As opposed
to this is the formal presentation to large audiences, which arc common at events
such as sales conventions, shareholders meetings, ceremonial functions, etc. Often
these major presentations take place in a big facility where the audience can be well
seated.
2. Written Communication :
Just as oral communication, written messages also vary in formality. At one extreme
are the sctibbled notes that people use to remember; at the other extreme arc elaborate,
formal reports.
However, regardless of the degree of formality, written messages have one big
advantage: they give the write an opportunity to plan and control the message.
A written format is called for when the information is complex, when a permanent
record is needed for future reference, when the audience is large and geographically
dispersed, and when immediate interaction with the audience is either unimportant or
undesirable.
Common media for written communication are letter, memo, reports etc. With a few
exceptions, most letters and memos are rather brief documents. Memos, the so-
called 'workhorses' of business communication, arc used for routine, day-to-day
exchange of information within an organization. Letters, which go to people out-;ide
the organization, perform an important public relations function, besides conveying a
particular message.
Letters and memos can be classified into four categories, according to their purpose:
a) direct requests
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Unit 5 The Writing Process -Planning
b) good news, goodwiNt'messages, and routine messages

.. ~ {. '
c) bad-news messages -- '·
d) persuasive messages
. ·~ . , ~ t.
Note;. "·''· ...' ..

J '·'
• Purpose detennincs the organization of main points
• Relationship between' Writer and the reader determines style and tone.
3. Reports and proposals : ·.
These factual, objective documents may be distributed either to insiders or to the

people concerned, who are outside the organization- depending upon their purpose
and objection. For instance, you may write a proposal to a donor, requesting to fund
a certain project for your organization; or writing a report, which has to do with a
certain mishap that has taken place in your department.
Reports and proposals have the following characteristics:

a. In lcn!,rth, they may range from a few pages to several hundred pages
b. They tend to be more formal than letters and memos
c. They also tend to depend upon the pmpose of message for organization
d. And relationship between wtiter and reader detennines style and tone.
~Activity C :
Write down two examples each of oral communication and written communication.
5.7 SUMMARY
The proce..-;s of business communication consists of planning, composing and revising. In

this unit we have learned the various a<;pects of planning; defining the purpose of the
117
Busin c~s Communication
message: analysing your audience. defining the main ideCl;,~nd selecting the channel and
medium.
Defining the purpose detennines the content, organization, style, tone and the format.
Analysing your audience enables you to understand and anticipate the reactions of the
audience, which in tum helps in organizing your message to make it appealing to the audience.
Defining the main idea is to help catch the attention of the audience to the objective of your
message.
Finally, selecting the channel and medium enables you to give appropriateness to your
message.
5.8 SELF -ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q l . Communication can be of two types. What are they?

a) ________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________
Q2. What arc the external agencies that an organization has to communicate with? List
down any five.
a)
b ) ______________________________~------------
c) __________________________________________________
d) _______________________________________________
e) ___________________________________________________
Q3. The basic process of business communication consists of five stages. What are they?
a) ____________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________
c ) __________________________________________________
d) _______________________________________________
e) __________________________________________________
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the planning process is accomplished, and all the necessary elements of the message
have been identified, then the communicator is ready to launch into the next plan of the
writing process.
This phase of the writing process deals with organizing the message. Human mind has a
tremendous capacity to store information.
However when certain parts of this information has to be retrieved and presented in a well
associated manner, then there is a need to make a deliberate effort to organize the information
in a cohesive and sequential manner. Whether the message is a written one or an oral
presentation, it must be well organized.
Disorganized message not only throws the audience into confusion, but also stands as a
bad commentary on the communicator (especially in a business situation where
communication plays an important role). Disorganized communication can have deva'itating
affect. One cannot imagine the loss and confusion a disorganized message can cause.
Hence, it is imperative that a business message be well organized.
6.2 THE NEED FOR BEING WELL ORGANIZED

The term "organization", which also refers to an enterprise. implies a sequential arrangement
of things and functions so as to achieve some predetermined goals as objects. Human
beings in an organization are expected to function in an organized way. From the very
onset of our education we are taught to think in a sequential manner. For instances, we are
taught the English alphabets in a sequence- A, B, C ... Z, or numbers 1. 2, 3 and so on.
We develop a sequential way of thinking. Yet there are moments when we are unable to
put our thoughts in a sequential and logical manner.
This disorganized manner of presenting our thoughts -- whether in speaking or in writing -

results from factors that take control of us. Here are some reasons why some messages
seem disorganized:
1. Why are some messages disorganized?
a) Presenting ideas in illogical order. If there are about six points as ideas that
a writer or a speaker wishes to convey the communicator may not be able to
present them in a logical sequence if he/she has not reflected on them.
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Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
b) Including irrelevant material. When the communicator is not certain about

what infom1ation is relevant and what is not, then working on conjecture would
result in including material that is irrelevant to the message.
c) Leaving out necessary information. In the process of including irrelevant

information, relevant and necessary information is left out. The focus being on
in-elevant information, the communicator is not mindful of necessary information.
d) Difficulty in getting to the point When the message has to deal with sensitive
issues, getting to the point becomes a problem. If the communicator does not
know how to introduce the topic, then all the above three (a, band c) things
would happen.
Summarizing the above four faults that are characteristic of a disorganized

communication, we can state the following reasons:
• Lack of reflection- re..c;;ultc; in illogical sequence
• Guess work- result-; in including irrelevant information
• Not mindful - necessary information is left out
• Not sure of oneself- does not know how to present the topic/issues
2. Why Good Organization is Important :
[sit really important for any message to be well-organized? Isn't it sufficient enough
if the point of the message is eventually made? The answer is: Arranging your ideas
logically in proper style and tone will help satisfy the various needs of the audience -
such as informational, motivational and practical needs. A well-organized message
present.;; all the required information in a convincing manner, and with maximum
efficiency.
A well-organized message is important for the following reasons:
a) Helps the audience to understand the message:
The main reason for being well-organized is to improve the chances that people
will understand exactly what you mean. When the main idea is clearly stated,
and all supporting information is included in a coherent manner it will satisfy the
informational need of the audience. The audience can easily understand the
message.
125
b) Helps the audience to accept the message:

A well-organized message can be a motivating factor for the audience to accept
the message. It helps you to get your ideas across without upsetting the audience.
c) Saves the time of the audience:

Most people, in a business organization, are pressed for time. Time is a very
rare commodity and people do not like to squander it. A good organized message
will satisfy the need for convenience at all level. In other words, your well-
organized message becomes convenient for the audience- to read and understand
the message without wasting his/her time. The audience can follow the thought
pattern of the message without struggling.
d) Simplifies the task of the communicator:

Just as others, so also the communicator is pressed for time, therefore, being
well organized will help him/her to get the message down on the paper quickly
and efficiently. By thinking about what you are going to say and how you arc
going to say it before you begin to write, you can proceed more confidently.
25 Activity A :
Pick any disorganized message you have come across recently and try to identify the
reason(s) why the communication was faulty.
----------------------------------------------- -------------
6.3 GOOD ORGANIZING THROUGH OUTLINING
Achieving good organization of the message is a two-step process:
1. Define and group ideas.
Deciding what to say is the most basic problems that any business communication
has to solve. If the content is weak, no amount of style can overcome the fact.
Once you have decided on your main idea, you must develop it by grouping the supporting
detail in a most logical and effective way.
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Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing. Composing and Revising Business Messages
By grouping we mean visualization the relationship between the different parts of the
message. One effective way of doing this is by constructing an outline. While preparing a
long and complex message an outline is indispensable.
An outline helps you to remain within a defmed framework and will help you to remain
organized.
Outline will guide you to communicate in a systematic way, covering all the ideas necessary
for the message.
Step 1 - Start with the main idea.

Main idea summariY.es two things:
• What you want the audience to do or think
• The basic reason to do it or think it
Step 2 -State the major points

Major points refer to those ideas that clarify the message hy expressing the main idea in
smaller units/thoughts.You can break the main idea into smaller units by identifying some
major points or the main ideas that you would want to develop. These major points act as
the props by which the main ideac;; are upheld.
Step 3 - Support major points by specific evidence

Each major point should be supported with enough specific evidence to be convincing.
These evidences form the body of the message and help the audience to understand the
message. Graphically you could show these three steps thus:
Main Idea
~ ~
Major Point Major Point Major Point
Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence
Fig 6.1
Source: J. V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, 'Excellence in Business Communication', pg 73
127
The more evidence you provide the more conclusive your case would be. If your subject
is complex :md unfamiliar, or if your audience is skeptical, you will need a lot offacts and
figures, demonstrative points.
You need to provide enough support to be convincing, but not so much that your message
becomes boring and inefficient.
2. Establish sequence with organizational plans:
Once you have defined and grouped your ideas you are ready to decide on the
sequence. There are two basic options you have:
a) Direct approach- this approach is deductive and nature in which the main
idea comes first followed by the evidence.
b) Indirect approach, which is inductive in nature- the evidence comes first and
the main idea later.
The choice between direct and indirect is largely detennined by the likely reaction of your
audience.
Your audience reaction will fall somewhere on the continuum shown in Fig 6.2. In general
the direct approach would be appropriate when the reaction of the audience is receptive:
eager, interested, pleased, or even neutral. If the reaction of your audience is likely to be
resistant: displeased, uninterested, and unwilling, then use the indirect approach for better
results.
Eager Interested Pleased Neutral Displeased Uninterested Unwilling
t t t t t t t
DIRE(..!APPROACH IN)IRECfAPPROACH
Fig 6.2 :Audience Reaction and Organizational Approach
Source: J. V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, 'Excellence in Business Communication ', pg 75
Once the probably reaction of the audience has been analysed and appropriate approach
selected, then you can choose the most appropriate organizational plan.
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\Jnit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
a) DirectApproach:
i) Direct request
This type of business message is used when the audience will interested in
responding to the message. For instance, if you want to place an order for a
certain product, the recipient of your message will be eager to respond to your
request. Thus, direct request use direct approach i.e. you get straight to the
point.
ii) Routine, Good News and Goodwill messages

If your message is providing routine information, that is a pmt of a regular business
function, the audience will usually be neutral in its reaction- i.e. it would neither
be pleased nor displeased. However, if you arc announcing a rise in bonus, or
congratulating a worker for a job well done, the audience will be pleased to
hear your message. Thus routine, good news, and good will messages use direct
approach. By starting the message with a positive note, you put the audience in
a good frame of mind, thus making them receptive. This direct approach places
the pleasing aspect of the message right in the beginning that prepares the reader
to read the entire message with interest.
iii) Bad news messages

This is a challenging task for the communicator, because delivering a bad news
is a sensitive issue. For example, you have to issue a message that is not going to
please the audience - like turning down a request, or denying credit facility to
your client.
Such a message needs to be carefully planned and organized. The challenge lies
in being honest <md yet somehow soothes the displeasure of your audience.
The bad news has to be cushioned by other ideas that are either neutral or more
positive. The explanation for the bad news has to go along with a positive note.
If the audience has been refused or denied something, then the audience has the
right to know why he/she has been denied the request.
iv) Persuasive messages

These messages become necessary when your audience is not willing to or
interested in what you have to say. Your audience may be hostile, skeptical and
you may face resistance from them towards your message. I'or example, your
129
clients might want to cancel an air ticket for which he/she may have to bear
considerable cost. You know this is going to upset your client and may even
create a scene in your office. In such a case, using the indirect approach gives
you an opportunity to get across your message without creating much displeasure.
• When your purpose is to inform, the major points are based on the natural order of
the subject of the message.
• When your purpose is to persuade or collaborate, the major points will follow topical
path of argument.
• If you expect your audience to agree with you, use a structure that focuses attention
on conclusions and recommendations.
• If you expect your audience to be skeptical about your conclusions and

recommendations (or hostile towards them), use a structure that focuses attention on
the rationale that supports your point of view.
~ Activity B :
a) If you are to work on a business communication activity, like a monthly report, what
would be the steps you would follow for making an outline'!
b) You have to deliver bad news to your friends. How would you go about delivering
this news?
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6.4 FROM OUTLINE TO FIRST DRAFT
Having finished planning, you are now ready to begin drafting- i.e. composing a preliminary
J'
version of a message. .l
As someone has said, "Writing is an art. Rewriting is a craft". So do not worry about
getting everything right at the first instance.
. !
Just write and put down everything that comes to your mind without worrying about style,
tone, logical sequence, etc.
Do not combine drafting with revismg. They involve two separate skills and two separate
rnindsets. So avoid moving from authors to editors too quickly.
Your first draft is just a draft and not a completed message. Do not expect perfection and
do not strive for it.
Concentrate on writing all the points you identified during planning stage.
1. Writer's Block :
Many people spend anxious moments worrying about what to wtite, and how to write.
Some people spend long time staring at blank paper or screen, not knowing how to
proceed.
Such an experience is known as ''writer's block"- the inability to focus on the writing
process and to draft a message.
The causes of writer's block are one or more of the following:

• Procrastination: Putting off what we dislike doing
• hnpatience: Growing tired ofthe naturally slow pace of writing process
• Perfection: Believing that the draft must be peifect the first time.
Strategies to overcome writer's block:
a) Choose the right environment

Find out where you can be comfortable and concentrate on the task of writing the
draft. Very often the most comfortable place is some other than where you normally
sit and work.
131
b) Schedule a reasonable span of time

Allotting yourself a time span is a way of disciplining yourself. Use the time without
wasting it. Allow enough time to plan, draft and revise. This will overcome
procra~tination.
c) State your purpose in writing

Having identified your specific purpose during the planning phase, write it somewhere
and put it in front of you. Keep it visible so that it will be uppermost in your
consciousness aS you compose.
d) Engage in free writing

Review your purpose and your audience and set off to write i.e. being free writing.
Write without stopping till you feel that you have put all your thoughts in words. Do
not stop in between and start correcting.
e) Avoid the perfectionism syndrome

Remember you are writing the draft as an artist and not as an editor. So do not worry
about style, cohesive, spelling, punctuations etc..
f) Think out loud

Some people can speak better than they can write. If there is a Dictaphone record
what you say and later transcribe it.
g) Write the easiest part first

The most difficult part of writing something is the opening paragraph. So begin with
the easiest part. Your draft need not contain the message in the order in which it wi 11
appear in the final form.
J6 Activity C :
Did you, at any point of time in your student life, face a "writer's block" situation?
a) Can you recollect how you managed to overcome the problem?
------------------------------------------------------- - ----
132
b) Do you feel you took the right steps?
c) If your answer is "no", then what steps should you have taken?
6.5 COMPOSING PROCESS

Composition is relatively easy if you have already decided what to say and in what order,
although you may need to pause now and then to find the right word.
Feel free to rearrange, delete, or add ideas, as long as you don't loose sight of the purpose.
1. Style :
In composing the message, vary the style to create a tone that suits the occasion.
Style is the way you use words to achieve a certain tone, or overall impression. You
can vary your style- i.e. your sentence structure and vocabulary- to sound forceful
or passive, personal or impersonal etc. The right choice depends on the nature of
yow· message and your relationship with the reader.
Although style can be refined during the revision phase you will save yourself time
and a lot of rewriting if you compose in an appropriate manner.
2. Tone:
The first step toward getting the right tone is to consider your relationship with the
audience.
To achieve a warm but businesslike tone:
a) Don'tbefamiliar
b) Use humorwithgreatcare
133
c) Do not flatter the other person

d) Don'tpreach
e) Don'tboast
f) Be yourself
3. Use the ''You" attitude :
Establish empathy with your audience. See the subject matter of the message through
the eye s of the audience. Many business messages have an "I" or
"We" attitude, which causes the sender to sound selfish and not interested in the
receiver.
If you want to get your message across, you will have to express yourself message in
terms of the interest and needs of the audience.
In other words, usc "You" and "Yours" instead of"I" "Me": "Mine", "We" "us" and
"Ours". This is the "you" attitude, which you must adopt.
Example:
''We" Attitude "You" Attitude
a. We arc please to announce our Now you can take a plane from
new flight from Pune to Hong Pune to Hong Kong.
Kong
b. You need to make sure that the staff The staff may need guidance in
follows insuuctions following insUuctions.
In the example (b) note that "you" attitude sentence sound authoritative.
ConsUucting "you" attitude without using the word "you" can soften this.
4. Maintain a Positive Note :
Explain what you can do and what you will do, and not whatyoucan'tdoorwon't
do. Positive side of your message will show sensitivity to your audience.
Example: Instead of: It is impossible to repair this vacuum cleaner today.

Use: We can repair your vacuum cleaner by Tuesday.
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Cnit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
When you are offering criticism or advice, focus on what a person can do to improve.
Example: Instead of: The problem with this department is failure to control costs
Use: The performance ofthis department can be improved by tightening
cost controls.
5. Establish credibility :
People are more likely to react positively to your message when they have confidence
in you. This belief in your competence and integrity is important. The first step in
building credibility is to promise only what you can do, and then fulfill your promise.
Your credibility is also enhanced by the quality of the information you provide. If you
support your points with evidences that can be confirmed, your audience will respect
you.
6. Be polite :
The best tone for business messages is almost always a polite one. Although you may
be tempted now and then to be brutally frank, try to express the facts in a kind and
thought manner.
6.6 PRACTICING REVISION
As mentioned earlier that writing is an art and editing is a craft- i.e. a science that has a
definite procedure. Usually in the process of editing the editor has to edit some manuscript
that someone else has written. However, when one has to edit a document written by
himself then this process becomes a little different and difficult.
Editing or revising is a process of modifying a document to increase its effectiveness. Once

the draft has been written, it can be refined into an effective document; but the process of
revising one's own draft does not begin immediately. There has to be a gap of some time
for the frame of mind (in which the draft was written) to fade away. Otherwise, what you
actually wrote will still be fresh and su-ong in your mind which will keep you from identifying
the weakness in your draft. So allow for a period to lapse before you take up the document
draft for revising. If you are pressed for time then give the draft to someone other than
your audience for revising.
In the process of writing, revising is the third step that involves many steps. The process
consists of editing for content and organization, style and readability, format, usage of
words etc.
135
Whatever the document or the message is intended for, once it is drafted, you owe yourself
to refine and your audience to review. Care should be taken not to revise the document for
all its elements. but rather revise the message at least three times: once for content and
organization, once for style and readability and once for format.
1. Revising the Content and Organization:
Begin by reading the document to evaluate its overall effectiveness. Here you arc concerned
with the content, organization, and the flow of thought. ldeally, you should let your draft
age a day or two before you begin the editing process, so that you can approach the
material with a fresh view. The factor you should consider while editing for content and
organization are:
a) have all points been covered in a logical order

b) good balance between general points and specific points
c) space allotted for and positions of prominence or important points
d) providing enough evidence
e) need to add or eliminate information
Apart from these factors that determine the effectiveness of the content there is a need to
pay attention to the beginning and ending of the message.
Opening section of the message should he relevant, interesting and tuned to probable
reaction of the audience. Reading of the message should be reviewed for summary of the
main points.
2. Revising for Style and Readability :
Once you are satisfied with the content and organization of the message, then turn your
attention to style and readability. You need to create an interest in your audience for the
message. This is done by the use of style- i.e. using lively and emphatic words and
phrases.
At the same time, make sure that your message is not difficult to follow. Your audience
should be able to read with ease and comprehend the message without difficulty. Do not
use complex phrases and words or idiomatic expression that will cause hindrances in
understanding the message. Make use of short and simple sentences.
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Unit 6 Writing Proccs~ : Organizing. Composing and Revising Business Messages
3. Revising for Mechanics and Format :
Pinal step in revising has to do with language and fom1at. Language here means use of
proper words, correct spellings, and granm1ar. Very often people, though they can speak
concct English make several grammatical mistakes.
Remember. your audience is not only interpreting the message, but also judging you from
the way you write the message. for instance, if you let mechanical errors slip through,
people will wonder if you are reliable with more impm1ant things. Also give attention to the
format of the message.
Follow the accepted conventions and company guidelines for the format of the message.
6.7 SELECTING THE RIGHT WORDS

As a business communicator. you have to pay attention to two things while revising your
draft: correctness and effectiveness of words.
Correctness of the usage of words is generally easier than the effectiveness of words.
Correctness of word-usage comes from hearing a language, while the effectiveness of
words has to be cultivated.
Sometimes even the correct usc of words has to be confirmed.
1. .Functional Words and Content Words

a) Functional words express relationships and have one unchanging meaning in
any given context. 1bey include conjtmctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.
Functional words express relationships among content words.
b) Content words are multidimensional and hence subject to vruious interpretations
or meanings. Nouns. verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category.
'Ibcsc are words that carry the meaning of the sentence.
Both functional words and content words are necessary, but your effectiveness
as a communicator depends largely on your ability to choose the right content
words.
2. Connotation and Denotation

Content words have both denotative meaning and connotative meaning. Denotative
meaning is litcml or dictionary meaning. Connotative meaning includes all association
and feelings evoked by the word.
137
For example, if you say that a person has failed to pass a test, you are allowing the
word 'fail' to suggest a whole range of meanings- i.e. the person is incompetent,
inferior, not intelligent etc. But, instead of using the word fail you state that the person
secured 65 percent, you are suggesting something else. By avoiding the word 'fail'.
you have avoided negative connotation.
In business communication you should generally usc words that have low connotative
meaning. In other words, make use of words that would not generate negative meanings
in the mind of the audience.
3. Abstraction and Concretncss

Content words also vary in their level of abstraction. That is to say that content
words can also be abstract words.
An abstract word expresses a concept, quality or characte1istic - for example, honor,
progress, integrity etc. Content words are also grounded in the material world- for
example: table, chair, rose, kick, red etc. These are concrete words.
In business communication, use concrete, specific terms whenever possible; use

abstract words only when necessary.
Example; Company experienced a 'sizable loss'.

Company had a 'loss of 10 crores'.
4. Word Choice
Poets, novelists or play writers usc words that implicit in meaning, but journalists,
editors, letter and report writers are concerned with being clear, concise and accurate
in their use of language.
In business communication the use oflanguage has to be strong,familiar and precise.
a) Strong Words:
Nouns and verbs arc the most concrete words in any message, so use them as
much as you can.
Usc adjectives and adverbs sparingly, although they are al<>o important. They
arc subjective in nature, and business communication should be objective.
Verbs arc powerful words because they carry the action. The more dynamic the
word the better it is.
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Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
Weak Forms Strong Forms

Wealthy businessperson tycoon
Business prosperity boom
Fall plummet
b) Familiar Words :
Communication is best through familiar words. Use words that are in common
and familiar to most people. However, be careful in 'using terms that have become
so common that they have virtually lost their meaning. For example; interface,
strategic decision, frame of reference, track record. These words have been so
often used that people hearing or reading them take them for granted and don't
pay attention to what they mean.
c) Short or Precise Words :

Compose your message by using shmt words or sentences. Example,
Long: During the preceding year, the company wa'> able to accelerate productive
operations.
Short: last year, the company was able to speed up operation.
d) Camouflaged Verbs :
Endings of the words: -ion, -tion, -ing, -ment, -ant, -ent, -ence, -ance and-
cncy should be avoided. Such words complicate the construction of sentences,
which could be misleading.
Example:
The manager undertook implementation of the rules
The manager implemented the rules.
6.8 BIAS-FREE WRITING

Avoid biased language that might offend the audience. lt is not enough to be bias-free, but
it must also appear in our speech and writing.
a) Sexist language: We are used to using language that suggest bias. When citing a
general example we often use words like 'mankind' 'man-made', 'man-power' etc.
139
These words could be replaced by 'humankind' 'artificial' , 'human power' etc. Here
arc some examples:
Business man Business person

Salesman Sales representative
Foreman Supervisor
Insurance man Insurance agent
i) Some words denote both men and women. In such case avoid using the
ma~iculine and the feminine words. For example avoid making distinctions such
as 'authoress' and 'actress' because 'author' and 'actor' include both the genders.
ii) Another way to avoid bias is to mention women first. Give priority to ladies -
women and men, ladies and gentlemen, she and he etc.
b) Racial and Ethnic bias: It is politically correct, in every way to avoid any comments
that may have a racial or ethnic bias. One reads in the media of prominent personalities
in US or UK often falling into this trap. Even in our own country, India-our politicians
or even celebrities get caught up in this complicated issue. Then getting out of it poses
to be a gigantic problem.
£S Activity D :
a) Comment on any sexist bias that you may have observed while reading newspapers
or even listening to the speeches of certain political leaders.
h) There have been remarks made by famous personalities which have a racial bias.
Surf the Intcmct and find out more.
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Unit 6 Writing Process: Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
6.9 SUMMARY
In a well organized message, all the infonnation is clearly related to the subject and purpose.
Organizing a message requires defining and grouping ideas.
The main ;idea is defined in terms of what and why the audience must either do or think the
way you want them to.
Organizing also involves identifying major points that support the main idea.
The major points that support the main idea arc further supported by evidence.
Thus, a hierarchy of main idea, major points and evidences form a broad outline for
organizing a message.
While organizing it is also good if the importance of establishing a relationship with the
audience is kept in mind. In the capacity of being a representative of the organization, your
message should reflect its standards.
6.10 SEl.F-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Q 1. Explain the reason for a well organized business message.
Q2. Discuss the causes of "writer's block", and explain the strategies to overcome it.
Q3. Explain the composing process.
Q4. Why arc certain messages disorganized? Can you list the faults?
QS. Some tips to adopt a business-like tone. Write down six such tips.
Q6. A well organized message in important for four reasons. What are they?
Q7. Fill in the blank~ :

i) Disorganized communication can have cause _ _ ___:and _ __ _ __
ii) Arranging your ideas in proper _____ and tone will help
satisfy the various needs of the audience.
iii) A well-organized message can be a._ _ _ _ _ _ _ factor for the audience
to accept the message.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
Almost all business communication has two basic purposes :
• to produce a favourable attitude or response inl:he audience
• to convey information
Effective communicators recognize that they can assume audience cooperation when
composing certain types of messages. That is, their audience will not automatically resist
the main idea and content in such messages.
Whenever you can assume that your audience will be interested in what you have to say,
or at least willing to cooperate with you, your message should follow the 'direct', or
'deductive' plan. You should present the request or the main idea first, follow up with
message details, and close with a cordial statement of the action you want. There are
various situations in which direct plan is useful.
Routine or neutral messages assume audience cooperation and conduct necessary business
for an individual or a corporation. These could be in the form of annmmcements, reminders,
inquiries or request~. In each of these, the writer is either transmitting information or seeking
information.
Positive messages convey good news to the reader. They include positive responses,
credit approvals, and order acknowledgements. Positive responses answer inquiries or
direct requests. These responses commonly have a context opening, a body with answers
or requested information, and either an action or a goodwill close. Credit approvals, which
like other positive messages follow a deductive pattern, often contain a review of the
underlying conditions for granting credit and an explanation of credit terms. Order
acknowledgements, like credit approvals, often repeat or clarify the terms of agreement
between writer and the reader.
Goodwill messages arc those documents designed for the primary purpose of establishing
or maintaining good writer-reader relationships. They include public relations messages or
greetings, as well as welcome messages, invitations, congratulations, and thank-you notes.
Three main categories of information that can be delivered with the direct approach or
organization arc:
• Positive information, which pleases the reader
• Neutral information, which may not elicit either positive or negative reaction but which
may have strong infonnation value
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Unit 7 Writing Routine. Good News and Goodwill Messages
• Negative information, which the reader will not want to read
7.2 AUDIENCECOOPERATION
- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- - - --
Messages that assume reader cooperation anticipate a non-resistant stance from the
audience. This anticipated cooperation enables the writer to assume a business-as-usual
stance toward a situation. When assuming audience cooperation, a business-as-usual
attitude persists, even if, for some reason, the audience cannot cooperate exactly as
expected. For example, the wtiter may directly request the reader's attendance at a business
function. The reader may wish to attend, but be unable to do so due to a schedule conflict.
Even though the writer's request does not result in the reader's attendance, the reader is
not really resisting the request a~ fmding it impossible to comply.
1. Strategies to Encourage Audience Cooperation

You can use explicit cues to encourage audience cooperation:
a) A clear and direct statement of the main idea at the outset (deductive organization)
aid audience cooperation by avoiding any misunderstanding about what the reader
is to know or do.
For example, if you write, "Would you please provide us with information about
your company?" this could cause confusion because the reader may give general
information about the company. Instead, if you write, "Would you plea~ provide
us with information regarding the measures your company has employed in
response to PF policy of the Government." The statement is clear and direct to
the point.
b) Indication of confidence in the reader's positive response can be shown by

using words such as "please" or "thank you" , which would make a statement
sound less like a demand and more like a request. This would encourage
cooperation of the audience. Communicating in a positive manner creates the
impression that courtesy will be sufficient to ensure the wanted action.
c) Providing crucial information is another way of ensuring audience cooperation.

All information necessary to explain the action(s) indicated, should be included
in the message. Such information might include invoice number, cost figures,
specific dates, addresses, specifications, etc.
d) Clear and specific action statements at the close to specify the action(s) the
writer wants the reader to take is another way to help audience cooperation.
147
For example, closing with a request for information provides clear action the
reader should take:
Please write to me or call me at (phone number) before December 6,2006 to

set up an interview regarding your participation in the forth-coming conference
at the City Commerce Chamber.
e) Information included with the message. in the form of enclosures, etc. that enables
the reader to act or to understand the course of action in detail- such as brochures
offering financial incentives, business cards, discount coupons for early purcha"e.
etc.
Strategies to encourage reader cooperation can be used both in documents that

assume audience cooperation and in those that anticipate audience resistance.
2. Reasons for Audience Resistance :
Audience may resist a message for many reasons - the message contains bad news,
or because of the past negative experience with the communicator or the company.
Following are the reasons for which the audience may resist a document:
a) The "Age" oflnformation: Audience resist messages that contain information

that is either too old or completely new. If the message informs about something
that is already happening and of which the people are already aware, then the
audience will not be interested in reading the message. Similmly, the audience
may also resist completely new infom1ation because they have not had tin1e to
consider its ramifications.
b) Traditional Practices versus Change: Audience may resist change itself, because
they may fmd it confusing or threatening. For instance, student" informed about
a change in curriculum might immediately resist, because they feel uneasy about
enrolling in unanticipated courses or fear a delay in their graduation. Because of
this natural resistance to change, communicators often need to reassure their
audience of the reasons for change and the benefits that will likely result.
Communicators associate need for the change with something good and establish
the change itself as something unique and good.
c) Organizational Hierarchy: Audience, within an organization, expects the

information to follow a certain organizational channel. If. for example, a cerlain
type of information come from the middle management rather than the CEO,
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Unit 7 Writing Routine. Good News and Goodwill Messages
audience may resist that infmmation, simply, because they do not perceive the
communicator as having the proper standing to speak on the subject. In such
cases, it is best to let the information follow the organizational path to avoid
resistance and allow cooperation.
d) Group Membership and Shared Goals: If you assume that the reader shares
your views or goals and your assumption is incorrect, then the reader may resist
your message. This very often happens in an org<mization where the boss feels
that his subordinates share the same concerns or views or goals and later finds
that his message is not received enthusiastically. This is possible when a group
member shares the same goals as the group, but does not agree about the manner
in which the goals arc pursued, and hence, the message may be resisted.
e) Expertise: Readers may also resist a message because it does not match their
level of expertise. Audience may become impatient with a message and resist
what the communicator has to say if the material is either too difficult or too
easy. Similarly, readers may resist the writer's message because they do not
believe the writer has the qualification or expertise to provide the information.
3. Overcoming Audience Resistance :
Following arc the recommendations for overcoming audience resistance:
a) Build or preserve a positive history with the audience.
b) Find ways of 'softening' bad news or offrnding positive aspects of negative

situations.
c) Pay attention to the "age" of your information. In general, present old news
before new news, and be especially alert when handling information that is either
too old or too new.
d) Recognize that change itself is often threatening. Doing so will help you realise
that. even if what you are proposing is a change for the better, audience will
probably be resistant.
c) Know the established channels of communication in your office and be aware of

hierarchical relationships within the organization. Usc the support of the authority,
when appropriate.
f) Analyse the interests of members within a group before you assume or appeal
to shared goals.
149
g) Remember that an audience's area and level of expertise helps you predict how
the audience will respond to your communication.
PS Activity A :
a) Reader's Digest has a very interesting way of drawing its customers to its other
publications. This is done through "Golden Treasure Prize Draw" messages to its
customers. Get hold of a set ofthese messages and identify the "Strategies to Encourage
Audience Cooperation".
b) Did you ever have to impart "bad" news to a group of people? Did you face any
audience resistance? List out what they were:
c) Do you recall your boss giving you bad news? Did he 'soften' the impact? How did
you react?
7.3 ORGANIZL~G 'DIRECT PLAN' MESSAGES

Whenever you can assume that your audience will be interested in what you have to say,
or alleast willing to cooperate with you, your message should follow the 'direct', or
'deductive plan'.
You should : a) present the request or the main idea first, b) follow up with necessary
details, and c) close with a cordial statement of action you want. This approach works
well when your request or message requires no special tact or persuasion.
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Unit 7 Writing Routine. Good !'icws and Goodwill Messages
Usually senders of direct messages may be tempted to begin with a personal introduction
- "I am administrative assistant to the head of a large bookstore chain, and I am interested
in expanding our selection of reference books.'' Remember, this type of beginning is a
mistake, because what you may want your reader to know and do may get buried under
the weight of your introduction. The best way to begin a direct message is to state what
you want in the first sentence or two and let explanation follow this initial request or idea.
Another aspect that needs to be remembered is the 'tone'. Even though you expect a
favourable response, the tone of your initial request is important. Instead of demanding
immediate action be patient and help your audience to understand your message or the
request you are making. This is achieved in the middle part of a direct message. It explains
the original idea or request by supplying necessary details.
Example: "I would like to order a sample of several of your reference works to determine
whether they appeal to our customers." Such amplifying details help your audience fill your
request correctly.
In the last section, 'clearly state' the action you are requesting or expecting. You may want
to inform your audience where to send the sought-after information or product, indicate
any time limit, or any other infonnation that you could not cover in the previous parts. Then
'close' with a brief, cordial note reminding your audience of the importance of the message.
1. Writing Direct Requests

a) Direct statement of the request :
This refers to the main idea. The general rule for the first part of the direct
request is to write not only to be understood but also to avoid being
misunderstood. Be as specific as possible in the sentence or two that begins
your message.
In the direct approach, the sender's primary goal agrees with the receiver's
primary goal: what is foremost in the mind of the recipient is what the author
most wishes· to transmit. You should be as specific as possible in a sentence or
two (about the subject matter that you wish to know) that begins your message.
Be aware of the difference between a polite request in a question form, which
requires no question mark, and a question that is a part of the request.
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Polite request in question form :

Would you pl~:?asc help us determine whether Mr. Ramgopal is a suitable candidate
for the position oflandscape designer.
Question that is partoftherequest:

Did Mr. Ramgopal demonstrate an ability to work as an efficient landscape
designer?
Many direct requests indude both types of statements so make sure you
distinguish between a polite request, which is your overall reason for writing,
and specific question, which belongs to the middle section of your message.
b) Justification, explanation, and details:

Justification for the purpose of your message can be made by way of explanation,
which should be a logical outgrowth of your opening statements. You could
constmct the first sentence of your middle section in the form of "you-sentence"
by stating a benefit to the reader.
For example, you may write to your supplier: "By keeping us informed about
your product, you can help create a new distribution network for your business."
In the middle section:

can attention to how the reader will benefit from granting your request
Give details of your request
Another possible approach for the middle section is to a<;k series of questions,
particularly if your inquiry concerns machinery or complex equipment. You may
want to know about technical specifications, exact dimensions, precise use of
the product, and more importantly the cost. If you arc requesting several items
or answers, you should number the items and list them in logical order or in
descending order of importance
Furthermore, so that your request can be handled quickly, remember :

i) Ask only those questions that relate to your main inquiry
ii) Do not ask for infmmation that can be easily obtained by you
iii) Make your questions open-ended and objective
iv) Deal with only one topic in each question
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Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
If the questions need amplification, keep each question in a separate paragraph.
c) Courteously close with request for specific action :

Your letter should 'close' with both a request for some specific response, and an
expression of appreciation or goodwill. Help your reader to respond easily by
supplying information for getting in touch with you. Do not thank the reader "in
advance" for cooperating. If the reader's reply deserves a word of thanks, send
it after you have received the reply.
Close with:
i) A request for some specific response
ii) An expression of appreciation
iii) Information about how you can be reached.
2. Writing Requests for Routine Information and Action

When you need to know about something, to get an opinion from someone, or suggest
an action. you usually need to ask.
In making a routine request, say:

• What you want to know
• Why you want to know
• Why it is in the reader's interest to help you
Routine request<; deserve a touch of tact, because in many organizations, memos and
letters arc sent to hundreds of employees, customers, clients, and shareholders. Thus,
the concern for creating positive impressions is not as vital as the risk of causing ill will
through ambiguous wording or discourteous tone.
a) Requests to fellow-employees:
Although requests to fellow-employees are after oral and rather casual, some
requests arc better put in permanent, wtitten form. A request in memo form
D Provides a permanent record
ii) Saves time (when well written)
iii) Helps readers to know precisely what is required
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b) Requests to other businesses :

Many letters to other businesses are requests for information about products, or
something you have seen in advertisement. Where writing a letter in response to
an advertisement
i) Say where you saw the advertisement
ii) Provide a clear and complete return
iii) Provide a clear and complete return address on the letter
Very often inquires, not prompted by advertisement, demand more detailed
letter.
c) Request to customers and other outsiders:

Businesses after ask individuals outside the organi:t.ation to provide information
or to take some action- such as attend a meeting, return an information card,
enclose a document etc. Often these messages can be short and simple, but
after situations require a more detailed explanation. In such cases, readers may
not be willing to respond unless they understand hoe the request benefits them.
Businesses sometimes need to reestablish a relationship with former customers.

A letter ofinquiry and encouragement to reestablish relationship with the company
is needed.
~Activity B :
You arc Assistant Manager, Purchase, and your boss has asked you to inquire about air
conditioners, which arc to be installed in different offices of the company. The requirement
is for 10 air conditioners that have to he installed within a period of 15 days.
You need to obtain information from different agencies to acquire the best buy. Write a
letter requesting infmmation that would help your company to make the most appropriate
decision.
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7.4 WRITING POSITIVE MESSAGES
When you have only positive information to present, rank your information with the most
positive first, followed by the next most positive, and so on. Work your way down to the
least positive details.
Penrose et al observe,
"When reading the most positive information first, the reader encounters the next thought
in a more receptive mood. Assuming the second thought is the second most positive
comment, these thoughts combine to place the reader in an even more favourable frame of
mind for the third thought, and so on. This cumulative effect helps the reader receive the
message with a hcttcr overall reaction than would be derived from an indirectly organized
message".
They further suggest,
"Because substantial positive feelings can reflect well on the sender, you should make
optimal usc of this message categmy. You can achieve even more benefits by using direct
statements that follow a subject/verb - first organization, selecting active voice, picking
present tense, using strong verbs, organizing sentences for emphasis, and involving the
reader through the use of the you tone."
With positive content messages, the most difficult writing steps are:
• Correctly ranking the importance of the various items from the reader's point of view
• Omitting extraneous information
• Writing transitions from thought to thought
Most business communication consists of positive messages. A clear understanding of

how such messages are organized will allow you to write good ones quickly.
Whether oral or written, these messages follow a simple formula:
a) Clear statement of the main idea.
h) Necessary details.
c) Courteous close.
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1. Planning positive messages
a) Clear statement of the main idea :

This refers to the main purpose of the message. When you begin a message
write a statement of yow- purpose, you prepare yow- audience for the explanation
that follows. Your introductory statement is important, so do not fill it up with
unnecessary statements.
For example:
Instead of: I am pleased to infonn you thatafter deliberating the matter carefully,
our H.R. department has recommended you for appointment as an accountant.
Write: You have been selected to join our firm as an accountant.
b) Necessary details :
The middle part of the message is typically the longest section of a routine,
good-news, or goodwill message. Your purpose of communicating can usually
be expressed in a sentence or two, but you will need more space or time to
explain your point completely so that the reader will not be left in confusion.
In addition to providing details in the middle section, you must maintain the
supp01tive tone estabHshed at the beginning. Maintaining this tone is easy while
writing good-news.
c) Courteous close :
Your message is most likely to succeed if your readers are left with the feeling
that you have this personal welfare in mind. Make sure each audience member
understands what to do next and how that action will benefit her or him.
2. Checklist for Positive Messages
a) Initial statement of the good news (Main idea)

0 Respond promptly to the request.
ii) In your first statement indicate that you arc fulfilling the readers request.
iii) Ifyou arc acknowledging an order, summarize the transaction.
iv) Convey a comtcous and you-oriented tone.
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Cnit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
b) Middle informational section

0 Express interest in the request.
il) If possible, answer all questions and requests (in the order posed).
iii) Provide all the important details about orders.

iv) Use sales opportunities when appropriate (e.g. enclose brochure).
v) If you cannot comply with part of the request, explain to the reader why
this is so, and offer positive alternative.
vi) F1d.ffie negative statements in positive context, or as offer positive alternative.
c) Courteous close
i) Avoid cliches (e.g. "please feel free to")
il) Direct a request to the reader, or specify the action you want the reader to
take.
iii) Remind the reader of the benefits to be derived from the action you are
suggesting.
iv) Offer additional services.
v) Express goodwill
3. Conveying positive information about people
Professors, supervisors, and managers are after asked to write letters recommending
students or employers for jobs, awards, or membership in organizations such leuers
may take the direct approach when the recommendation is generally positive.
a) Recommendation letters :
It is important that letters of recommendation contains all the relevant details
• The full name of the candidate
• The job or benefit that the candidate is seelcing
• Whether the writer is answering a request or taking the initiative
• The nature of the relationship between the writer and the candidate
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Business Conununication
• Facts relevant to the position or benefit sought
• The writer's overall evaluation of the candidate's suitability for the job or
benefit sought.
Recommendation letter are usually mailed directly to the person or committee

who requested them, and are not shown to the concerned candidates. This
enables the writer to give a balanced view of the candidate. A Good writer of
recommendation letters will:
• include only relevant, factual information
• avoid value judgements
• balance criticism.<> with favourable points
b) Good news about employment:
Finding suitable job applicants and then selecting the right candidate for the job
is a task fraught with hard choices. In contrast writing a letter to the successful
candidate is a pleasure. Most of the time such a letter is eagerly awaited, so the
direct approach serves well.
A letter telling someone that she or he has been selected for the job is a legal
document; hence make sure that all statements are accurate. The letter should
take a friendly and welcoming tone and should explain the necessary details: job
title, starting date, salary and benefits. The last paragraph, with the explanation
of the first day's routine, will help the new employee.
For example, "please plan to arrive at 8.30 am on 24th of Nov. and ask for me
at the reception. We will spend an hour or so in fllling out the necessary forms
and going over company employment policies "
c) Writing positive replies:
Many news and business letters are written in response to an order, an inquiry,
or a request When the answer is positive, or involves straightforward information,
then the direct plan is appropriate.
4. Acknowledgement letters
One of the simplest letters to write is one confirming that a customer's order has been
received and is being filled. If the products are being shipped or the services are
158
provided immediately, then the acknowledgement letter is unnecessary. But if the

orders are large that cannot be supplied immediately, then it is appropriate to
acknowledge the orders.
Acknowledgement letters play a role of fostering "goodwill". In accordance with the
direct plan, the first paragraph of the acknowledgement letter is a statement of"good
news" The customer has placed an order and looks forward to receiving the
merchandise, all you have to do is acknowledge the order and is being processed
and that the merchandise is on its way.
The middle section should demonstrate the professionalism of the fum by giving an
accurate summary of the transaction, such as:
• When the delivery may be expected
• The cost of the merchandise
• Cost of shipping and taxes
• Explanation of problems that may have arisen
Note:
Letters of this type frequently add information in the middle or the closing sections,
such as:
a) Resale :
Information about the company or product that conflm1s the customer's good
judgement in making the transaction
b) Sales promotion :
Information about goods and services that go along with the customers purchase
is also a part of this letter. ,
Despite the business purpose of the acknowledgement letter, it should end on a

warm, personal note and with a look towards future transactions.
c) Replying to requests for information and action

Any request is important to the person making it, whether inside or outside the
organization. That person's opinion of your company and its products, your
department, and yourself will be influenced by how promptly, graciously and
thoroughly the request is handled.
159
However, complying with a request is not always easy because the information may not be
inunediately available, and decisions to take some action may take longer time since higher
level of management is involved.
Furthermore, since a reply is written on letterhead stationery, it beco~es legally binding.

Hence, one must be careful in writing a response.
i) When a potential sale is involved :
Prospective customers often request an annual report, catalogue, brochure. or other

type of information to help them make a decision about a product they have come
across through advertisement. A polite and helpful response may help them to make
the decision to buy. When answering requests involving a potential sale, you have
three main goals:
• To respond to the inquiry, or answer all the questions

• To encourage the sale
• To convey a good impression of you and your firm
ii) When no sale is involved :
Some requests from outsiders and most request-; from within the organization arc no
opportunities to sell a product. In replying to these requests, you have two goals:
• To answer all the questions honestly and completely

• To leave a favourable impression of your company or foster good working
relationships.
~Activity C :
Consider yourself as a professor who has been approached by a student intending to

study abroad. The university requires a recommendation letter from a professor. The student
requests you to write the letter of recommendation. Taking into account the entire relevant
details necessary, write a recommendation letter.
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L'nit 7 Writing Routine, Good :'llcws ami Goodwill Messages
7.5 WRITING GOODWILL MESSAGES
Business is not often all business. To a large extent, it is an opportunity to forge personal
relationships. You can enhance your relationships with customers and other business people
by sending friendly, unexpected notes with no direct business purpose. Some examples of
these are congratulations, thanks, condolences, and greetings.
Although goodwill messages have little to do with business transaction, they might include
some sales information. You could use the opp01tunity to mention about some particular
service or remind the reader of your company's product.
However, it should be secondary to the goodwill message.
Only the straight hint of a sales message should ever appear in a goodwill message.
1. Congratulations :
One prime opportunity for sending congratulations is the news of some significant business
achievement or attaining an important civic position. Taking note of significant events in
someone's personal life helps cement the business relationships.
Highlights in people's personal lives- such as weddings, births, graduations, and success
in non-business competitions- are another reason for sending congratulations. You may
even congratulate your business acquaintances on their achievements, or on their spouse
or children's achievements.
Some alert companies develop a mailing list of potential customers by assigning an employee
to keep a track of important events. They then introduce themselves by sending out a
congratulation note on the company's letterhead. This is enough to start a business
relation.•:;hip.
2. Letter of appreciation :
An imp01tant quality of messages is to have the ability to see employees or other business
associates as individuals and to recognize their contributions. People often value praise
more highly than monetary rewards, and a letter of appreciation may also become a part
of an employee's personal file. This documents a person's contribution. Sending a copy of
the letter to the personnel department could do this. It could be of value to the person
appreciated at the time of future pay increase or promotion.
161
Suppliers also like to know that you value some exceptional product or the service you
received. Long-term association also deserves recognition and appreciation. Your letter
of appreciation not only makes the supplier feel good; it also encourages further excellence
and good service. When you write a letter of appreciation to a supplier, try to mention
specifically the person or people you want to praise. Guest speakers at meetings should
also be thanked, even if they have been paid an honorarium or their travel expenses.
Letters of appreciations are also appropriate for acknowledging donations to campaigns
or causes. They should usually include a few details about the success of the campaign or
about how the donation is being used.
2S Activity D :
Write the following letters, keeping the poinlc; mentioned in mind:
i) a letter appreciating the good work done by your advertising agency.
it) a letter congratulating your dealer for having crossed the target set for the year.
7.6 SUMMARY
Positive replies, favourable responses, responses to routine requests, positive information

about people, good news about products and operations, and goodwill messages - these
make upmuch of the daily business correspondences.
Their purpose is to convey a message that readers will either welcome or accept without
questions. Some of the messages also encourage readers to take a specific action.
Routine, good news and goodwill messages follow a direct approach plan, first, a clear
statement of the news or main point, second, the necessary explanatory details, third, a
warm and courteous close. Some include resale information or sale.c;; promotion, which are
complimentary references to the writer's company and its products.
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Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good )Jews and Goodwill Messages
A sincere and courteous tone highlights the positive image that your messages seek to
convey and helps maintain a warm business relationship.
7.7 SELF-ASSESSMENTQUESTIONS
---------------------------------------
Q .1 Explain the process of organizing "direct requests".
Q.2 What are the important points to remember while writing positive messages?
Q.3 Explain various types of "positive replies" and their salient features.
Q.4 Write explanatory note on the following:
a) Congratulations
b) Letters of appreciation
Q.5 Indicate whether the following statementc;; are 'true'(T) or 'false'(F):

a) The direct approach plan is also known as inductive plan.
b) Always begin a direct message with personal introduction.
c) Middle part of direct message explains the main point.
d) It is always good to thank the reader" in advance".
e) It is advisable to write a request to fellow-employee in memos.
f) Recommendation letters are generally handed to the candidates.

g) Good news letter about selection for a job is a legal document.
h) Acknowledgement letter also fosters "goodwill".
i) Prospective customers often request an annual report.
j) Letter of appreciation contributes to the person's future promotion.
Q. 6 Give three examples of positive requests.
Q. 7 Give three examples oflcttcrs giving negative news.
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Busines& Communication
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we explained that when the writer expects the reader to agree with the
content of a message, it is best to present the message directly.
However, you will encounter many other occa<;iom; when you are likely to expect resistance
-for instance, when transmitting strong negative information or when persuading someone
to act.
If positive messages with direct approach are among the easiest to write, then those with
negative information or persuasive contents are among the most difficult.
The difficulty of writing negative message is because of their dual objectives:

• To transmit bad news clearly
• To maintain reader's goodwill
To accomplish either of the objectives is fairly easy; to accomplish both takes skill. Persuasive
messages, too, are usually indirect messages because they try to overcome a reader's
resistance.
8.2 OCCASIONS FOR NEGATIVE MESSAGES
Negative messages convey information that the audience will likely resist. Occasions for
writing negative messages can be grouped into three broad categories:
1. Writer-centred situations when a writer must give a negative response to a routine
request that often requires his/her personal attention or participation.
2. Reader-centred occurrences when a reader's direct request for information, goods,
or services, or persuasive request for action meets with a negative reply.
3. Message-centred occasions when negative information must be conveyed about
an organization's operations, performance, or products.
Following arc the examples of occasions that call for negative messages:
a) Writer-centred : Occasion when the writer must respond negatively:

i) Expressing inability to honour routine requests.
ii) Declining invitations and request-; for favours
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Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
iii) Refusing to write letters of recommendation
b) Reader-centred: Occasion when the writer or organization needs to address a

reader's correspondence (inquiry, direct request, order, persuasive request) with
negative message:
i) Responding to an inquiry with negative answers

ii) Providing negative information about an order placed by the reader
iii) Refusing to grant requested credit or to allow a claim, complaint, or adjustment
c) Message-centred: Occasion when the organization must convey negative information

about itself:
i) Conveying bad news about goods and services
ii) Revealing bad news about operations (changes in policy or procedure)
iii) Providing negative information about company performance, reporting bad news
internally about company performance.
8.3 INDIRECT APPROACH FOR PRESENTING NEGATIVE INFORMATION

One important consideration in writing negative message is to avoid hurting someone's
feelings. When composing bad news or negative message, you must address two basic
questions:
1. What tone will best contribute to the effectiveness of the message?
2. What arrangement of the main idea and supporting data will ease the disappointment
of the audience?
a) Whattone?
In bad news or negative messages of any kind, you must try to adopt at tone that
supports three specific goals:
i) You want your audience to understand that your negative message represent" a
firm decision.
iij You want your audience to understand that under the circumstances, your decision
is air and reasonable.
167
iii) You want your audience to remain well disposed toward your business and,
possibly. toward you.
With right tone, you can make an unwelcome point while preserving the audience's
ego. One key is to make liberal use of the "you" attitude. For example, point out how
your decision might actually further the audience's goals, even though if first causes
disappointment. Or, for instance, even if a person is at fault, assume that he/she is
interested in being fair.
b) What arrangement?
When you write a negative message, you have a choice between using an inductive
(direct) and using deductive (indirect) approach. The more common plan for meeting
reader-resistance in a negative message is indirect or inductive approach. Following
arc the conventional organizational components of indirect approach.
i) Opening: contains detail that "buffers" or softens the bad news.
ii) Body: has the reasons for the bad news, or negative message
fu) Statement: a clear and diplomatic statement of the negative decision
iv) Close: a helpful and friendly attitude and positive close.
i) Opening:
The flrst step in using the indirect approach is to put the audience in an accepting mood my
making a neutral, non-controversial statement closely related to the point of the message.
Such a statement that puts the audience at case is known as ''buffer''. Buffer is a device
in the opening paragraph of a negative message that attempts to soften bad news.
There a various ways in which you could build buffers. Here are some:
• Agreement :
Find a point on which you and the reader share similar views.
Example: "We both know how hard it is to make profit in this industry"
• Appreciation :
Express sincere thanks for receiving something.
Example: "Your cheque for Rs.1 0, 000/- arrived yesterday. Thank you."
168
• Cooperation :
Convey your willingness to help in any way you can.
Example: Employee services have been established to smoother the way for those
who work to achieve the company's goals.
• Praise:
Find an attribute or an admirable breath of experience, which should serve you well
as you progress in your career.
Here are some other things to avoid when writing a buffer:
• Avoid saying no:

If you say no at the beginning, the reader may not read the reasons for saying no with
an open mind.
• Avoid Apologizing:
An apology weakens your explanation for the unfavourable decision
• Avoid using a "Know-it-all" tone:

Do not usc phrases such as "You should be aware that. .. "This will cause resistance
to your message, because it will sound as if you are lecturing the reader.
• Avoid costing time:

If you spend time with irrelevant phrases or unnecessary detail, your reader may
loose patience at the outset.
• Avoid misleading the reader :

Indirection is not the same as misdirection. In using indirect approach to write your
message avoid information that can misdirect the reader.
ii) Body:
This forms the first part of the body of the negative message. It presents reasons to show
that your decision is justifiable and fair. It is important to explain why you have reached
your decision before you state what the decision is. If you present your reasons effectively,
they will help convince your audience that the decision is justified, fair, and logical.
169
Some guidelines :
• Explain why you have made your negative decision before stating what the decision
is.
• Make sure that your explanation is specific and related to the reader's particular
situation.
• Use only your strongest reasons in your explanation. Avoid hiding behind company
policy and blaming or criticizing others; accept responsibility for the decision.
• Structure the explanation so that it leads logically to the decisions.
• Use positive wording and tone. Remember to add "you" attitude.
In short, well-written reasons that ought to be incorporated in the body are:

• Detailed
• Tactful
• Individualized
• Unapologetic
• Positive
iii) Statement of Bad News
So that the audience is psychologically prepared, the bad news should be the logical
outcome of the reasons that come before it. The bad news or decision could be explicitly
stated on implied, but in any case it must be clear.
If the message is handled carelessly it may cause the audience to react emotionally. When
constructing the bad news try to minimize its negative impact by:
• Avoiding 'no' and 'not'
• Subordinating the bad news in the sentence
• Limiting the space devoted to the bad news
• Embedding it in the middle of a paragraph
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Cnit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
iv) Close
You may choose to close a negative message with either an action close or positive close.
Action close: is especially appropriate to negative message that specifics alternative action.
Positive close: ends the message in prosperous note- i.e. including subtle and appropriate
sales information.
An upbeat, positive close:

• builds goodwill
• offers suggestion for action
• provides a look toward the future
Whatever type of close you choose, observe these don'ts:

• Don' t refer to or repeat the bad news
• Don't apologize for the decision
• Don't encourage further communication ("if you have further questions, please write."),
unless you are really interested in discussing your decision further.
• Don't anticipate problems. (example: "Should you have further problem, please let
us know")
~Activity A :
Business communicators should develop skills to say "no". Below are some negative
sentences, which have to be restated, by avoiding the use of "you" and yet conveying the
negative message:
a) I don't think I should remind you that the deadline for getting this information was last
Monday.
171
b) No, I cannot write a letter of recommendation for you without knowing about your
recent work in this area of specialisation.
c) You must realize that a person with your credit history is a poor risk for a loan of any
amount over Rupees 25, 000/-
--------------------------------------------------------- ----
8.4 CONVEYING BAD NEWS ABOUT ORDERS
For several reasons, businesses must sometimes convey bad news concerning orders. In
writing to a would-be customer, you have three basic goals:
• To work toward an eventual sale

• To keep instructions or additional information as clear as possible
• To maintain an optimistic, and confident tone so that your reader won't lose interest.
1. Back orders
Back orders refer to the message that you send your customer conveying either of
the following:
You are able to send only a part of the order.
You are able to send none of the order.
When sending only part of the order, you actually have both good news and bad
news. In conveying such messages use the indirect approach. The buffer contains the
good news about the order being delivered, along with a resale reminder. After the
buffer come the reasons for the delay of the remaining shipment. A strong and positive
close should encourage favourable attitude toward the total transaction.
172
2. Substitutions
Once in a while, a customer will request something that you no longer sell or that is no
longer produced. If you are sure the customer will approve a substitute product, then
you may go ahead and send it. Otherwise, first send a letter offering substitute product
and give the customer simple directions for ordering it. In either case, be careful to
avoid calling the alternate product a 'substitute', because the term carries a negative
connotation. In any of these cases usc the indirect approach for your message.
However, the challenge is greater when the substitute is more expensive than the
original. You should be able to convince the customer that more expensive product
can he of more use than the one ordered for. Explain to the customer of the extra
salient features of the alternate product you are offering.
3. Orders that cannot be fulfilled
There will be times when you may not be able to fill an order either in part or with a
substitute. In such case, use the indirect approach to say that you cannot fill an order
at all. One good way to maintain customer's confidence in you and your company is
to mention another source from which the ordered product could be obtained.
4. Checklist for bad news about orders
a) Overall Strategy
i) Use indirect plan in most cases
ii) Use direct plan when the situation is routine
b) Buffer
i) Express appreciation for the specific order
ii) Extract a welcome to a new customer
iii) Avoid negative words
iv) Usc resale infonnation on product ordered to build the customer's
confidence in his/her choice.
c) Reasons
i) Avoid apologies
ii) Avoid expressions of regret
173
iii) Explain the problem with unclear orders (give details, send photographs,
brochures etc.)
iv) Handle back orders carefully
v) Reinforce the customer's confidence with a resale
VI) Explain substitutions in detail
vii) Explain why orders cannot be filled
viii) Avoid hiding behind eompany policy.
d) The bad news

i) State the bad news as positively as possible
ii) Stress the benefits of the decision to the reader.
e) Positive, friendly, helpful close

i) Explain the desired reader regarding action, as clearly and simply as possible
it) Make reader action as easy as possible
iit) Use resale infonnation to clinch the sale, especially for replies about unclear
orders, back orders, and non-confmning orders
iv) Adopt a tone to answer your customer of personal attention.
J6 Activity B :
a) Using the indirect approach, organize ''back order'' letters to your customer informing
them that you are unable to fulfill:
i) Part of the order
ii) Complete order
174
b) During your work experience did you have to deliver "bad news" to your dealers?
How did you 'package' the message?
8.5 COMMUNICATING NEGATIVE ANSWERS AND INFORMATION
In business transactions, occasionally, your response to inquiries must simply be 'no'.

Many people do not know how to say no, without impacting personal relationships. It is a
mark of your skill ali a communicator to be able to say 'no' clearly yet not cut yourself off
from future dealing with the other person.
Depending upon your relationship with the reader, you could use either the direct approach
or the indirect approach. Use the direct approach when your negative answer or information
will have little personal impact, use the indirect approach in more sensitive situations.
1. Denying cooperation with routine requests
When people ask you for information or want you to do something and you cannot honour
the request, you may answer with either the direct plan or the indirect plan. Let us assume
that you have requested South-Western Corporation to participate in a research project
concerning sales promotion. South-Western Corporation, however, has a policy against
passing out any information about projected sales figures. You get an answer from South-
Western Corporation:
" This letter is to inform you South-Western Corporation has no interest in taking part in
your Sales Management Techniques research project.
In fact, our company has a policy that prohibits dissemination of any projected sales
figures.
Thank you for your interest in our organization. If we can help you in any other way, please
let us know."
This letter would offend most readers, for the following rea~ons:
a) The direct plan is used, even though the reader is outside the company and may be
emotionally involved in the response.
175
b) The tone of the frrst paragraph is unnecessarily negative and abrupt

c) The phrac;e ''has no interest in taking part" implies that the research is unimportant.
d) The writer hides behind a company policy
e) Cliches in the fmal paragraph (thank you for your interest; if we can help) undercut
any personal, friendly impact that the letter might have had.
2. Declining requests for favours :
Once more, the plan to usc when saying 'no' to a requested favour depends your relationship
with the reader. For example, suppose that the president of the local chamber of commerce
asks you to speak at a luncheon five weeks away; however, you are scheduled for a
business trip at the time.
If you do not know the president well, you would probably use the indirect approach:
The buffer recaps the request and demonstrates respect Dear s ir,The c hambe r of
commerce has accomplished many worthwhile projects and I have always admired the
local organization. Thank you for asking me to speak at yom luncheon meeting next month.
The reason for declining implies the bad news itself. As you know, as a manager, I have to
plan the marketing for Unique Pharma Ltd., which involves quite a bit of travelling. In fact,
I am scheduled to be in New Delhi on the day you asked me to speak
1be close suggests an alternative plan. Can you suggest an alternative date? Any Thursday
during April could be fmc for me. The opportunity to speak to your members would be
most rewarding.
3. Refusing request for claims and complaints
In almost every instance, a customer who requests an adjustment is involved; therefore,

the indirect approach is generally used for a reply. Your job as a writer is to avoid accepting
responsibility for the unfortunate situation and yet avoid blaming or accusing the customer.
In such instances the tone of your message is very important. Remember that a tactful and
courteous letter can build goodwill while denying adjustment claims.
For example, a customer who bought a garment finds out a month and a half later that the
garment has split at the seam and now seeks for a refund of the purchase price. Your
negative response should have the following:
176
L"nit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
a) The buffer covers a point on which both writer and reader agree (appreciate the
choice of purchase your customer has made).
b) The reasons that put the company policy in a favow-able light (inform that the company
allows refund for any damage within 30 days of purchase).
c) A positive alternative action should put the customer at ease. (inform that even though
the scam has split, yet it is reinforced with flexible cloth tape).
d) The close could add sales promotion that would interest the customer (by sending
brochures of garments of quality fashions).
Sometimes claims for adjustment could be unreasonable and even outrageous, to which
you may be tempted to respond harshly.
Resist such temptations. If you don't, then the consequences would be unpleasant to all
parties involved. In such cases, demonstrate understanding and tact.
8.6 PERSUASIVE MESSAGES
Persuasion is the process of influencing or changing attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviour

of your audience. We come across many persuasive messages in the form of requests for
donations, firm trying to market its goods or services, someone wanting a proposed
approved to market its goods and services, someone wanting a proposed approved, etc.
In business context too, there are many occasions when the persuasive messages are
needed.
1. Persuasive Goals
Every persuasive message attempts to achieve one of the four broad objectives:
a) Adoption
Message of adoption attempts to persuade readers to start doing something.
Adoption is the essence of most sales letters.
b) Continuance
Message of continuance urges the continuation of behaviour. Continuance is the
basis for selling any ongoing service. Example magazines, journals send letters
to current subscribers trying to convince them to renew subscriptions.
177
c) Discontinuance
Message of discontinuance are those persuasive messages that encourage
customers to discontinue certain pattern of behaviour. For example, encouraging
credit customers to make payment on delinquent accounts. In effect these
messages are asking the customers to stop avoiding payment.
d) Deterrence
Message of deterrence tries to prevent an action from taking place. For instance,
an important client is considering moving his/her account to a different company.
A deterrence letter might be written to convince the client that the move is not
WISe.
2. Persuasive appeals
Effectively used, persuasive techniques work simultaneously on these levels. Persuasive

messages appeal to the reader's sense of reasoning, establish credibility of the
document, and evoke an emotional response from the reader.
a) Persuading through Reasoning

Persuasive documents try to convince readers to accept a particular point of
view through the logical presentation of evidences. They thus involve act of
reasoning- i.e. using available evidence to reach a conclusion.
b) Persuading through credibility

Credibility is a degree to which a statement, a person, and/or a company are
perceived to be ethical, believable, trustworthy, competent, responsible and
smcere.
Although you cannot control exactly how others will perceive a message, you
can use various techniques to influence how people perceive the document that
you actually write. Your credibility is enhanced when your document focuses on
customer benefits instead of dwelling on features of the product, proposal or
idea. Level of credibility can often be raised through the use of testimonials-
words of praise for a firm or its products or an idea attributable to someone
whose name or reputation the reader respects.
178
c) Persuading with emotion

In many situations, emotions remain the most powerful persuasive factor. Where
logical arguments sometimes fail, emotions often have the power to motivate
people to respond and act. One way to determine the most effective emotional
appeal is to analyse readers according to the hierarchy of needs.
Emotionally appeals can also focus on emotions such a-; hope, pleasure, pride, honour
courage, respect, and responsibility. For example, in a memo urging the consolidation of
two departments, a writer may focus on both the courage that it takes to make such a
difficult decision and the responsibility needed for the progress of the company.
In some cases, emotional appeals are chosen to arouse negative feelings like fear or anxiety.
A pest control service, for instance, may stress the extent of damage termites can cause
and emphasize the fact that homeowners should investment ih prevention rather than repairs.
3. Preparing to write a persuasive message
Because persuasive message aim to influence an audience that is inclined to resist,

they depend heavily on strategic planning. Before you begin to write a persuasive
message, ask yourself:
• What you are writing about?
• What audience you are writing to?
• What you want to happen as a result?
a) Appealing to the audience
i) Needs and appeals
People have many needs, and arc motivated by their needs. Some needs
are more important than the others. In writing messages appealing to the
needs will bring about the desired affect.
For example, you supervise someone who consistently arrives late for work.
Once you have analysed the need that motivates the person to arrive late,
you can craft an appeal ("hook") that will make him/her interested in your
message about changing his/her behaviour.
It is essential to analyse your audience and then construct a message that

will appeal to their needs.
179
ii) Emotion and logic

When people's needs are not met, they are likely to respond emotionally.
For example, a person whose need for self-esteem is not fulfilled would
respond to the tone of respect in a message. Or for instance, such a person
receives a letter of collection of dues in which there is a hint that the person
is considered dishonourable; the message will have adverse affect.
Persua..<>ive messages make use of the emotions surrounding certain words,
such as freedom, success, prestige, credit record etc., which help put the
audience in a certain frame of mind that helps them to accept the message.
iii) Credibility
Without credibility, your skilful use of needs, appeals, emotions and logic
may seem to be nothing more than manipulation. It is e..<>pecially important
for a sceptical or hostile audience to believe that you know what you are
talking about and that you are not trying to mislead anyone.
One of the best ways to gain credibility is to support your message with
facts. Testimonials, document<;, guardlltees, statistics. research results. and
the like all provide seemingly objective evidence for what you have to say
and thus make your message more credible.
If you demonstrate the following characte1istics, your audience will more
readily believe about you say:
• Enthusiasm
• Objectivity
• Sincerity
• Expertise
• Good intentions
• Trustworthiness
• Similarity
• Semantics
How do you let an audience know, for instance, that you are enthusiastic
or trustworthy? The choice of words can do that job for you. The words
you choose for your message say much more than their dictionary meaning.
180
Cnit 8 Wliting Indirect Mt!ssages
Take for example, the usc of words such as useful, beneficial, and
advantageous in the following sentences:
lie suggested a useful compromise (The compromise enabled the parties

to get to work.)
.
He suggested a beneficial compromise (The compromise not only resolved
the conflict but also had a positive effect, perhaps for both the parties)
He suggested an advantageous compromise (The compromise benefited

him or his company more that it benefited the other party)
Another way that semantics can affect pcrsua<>ive messages is in the varieties
of meanings that people attribute to certain words. Because abstractions
refer to things that people cannot experience with their senses, they are
su~ject to interpretation.
For example, you may be able to sell more flags hy appealing to people's
patriotism (which may he interpreted in many ways) than by describing the
colour and size of the flags.
b) Organizing persuasive messages
Persuasion requires the indirect approach, often a specialized one called AIDA
- i.e. (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) Plan.
i) Attention
Begin every persuasive message with a statement that catches attention.
Your statement for attention should be:
• Personalized
• You- oriented
• Not extravagant
• Relevant
ii) Interest
In the section include:
• Opening theme in quarter detail
• Benefit<> specifically to the one getting attention
181
iii) Desire
In the desire section:
• Provide relevant evidence to prove your claim
• Draw attention to any enclosures
iv) Action
End by:
• Describing precisely what you would like to happen
• Restating how the audience will benefit by acting as you wish
• Making action easy
~Activity C :
a) As the President of the Students' Welfare Association, you have been entrusted with
the task of organizing an inter-college event. This event would require funds, for
which you have to get sponsors.
Write letter to a big business house persuading them to sponsor the event.
b) Take any advertisement that you like and try and figure out how the communication
works. Do you find the AIDA pattern working there?
8. 7 WRITING SALES LETTERS
By and large, specialized and highly skilled professionals write sales letters. Sales letters
come in a variety of sizes, with enclosures or without. They can have messages from a
single individual to another, or they can be mass mailings from one company to many
182
consumers. The common factor, however, is their attempt to motivate people to spend
money or to patronize an organization.
In some countries sales letters are considered as legal contracts, so one has to be very
careful in making offers that cannot be delivered. Also making false statement in a sales
letter is considered as fraud, so avoid misrepresenting the price, quality, or pertom1ancc
capability of a product. Using a person's name, photograph, or other identity in a sales
letter without permission constitutes invasion of privacy.
Therefore, planning a sales letter requires professional skills.
To maintain the highest standards of business entries, you must make every attempt to
persuade without manipulating.
1. Prewriting
The three steps involved in planning a sales letter are similar to those involved in
planning any persuasive message:
a) Determine the main idea (in sales letters, it revolves around a selling point and
related benefits)
b) Define the audience
c) Plan the approach and format
a) Determine the main idea

Selling points are the most attractive features of a product; consumer benefits
are the particular advantages that buyers will realize from those features.
Therefore, the first step in writing any sales letter is to take a good look at the
product.
Once you have a completed file on the product, you must think of how its
features can help potential buyers. You should determine which are the most
appealing features so that you can direct your audience· s attention to them.
b) Defining the audience

The most persua<;ive sales letters arc written to appeal to a specific audience.
When analysing an audience of individual consumers, marketers refer to
demographics and psychographies.
183
• Demographics: Age, gender, education, occupation, and income

• Psychographies: Personality', personality, attitude, and life-style.
The purpose of collecting these data about your audience, is to form a mental
image of the typical buyer for the product you wish to sell.
c) Planning the fonnat and approach
Once you have decided what and say and whom to say now you must decide
on how to say it. You will have to decide on whether to send just a letter, or also
enclose brochures, samples, response cards etc. What kind of stationary should
be used must also be decided. You will also need to decide whether to reply on
a single mailing or multi mailing campaign. All these decisions depend on the
audience you arc trying to reach.
2. Preparing the copy
As seen earlier, sales letters are prepared according to the AIDA plan used for
persuasive messages.
a) Attention
There are many devices for getting attention, which are commonly used in sales
letters.
i) Some genuine news
il) Personal appeal to the reader's emotions and values
fu) Most attractive features and the associated benefits
iv) Sample of the product
v) Provocative questions
vi) Solution to a problem
b) Interest
To generate in your reader, emphasize the central selling point.

To determine your product's central selling point, ask :
i) What does the competition offer?
184
Unit 8 Writing Indir~ct Messages
ii) What is special about my product?
in) What are potential buyers looking for?
c) Desire
t) Highlighting benefits: Selling point-; coupled with ''you" attitude amount-; to

benefits. Determine the central selling point will help you to define the benefits
to potential buyers. The benefit to the potential buyer could be framed in
"your" statements.
ii) Using action terms: Active words give force to any business message and
are especially important in sales letters. Also make usc of colourful verbs
and adjectives; however, do not overload it. For example, ''Your factory
floors will sparkle like diamonds" is hard to believe and may prevent the
reader from believing the rest of your message.
iii) Talking about price: You can prepare readers for your product's p1ice by
subtle choice and arrangement of words. Price of the product is a
complicated issue and often a sensitive one. Whether the price is highlighted
or downplayed, your entire letter should prepare the reader for it. If the
price is an attractive feature, emphasize it by displaying it prominently
To de-emphasize price :
• Bury actual figures in the middle of a paragraph near the end
• Mention benefit-; and favourable money ac;pects before the actual price
• Compare the price with the cost of some other product.
d) Motivating action
The overriding purpose of a sales letter is to get the reader to do something.

Many consumer product-; are sold through the mail by ac;king the customers for
a cheque -i.e. an immediate decision to buy. Try to persuade readers to take
action immediately. You need to convince them that they must act now. Many
sales letter offer easy payment mode, or free trial etc. The main purpose of the
sales letter is to help the potential customers to make immediate decision and
act.
185
3. Checklist for sales letters
a) Planning the direct mail package

i) Determine the specific purpose of the mailing
n) Defme selling points and consumer benefits
iii) Analyse the audience, using demographic and psychographic information
iv) Plan the approach and format
v) Present every element of your package
b) Attention
i) Design a positive opening
ii) Promise a benefit to the reader
iii) Write an opening that is appropriate, interesting, and relevant to the central
selling point
iv) Design an opening that will catch the attention of the reader
c) Interest
i) State information clearly, vividly, and persuasively and relate it to the
reader's concerns.
ii) Develop the central selling point.
iii) Feature the product in two ways:
• Physical description and
• Consumer Benefit.
d) Desire
i) Enlist one or more appeals to support the central selling point.
ii) Anticipate and answer the reader's questions and objection.
iii) Use an appropriate form of proof to suppmt your selling points.
iv) Provide enclosure..<; along with the selling point.
186
e) Action
i) State clearly the action you desire
ii) Use techniques to make action easy (Example: Mail-back reply card)
iii) Provide specific details on how to order and other necessary information
iv) Offer a special benefit to help the consumer to act.
8.8 SUMMARY
The purpose of a bad news message is to convey unfavourable information without alienating
the audience.
To accomplish both these goals, you must first consider the audience's point of view; if
possible, explain how bad news can work to the advantage of the reader.
Bad news or negative message is based on either the direct approach or indirect approach
depending upon the circumstances.
The indirect approach begins with a buffer and moves to the reasons and closes with a
cordial note.
The purpose of the persuasive message is to influence attitudes and actions. Persuasive
techniques are especially important for an audience that may not completely agree with
you or gain any direct benefits from doing as you ask.
You can motivate an audience to do as you wish by using the AIDA plan for organizing
persuasive messages.
Persuasive messages are used in many business contexts, including request..'> for action.
8.9 SELl<'-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------
Q.1 Explain the occasions for negative messages.
Q.2 Discuss the various steps involved in indirect approach for presenting negative.
messages
Q.3 Describe the various persuasive appeals.
187
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Reports come in many different shapes and sizes. There arc formal repmts and informal
reports. There are news report and technical reports routine reports and special reports.
But they all belong to one of the two main types: status reports and decision reports.
A status report describes things, people, and events. It tells us what things are or were
like, or what happened. It gives us information and occasionally, analysis. It satisfies our
need to know.
A decision report, on the other hand, gives the person receiving the report a set of options
based on an analysis of a problem and relevant facts. There may even be a clear
recommendation with sufficient justification for the person to choose one of those options
and act. The objective of decision reports is to help reporters take informed decisions.
Business reports are like bridges spanning time and space. Organizations use them to
provide a formal, verifiable link among people, places and time. Some reports are needed
for internal communication; others are vehicles for corresponding with outsiders. Some
are required as a permanent record; others are needed to solve an immediate problem or
to answer a passing question.
Reports are essentially management tool. Many move upward through the chain of command
to help managers monitor the various units in the organization; some move downward to
explain management decisions to lower-level employees responsible for day-to-day
operations. The term 'report' covers a variety of documents ranging from pre-printed
forms to brief, informal letter and memos to formal manuscript of hundreds of pages.
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUSINESS REPORTS

The goal in developing a report is to make the information as clear and convenient as
possible. Because of the constraints of time you tell the readers what they need to know
and present the information in a way that is geared to their needs. Although reports vary
widely in pmpose and often in the audience they are written for, all good reports have at
least three things in common:
• The information is accurate.
• The content shows the writer's good judgment
• The format style and organization respond to the reader's needs.
192
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
1. Accur.tcy
The first thing a business report writer must learn is how tell the truth. Unfortunately,
telling the truth is not always a simple matter. We all see reality a little differently and
describe it in a unique way. The following guidelines will help reduce the distortions
re.<;ulting from differences in perception.
• Describe facts or events in concrete term.

• Report all the relevant facts.
• Put the facts in perspccti ve.
• Give plenty of evidence for your conclusions.
• Present only valid evidence and supportable conclusions.
• Keep your personal biases in check.
2. Good Judgment
Some things simply do not belong in a report, whether or not try they arc true. You
can do both yourself and your organization a great deal of harm by being indiscreet.
So you should not include anything in a report that might jeopardize you or your
organization.
You should also remember that managers have distinct preferences when it comes to
report. They particularly dislike personal criticism, alibis, attempts to blame someone
else, incomplete data, uncalled for opinions, and attempts to bypass them through
distributions of the documents. In other words, keep "politics" out of your reports;
provide a clear. direct accounting of the fact<;. Managers tend to like five things:
• Getting the main idea at the beginning of the reports.

• Seeing the facts.
• Receiving the whole story.
• Reading language they can understand.
• Learning something that will make their johs easier.
3. Responsive :F ormat, Style and Organization
Select a format, a style, and an organization that reflect the reader's need. Before you
write, you have to decide whether to use letter, memo, or manuscript format; whether
193
to group the ideas one way or another; and whether to employ a formal or informal
style. All these decisions revolve around the reader's needs. ill thinking about these
issues, ask yourself the following question and tailor the report accordingly:
• Who initiated the report?
Voluntary reports, prepared on your own initiative require more details and
justifications than authori:t.ed reports, which are prepared at the request of another
person.
• What subject docs the report cover?
The subject of a business report affects its vocabulary and format. When both
writer and reader arc familiar with the subject and share the same background,
the writer does not need to defme terms or explain basic concepts.
• When is the report to be prepared?
Routine reports submitted on a report basis( daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly,

annually) requires less introduction and transitional material than do special,
nonrecurring reports that deal with unique situations.
• Where is the report being sent?
Internal reports, prepared for use within the organization, are generally less fonnal
than external reports, which are sent to people in other organizations. Many
internal reports, especially lass than ten pages, are written in memo format.
External reports, on the other hand, may be in the letter format if they are no
longer than five pages.
• Why is the report being prepared?
Informational reports focus on facts; analytic reports include analysis,

interpretation, conclusions and recommendations. Informational reports are
organized around subtopics; analytical reports are organized to highlight
conclusions, recommendations or reasons.
• How receptive is the audience?
When the reader is likely to agree with the content of the report, the material is
presented in direct order i.e. key findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
If the reader has reservations about the report, the material is presented in indirect order
i.e. starting with the details
194
9.3 PLANNING SHORT REPORTS
When planning short reports, your audience, purpose, and subject matter must be
considered. Each of these three elemenLc; influences the format and length of your report,
as well as its basic structure.
1. Deciding on Format and Length
The person who requests the document may make decisions about the format and
length of your report or memo for you.llowever, if you have some leeway, your
decisions should be based on your reader's needs. In selecting a format for your
report, you have four options:
a) Preprinted Form
Basically preprinted forms are for "fill in the blank" reports. Use this format
when the person authorizing the report requests it.
b) I..ctter
For reports of five or less than five pages that are directed to people outside the
organization the format of a letter is sufficient. They may have heaclings, footnotes,
tables and figures.
c) Memo
This is the most common format for short (less than ten pages), informal reports
distributed within an organization. Memos have headings at the top: "Date",
"To", "From", "Subject".
d) Manuscript
Manuscript format is required for reports (from few pages to several hundred
pages) that require a formal approach. As the length increases, reportc; in
manuscript format require more clements i.e. preface, supplementary material.
Length of your report depends on the following factors
• Subject: if the subject is non-routine or controversial, you generally have to

explain your points in greater detail.
• Purpose: if the information is routine and uncomplicated then the length will be
shorter than complicated issues.
195
• Relationship with readers: if your readers are relative strangers, if they arc
sceptical or hostile, you will require more space to get aroimd them while wTiting
the report.
2. Establishing A Basic Structure
In addition to deciding on format and length, you have to decide on the basic structure
of your report. Choice of structure involves three decisions:
• What to say?
• Direct or indirect order?
• Topical or logical organization?
a) Key points to cover [What to say? J

Your report should answer the key question of your audience. In most situations,
the audience ha<; one main question of greatest importance. For example: "Why
arc we loosing sales?" or "Is it a good investment?"
• The reason to write the report is to answer the main question. Once you
have defined the main question you can sketch a general answer, based on
the information available.
• The next step is to determine additional questions your audience is likely to

ask based on the main question. As this chain of questions and answers
proceed, the points multiply and become more specific. In carrying out this
exercise you could have defmed the content of your report.
• The question and answer chain clarifies the main idea of the report and
establishes the flow of ideas from the general to the specific. All effective
reports and presentations are constructed in this way, with a mix of broad
concepts and specific details.
• Routine and problem solving messages are heavy on details and analytical
and problem solving messages are heavy on generalizations out of all the
information and relate them to the needs of the audience.
b) Direct versus indirect order

Audience attitude is the basis for decisions about organization of a report.
196
• When the audience is considered either receptive or open minded you

should use the direct approach i.e. emphasize your key findings, conclusions
and recommendations. This approach, which is most common for business
reports, enables readers to get the main idea of the report at the outset,
which saves time and makes the rest of the report easier to follow.
• If your audience is sceptical or hostile, you may want to adapt indirect

order in organizing your report. With this approved, you introduce the
complete findings and supporting details before the conclusions and
recommendation, which usually come last The indirect approach gives
you a chance to prove your paints and gradually overcome your audience's
reservations. Indirect approach allows you to weigh the evidence objectively
without prejudging the facts of the case. It also allows the audience to
gradually draw their conclusions when they have access to all the facts.
c) Division of ideas
Regardless of whether you use the direct or the indirect approach, you must still
deal with the question of how your ideas will be grouped and developed.
Table 9.1
Factors Affecting Report Format, Style, and Organization
Factors Possibilities Implications For Format,

Style, and Organization
WHO originates it? Voluntary reports prepared Requires plenty of
on the writer's own initiative introductory information to
explain purpose of the report
Authorized reports prepared Requires less introductory
at the request of another material than voluntary
person reports; should be organized
to respond to the reader's
request.
WHAT subject does Sales reports, compensation Presentation dictated by
it cover? policies, affinnative action characteristics of subject (for
plans, engineering proposals, example, detailed statistical
research studies, progress information summarized in
reports tabular form)
197
llusincss Communication
Possibilities Implications For Format,

Style, and Organization
~------------- - -+-------------- ------+-~------~--------~
1 WHEN is it prepared? Routine, recurring reports Require standard format that
prepared on daily, weekly, facilitates comparisons from
monthly, quarterly, or annual one period to next; need
ba~is relatively little background
and trdllsitional information
1 Special, nonrecurring reports Do not need standardization;
I
I
prepared on response to
. . .
require plenty of background
1_ ___ - 1 umque Situation and trdllSitional material
: WHERE is it sent? __bc
I Intemal repo_rt_s_p-re_p_ar--ed--fo_r_·+-C-an __al_;~
__rc_l_ati-.v-e-Iy-1-.nfi_o_rm
I
I use within the organization written in memo or manuscript
format
IExtemal reports sent to Should be relatively formal in
: people oul"'ide the tone; written in letter or
I '
: organization manuscript format
' WHY is it prepared? Informational reports Organized around subtopics
providing facts
1 Analytical report() Organized around conclusions
providing analysis, or recommendations or logical
interpretation, conclusions, arguments
and often recommendations
r---------------~---------------------+--------·------------ -
HOW will it be Receptive readers Arranged in direct order
received? Sceptical or hostile readers Arranged in indirect order
'--·- - _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L _ _ __ _ -------------~
Source : John V. Thill & Courtland L Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication, McGraw--Hill,
Inc. New York 1991
9.4 ORGANIZING SHORT REPORTS
In the process of organizing reports the key is to decide first whether the purpose of the
receipt is to provide chiet1y information or analysis. From there, your can choose an
organizational plan that suits your topic and goals.
A) Organizing Information Memos And Reports
The purpose of informational reports is to explain something in straightforward terms.

Informational reports have several uses in business that include:
198
• Monitoring and controlling operations.

• Statements of policies and procedures.
• Reports on the organization's compliance with Government requirement.
• Personal activity reports.
In writing informational reports, you usually do not have to worry too much about reader
reaction because readers will presumably respond unemotionally to your material. Hence,
you can present your report in the most direct manner possible. However, you must present
the information accurately and in a logical manner.
1. Periodic Reports
Periodic reports are internal reports that describe what has happened in a department
during a particular period. The purpose of these recurring documents, which are
sometimes called status reports, is to provide a picture of how things are going so
that the manager will be up-to-date and can take corrective actions if necessary.
Periodic reports are usually written in memo format and do not need much introduction.
Most periodic reports follow this sequence in organi:~..ation:
• Overview of routine responsibilities: A brief description of activities related to

each of the writer's responsibilities.
• Discussion of special projects: A description of any new or special projects

undertaken during the reporting period.
• Plans for the coming period: A schedule of activities planned for the next reporting
period.
• Analysis of problems: Although often included in the overview of routine or

special activities, problem analysis is sometimes put in a separate section to call
to access that may require high-level intervention.
2. Personal Activity Reports
Personal activity reports, often in the fonn of brief names, describes the facts and
decisions that emerged during conventions, conference, trips or business meetings.
They are intended to inform the management of any important information or decisions
that emerged from the meetings.
199
Because they arc non-recurring documents, they require more of an introduction than a
periodic report does. They are often organized chronologically, but some are organized
according to topics that reflect the reader's interests.
B) Organizing Analytical Reports
Analytical reports differ from informational reports in their purpose and thus, in their
organization. The purpose of an analytical report is to convince the reader that the
conclusions and recommendations developed in the text arc valid. They include justification
reports, research report<;, client proposals, and troubleshooting reports. In informational
report, the focus of attention is the information itself. On the other hand, in analytical
reports, information plays a suppmting role.
Analytical reports are generally written to respond to special circumstances. One common
aim of all analytical reports is to guide the reader toward a decision.
1. Justification Report
Justification reports are internal proposals used to persuade top management to

approve an investment or a project. When the reader is concerned about what action
to take, use recommendations as the main points. This structure is extremely efficient
because it focuses the reader's attention on what needs to be done. You can use a
similar approach when you are asked to analyse a problem or are opportunity and
draw conclusions, mther than provide recommendation.
2. New Business Proposal To An Outside Client
Proposals to outside clients are attempts to get products, plans or projects accepted
by outside businesses or Government clients. There also take a direct approach, but
instead of organizing around conclusions or recommendations, it is organized around
the statement of a problem and its solutions.
3. Troubleshooting Report
Whenever a problem exists, someone must investigate it and propose a solution. A

troubleshooting report is a decision-oriented document prepared for submission to
top management. When you want your readers to concentrate on why your ideas
make sense, your best way is to let your logical arguments provide the structure for
your report. By using reasons as the main tool, you can gradually build a case for
your conclusions and recommendations.
200
Organizing an analytical report around a list of reasons that collectively support your main
conclusions and recommendatio ns is a natural approach to take. Many problems are
solved this way, and readers tend to accept the gradual accumulation of evidence, even
though they may question one or two points.
PS Activity A :_
a) Identify the factors that you would take into consideration (with respect to format,
style and organization) while preparing an appraisal report for a supervisor.
- - - - - - - -·------ - - - -- - -- - - - - -- - - - --
b) Select a product you are familiar with, and imagine that you arc the manufacturer
trying to get a local retail outlet to sell your product. Write a sales proposal.
-------------- - -- --- - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -
- - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - -- - -- - -- - - -
9.5 PLANNING AND ORGANIZING LONG /FORMAL REPORTS

- - - - - --------------------- - --- - - - - - -- -
P S Atkinson & Helen Reynolds, in their book, Business Writing and Procedures, define
fom1al rep01t as that which "presents in organized from the information that has been
requested by an authori:t£d person". L ong or formal reports are those, which scientists,
engineers, business executives and administrators have to write as a part of their duty.
Such reports arc the resu It of careful investigation, sound thinking, logical organization,
and clear writing and they are presented in a conventional form.
Following arc the points, which have been identified by R C Sharma and Krishna Mohan
that constitute the definition of report:
• A report is a formal statement of facts or information or an account of something.

• It is presented in a conventional form
• It is written for a specific audience.
201
• It includes information about the procedures of collecting data and the significance of
such data.
• It contains conclusions reached by the writer.
• It often includes recommendations
The steps for planning and organizing fom1al reports are:

• Identify the problem
• Decide on areas to investigate
• Determine the scope of the report
• Plan the research or data gathering
• Develop a preliminary outline
• Collect the data
• Analyse data, draw conclusions, and make recommendations.
Step No.1 : Defming the problem
The first step is to identify the problem to be studied and the objectives of the report. In
other words, you should develop a clear written statement of the purpose of your report.
Often, the person who authorizes the report defines the problem for you. However, to
understand exactly what is required find out the objectives of the report.
Once you have asked some preliminary questions, you should develop a clear written
statement. Then double-check this statement with the person who authorized the study.
The statement may be expressed as:
• An Infinitive Phrd5C:
Example: The purpose of the report is to determine if the accounting department
needs new computers.
• A Question:
Example: This report seeks to answer the question "Does the accounting department
need new computer?"
• A Statement:
Example: This report will determine if the accounting department needs new computers.
202
Regardless of which from you choose for your statement, be sure to make the goal of the
investigation clear so that you will not be side tracked into irrelevant issues.
Step No.2 : Outlining Issues for analysis
This step in report writing has to do with the outline of the issues you plan to ~tudy. To
organi;~..e the research efTort, you need to break the problem into a series of specific questions.
This process of breaking the problem into series of questions is called "factoring". The
process of outlining the issues for analysis enables you to solve a problem methodically.
a) Developing a Logical Structure
Since any subject can be factored in many ways, your task is to choose the most
logical method, the one that makes the most sense. Begin by looking carefully at the
purpose of your study. Logical structuring is used for informational assignment<> and
analytical assignments. Both these arc structured differently. It should however, be
remembered that many assignments require both information and analysis.
• Informational assignments :
General goal is to provide information, which someone else will interpret. Studies
that lead to factual reports with very little analysis or interpretation are generally
factored on the basis of subtopics dealing with specific subjects. These subtopics can
be outlined.
• In order of importance
• Sequentially
• Chronologically
• Spatially (studying a physical object-left, right, top, etc)
• C'JCOgraphically
• Categorically (sales, profit, cost, investments)
These methods of subdivision are commonly used in preparation of policies and

procedures, compliance report, monitor/ control reports.
203
Table 9.2 : Logically Structured Outline Based on Problem-Solving Method

- -
Factored on the basis Factored on the basi'i of
of hypotheses relative merits
1- --
Problem : Why are we having problem Problem: Where do we build a new
hiring Secretaries? store?
1. Salaries are too low. 1. Construction costs
a. What do we pay our secretaries? a. Location A
b. What do comparable companies b. Location B
paytheir secretaries? c. Location C
c. How important is pay in 2. Labour availability
influencing secretaries' a. Location A
joh choice? h. Location B
2. Our location is poor. c. Location C
a. Are we accessible by public 3. Transportation facilities
transportation and major roads? a. Location A
h. Is the area physically attractive? b. Location B
c. Are housing costs affordable? c. Location C
d. Is crime a problem?
3. The supply of secretaries is
diminishing.
a. How many secretaries were
available five years ago as
opposed to now?
b. What wac; the demand for
secretaries five years ago as
opposed to now?
.
Note: Note:
In the above outline the factoring of the ln the above outline the factoring of
problem is done on the basis of hypotheses the problem is done on the hasis of
(1,2,3) alternatives (1 ,2,3)
Source : Adapted from J V Thill and C L Bovee. Excellence in Business Communication
204
'-
..oiil .....
• Analytical Assignments
Studies that result in reports containing analyses, conclusions and recommendations

are generally categorized by a problem-solving method.
• When the problem is to discover eauses, predict results, or find a solution to a
problem, then studies may be factored on the basis of hypotheses.
• When the problem is to evaluate various alternatives, then the studies may be
factored on relative merits.
b) Following the Rules of Division
Follow the rules of division to ensure that your study will be organized in a logical and
systematic way. Scholars have developed a concise set of rules for dividing an idea
into components:
• Choose a significant and useful basis or f,TUiding principle for the division.
• When subdividing a whole into its parts, restrict yourself to one basis at a time.
• Make sure that each group is separate and distinct.
• Be through when listing all the components of a whole.
c) Preparing a Preliminary Outline
As you go through the factoring process, you may want to use an outline format to
represent the logical flow and systematic grouping of your ideas. Organize your study
by preparing a detailed preliminary outline, which gives you a convenient frame of
reference for your investigation.
Detailed outline serves well :
• When you arc one of several people working on an assignment.
• When your investigation will be extensive and will involve many sources and
many types of data.
• When the person who requested the study will may revise the assignment during
the course of your investigation (and you can keep track of the changes)
1\vo widely used systems of outlining are the alphanumeric system and the decimal system.
205
Table 9.3
Alphanumeric Decimal
I. 1.0
A. l.l
B. 1.2
1. 1.2.1
2. 1.2.2
a. 1.3
b. 1.4
3. 1.4.1
c. 1.4.2
II. 2.0
A. 2.1
2.2
2.2.1
I
Source : Adapted from J V Thill and C L Bovee, F_xcel/ence in Business Communication
Step No.3 : Preparing The Work Plan
Once you have defined the problem and outlined the issues for analysis, you are ready to
establish a work plan based on your preliminary outline.
When you are conducting a lengthy formal study, the work plan should be quite detailed
because it well guides the performance of many tasks over a span of time. Moreover,
most proposals require a detailed work plan, which becomes the basis for a contract if the
proposal is accepted. A formal work plan might include the following items.
• Statement of the problem.
• Statement of the purpose and scope of your investigation.
• Discussion of the sequence of tasks to be accomplished (indicating sources of

information, required experiments or observations, and any restrictions on time, money,
or available data)
206
• Description of the end products that will result from the investigation (such as report,
plans, operating improvements or tangible products)
• Review of project assignment~, schedules and resource requirements (indicating who

will be responsible for what, when tasks will be completed, and how much the
investigation will cost). ·
Step No.4 : Doing the Research
The value of your report depends on the quality of the information it is based on. So when
the time covers to gather information your first concern is to get organized. Your work plan
will be a big help during the research effort. The work plan should contain a list of the
primary and secondary sources you will consult.
a) Reviewing Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are second-hand reports. Even though you may plan to rely heavily
on primary sources (firsthand reports), you are wise to begin your study with a through
review of information that has already been collected. This literature is usually in the
form of books, periodical and reports.
Secondary sources offer material that can form the background of your investigation
and analysis. It gives a theoretical and conceptual from of reference to your research.
Your objective should be to give as accurate and as through report as possible.
b) Collecting Primary Data
When the information you need is not available from secondary sources, you have to
collect and interpret the data yourself by doing primary research. You must go into
the real world to gather information through your own efforts. The four main ways to
collect primary data are.
• ExamineDocuments
In business, a great deal of information is filed away for future reference. Your own
company files may provide you with accurate, factual historical records that you
cannot obtain anywhere else. Business documents that quality as primary data include
sales reports prepared by field representatives, balance sheets, income statements,
correspondence with various parties, contracts and logbooks. Besides company files,
government and legal documents are primary sources as well, because they represent
a decision made by those present at some official proceedings.
207
• Observations
Observations make use of your five senses and your judgment in the process of
investigation. Informal observations are a rather common source of primary data in
business. Many reports, for instance, are based on the writer's v,isit to a site to observe
operations.
More objective information can be gathered through formal observations because

the researcher has predetermined points that needs to be observed. The decision to
observe, which is predetermined, is based on the purpose of the study. For example,
if you are conducting a study on the sales performance of your company, you would
look only for those behaviour of the employees on the shop floor during certain
specific operation observation is a useful technique when you are studying objects,
physical activities, processe...:;, the environment, or human behaviour.
• Surveys
A common way to conduct primary research is to interview well-qualified experts.

The best way to obtain answers to your questions is to ask people who have relevant
experience and opinions. Such surveys include every thing from a single interview to
the distribution of hundreds of questionnaires.
A formal survey is a way of fmding out what a cross-section of people think about
something. A formal survey requires a number of important decisions.
• Should you use face-to-face interviews, phone calls or printed questionnaires?

• How many individuals should you contact to get results that are reliable, and
who should those people be?
• What specific questions should you ask in order to get a valid picture?
Your answers to those questions have a profound effect on the re..'>ulL'> of your survey.
One of the most critical clements of a survey is the questionnaire. To develop a

questionnaire, begin by making a list of the points you are trying to determine. Then
break these points into specific questions, choosing an appropriate type of question
for each point. The questions could take any of the following forms:
a) Open-ended
b) Either-or
208
c) Multiple Choice
d) Scale
c) Checklist
f) Ranking
g) Fill in the blanks.
The following hints will help in preparing the questionnaires:

• Provide clear instructions so that the respondents know exactly how to fill out the
questionnaire.
• Each question should be clearly framed and should seek to elicit the fill out the
questionnaire.
• Keep the questionnaire short and easy to answer. Tt should be precise and not vague.
• Avoid leading questions-questions that suggest or anticipate answers and thus either
condition or prejudice the respondent's mind.
• Do not ask any questions that may embarra<;s the respondent.
• Arrange your question..;; in a logical order.
• Pre-test the questionnaire on a san1ple group to identify questions that are subject to
misinterpretation.
£5 Activity B :
Design a questionnaire for any topic you may want to find out more information about.
• Experiments
Although some general business questions justify the need for experiments, their use is for
more common in technical fields. An experiment requires extensive manipulation of the
factors involved. Nevertheless, experiments do have their place. Hawthorne Experiment
is a classic example of the use of the use of experiments in business field.
209
The aim in conducting an experiment is to keep all variables the same except for the one
you are testing. In other words, you have to be careful to control those factors you are not
testing.
Step No.5: Analysing Data
Once you have completed your research you have to analyse your findings. The analytical
process is essentially a search for relationships among the facts and evidence you have
compiled. By looking at the data from various viewpoints, you attempt to detect patterns
that will help you to answer the qu~c;;tion of your work plan. You analyse results by calculating
statistics, drawing reasonable conclusions, and developing a set of recommendations.
a) Calculating Statistics
One important aspect in research is to quantity your fmdings. Testing of variables

involve quantifying i.e. information that you compile during the research pha<;e will be
in numerical form. If your research docs not involve meac;;urable variables then your
findings will not be credible. Once the factual data is precise, measurable, and objective
they are credible. Statistical information in its raw form is oflittle particle value. It
must be manipulated so that you and your readers can interpret its significance.
i) Averages :
One useful way oflooking at data is to fmd the averages, which is 'one number'
that represents a group of members. The same set of data can be used to produce
three kinds of averages: mean, median and mode.
Mean: Also known as 'arithmetic mean', which is a value that is computed by

dividing the sum of a set of terms by the number of terms.
Median: It is a value, in an ordered set of values, below and above which there
are equal number of values. Or the average (arithmetic mean) of the middle
values if time is no one middle value.
l\tlode: It refers to the most frequent value of a set of data. For example, we
want to consider the sales booked by a group of mine sales representatives
over one month.
210
Sales Person Sales (in Rupees)

Sharma. 3000
Gupta 5000
Kulkarni 6000
Kadarn 7000 Mean
Chopra 7500 Median
Jadhav 8500 Mode
Menon 8500 Mode
Pillai 8500 Mode
Nikam 9000
63,000
Functions of the three types of averages :
• Mean is useful when you to compare one item or individual with the group.
However, this type of average could be misleading if one ofthe number is extreme.
For example, in this case the mean is 7000; but ifNikam's sales figure were
Rs.27, 000/- then the mean would be 9000 in which case Sharma's figure of
Rs.3000 would look even worse.
• Medium is useful when one (or a few) of the numbers is extreme. For example,
even ifNikam's sales figure was 27, 000, yet the middle figure of the list shows
7500. When the median is used for comparing the sales of other members, the
extreme figure ofNikam would not influence it.
• Mode is very commonly used. It is the figure that occurs more often than other
figures. Itis useful in determining the most common level (here sales). For example,
if you wanted to know what level of sales was most common, you could answer
with the mode.
ii) Trends
If you were supervising the work of your sales force, you would be tempted to
make some important personal decisions based on a month's sales figure.
However, it would be a wise decision if you would compare the sales figure of
the present month with the sales performance over a period of time. Doing this
would mean that you are looking for a pattern in the sales performance. This is
211
what trend is all about. Looking at the trend would indicate whether a person is
progressing, regressing, or remaining steady. Trend analysis is common in
business. By looking at data over a period of time, you can detect pattems and
relationships that will enable you to answer important questions.
iii) Correlations
A correlation is a statistical relationship between too or more variables. Once

you have identified a trend, you should now look for the cause of the trend. I .et
us assume that Nikam consistent!y produces the most sales. You would want to
know the reasons for his consistent high sales. This raises many questions in
your mind - Is he a more persuasive person? Does he call on his customers
more often? Does he have comparatively larger sales territory? Or is he more
experienced there the others?
Seeking answers to these types of questions, you look for a consistent relationship
between each person's sales and other variables such as years of selling
experience, area of territory, etc. If you observe that larger tenitory produces
larger sales, you may assume that these two variables (area ofteiTitory and
sales figure) are correlated, or related in a predictable way. From this assumption
you may draw conclusion and state that Nikam's consistent high sales figure is
due to the larger sales territory as compared to others.
Correlations are useful evidence, but they do not prove a cause-and-effect

relationship. Putting it differently, drawing conclusions from an assumption is not
a very sound method. Nikam's success might well be the result of several other
factors.
b) Drawing Conclusions
Regardless of how much evidence you amass, at some point in every analysis you
move beyond hard facts (which can be objectively measured and veriticd) and begin
to draw conclusions. Conclusions are interpretations of what the facts mean. ln
formulating conclusions you make use of your assump6ons and value judgments,
which have been formed by your own experience. Thus, conclusions may be based
on a combination of facto;;, value judgments, and assumptions.
Value judgments and assumption form the basis tor interpretation of facts, <md decisions
are based on interpretation. This implies that conclusions may be based on subjective
factors. Using scientific research and sta6stical analysis you may come up with objective
212
conclusions, but you cannot overcome the subjective factors that influence the
formulation of conclusion.
When applying a subjective thought process to objective evidence, be sure to check

the logic that underlies your conclusions. If needs be get more evidence to confirm
your conclusions. Be aware of possible biases that arc not justified .by the
circum.c;;tances.
If you are working as part of a term, you have the advantage of discussing your
conclusions with your team, you have the advantage of discussing your conclusions
with your team members, during which your own values and assumptions come into
focus. The best conclusion is often the one that gains the most support.
c) Developing Recommendations
Tf conclusions are opinions or interpretations; recommendations arc suggestions for

action. When you have been asked to take the final step and translate your conclusions
into recommendations, be sure to make the relationship between them clear. You can
test the soundness of your recommendations against the following criteria:
• The recommendations should offer real advantage to the organization.
• The recommendations should be financially and politically feasible.
• Develop specific plans to overcome hindrances that might impede

implementations of the recommendation.
• Risks associated with the recommendations should be acceptable.
16 Activity C :
You have been asked by your Marketing Manager to prepare a formal report on the
problem of declining sales of motorcycles in the district ofPune. Prepare the following:
a) Problem statement in an infinitive phrase, a question form, and a statement form.
- - - - - - - - -- -----------=---
213
b) Prepare an outline for the report.
9.6 SUMMARY
Preparing the final draft of a report involves decision on length, fonnat, and organization.
Short, informal reports often take the form of memos or letters; longer, more formal reports
are presented in manuscript form.
When readers are receptive, you may present your ideas in direct order, with the main
point first. When readers are hostile or sceptical, use indirect order, presenting key fmdings,
conclusions and recommendations last. Informational reports are organized around
subtopics. Analytical reports are organized around conclusions or recommendations or
around logical arguments.
Effective long reports begin with a clear definition of the problem to be investigated. Once
the problem has been defined, you can detennine what information will be required to
solve it and develop a plan for obtaining that information.
During the research phase, you should review secondary information. You may also conduct
primary research to obtain information that is not available from existing resources. This
research may take the form ofexamining document<;, conducting surveys, making firsthand
observations, or doing experiment<;.
When you have completed your research and analysed the data, you are ready to develop
conclusions and recommendations. Be sure that your suggestions are both logical and
practical.

Q 1. Discuss Informational reports and Analytical reports.
Q2 Explain the various elements in planning short reports.
Q 3. Describe in brief the different steps in planning formal reports.
214
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Information technologic..-; such as electronic mail, cellular phones, videoconferencing, and

fax machines have enhanced communication. It has increased the dependency of business
on technology, and this has made decision-making process faster. As a result human
interaction and participation in decision-making by diverse groi1ps of people has also
enhanced. Despite all these developments, face-to-face communication has not mitigated.
In the business world, face-to-face presentation is still the most effective way to reach the
intended audience.
Presentation is a form of face-to-face communication, and plays an important role in sharing

information and guiding actions within organizations. Presentation is more formal type of
communication and hence requires a definite strategy- such as goal setting, situational
knowledge, communication competence, and anxiety management. All these require
adequate preparation to ensure effective pe1formance.
Making presentation is quite different from speaking with others in a two-party or small-
group context. Ensuring audience comprehension is more difficult because feedback is
less direct and less spontaneous. During a presentation, the speaker must be able to read
the audience's nonverbal behaviour and infer the moods and reactions of the audience to
the message being presented.
10.2 SPEECH AND ORAL PRESENTATIONS
A common tool in business communication, a Speech is a highly structured form of address

in which a speaker addresses an audience gathered to hear a message. Most feedback
comes after the speech is over, although nonverbal feedback can occur at any time.
By contrast, oral presentations arc almost always extcmpomneous, arc very often delivered
with the help of visual aids, and are frequently participative. Audience participation often
takes the form of comments and questions that can punctuate the oral presentation at any
point.
Oral presentations play important roles in both a company's internal and external
commtmication systems. Internally, for example, they are used to present budget requests
and sell progmmmes. Por instance, a redesigned benefitc:; package will probably be presented
to top management through an oral presentation.
As an important part of a company's external communication, and presentations are used

as tools to win and keep new clients. For example, when advertising executives submit
218
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
advertising plans and their clients, they are making presentations. When a small business
owner presents his company's credentials a<:> a sub-contractor to a large corporation, he is
making a presentation.
2S Activity A :
a) How would you differentiate between a speech and oral presentation based on your
past observations of both?
b) Can you recollect a speech made by a politician that you have watched live on TV?
Try to note down some non-verbal points you may have noticed.
10.3 IDENTIFYING THE GENERAL AND SPECIFIC PURPOSES

The starting point for developing a message is selecting a topic. Making the decision in a
work setting is usually quite easy; topics emerge naturally from the interplay of your job,
your audience, and the organization's need. After you have generated several potential
topics, you will select the actual topic for your presentation.
Once you have selected a topic, the process of refining it begins. There are two levels at
which the basic goal of presentation is identified. The two purposes that needs to be
identified arc:
• General Purpose
• Specific Purpose
G-eneral Purpose :
Despite the differences between formal speeches and oral presentations, they share common
general purposes- i.e. communicating with an audience.
219
• to inform
• to persuade
• to motivate
• to celebrate.
a) To Inform:
Informative presentations provide idea-;, alternatives, data, or even opinion, but most
important, they provide credible, reliable information to support your major points.
When giving an informative presentation, you function as a teacher of your audience.
It is not always easy, to know the audience's level of knowledge on the topic, nor is
it easy to narrow the topic so that you are working with a manageable and teachable
amount of information.
Informative presentations have the following characteristics:

i) They are accurate: When you communicate facts, accuracy is essential
ii) They are clear: Information must be communicated in a way that the listeners
can understand.
iii) They are meaningful: They must answer the question that every listener asks.
"How will this help me?"
iv) They are memorable: Information not remembered has little value.
b) To Persuade :
Persuasive presentations can work at three levels.

i) They can change orreaffmn existing attitudes about important topics
ii) They strive to gain the commitment of the audience.
iii) They motivate action.
In Persuasive presentations, you are asking the audience to make a commitment to

your view point and to act in ways that you advocate as with informative speaking,
persua-;ive presentation require conscientious research to uncover the best available
data on the topic.
220
c) To Motivate:
Presentations designed to motivate audience arc a special type of persuasive speech.

Motivational presentations employ pcrsua<;ion, but rely more extensively on stimulating
the emotions and feelings of listeners as a method of inducing action. For example,
drill sergeants may use highly charged, emotional language to push 'raw' recruits to
new levels of physical exertion.
d) 'Ib Celebrate :
Ceremonial presentations often share many of the elements found in informative,

persuasive, and motivational presentations.
Included in the group of ceremonial presentation are the following:

i) Introduction - introducing other speakers
ii) Acceptance - welcoming an honour as reward
ill) Tribute - making toast<;
iv) Goodwill -remembering and honouring the past
v) Inspiration - presenting a memorial or eulogy
vi) Celebration -rejoicing in achievements.
Ceremonial presentations require you to consider the common ties that bind
participants together as a group.
Usually, for ceremonial presentation you may be given a general purpose and asked
to select a topic, but in business you are frequently assigned a topic and must then
choose the general purpose (approach) that will be most successful.
Specific Purpose :
Having established the general purpose now you must determine the specific purpose,
which identifies what you as the presenter want the audience to think, believe, feel, or do
as a result of listening to your presentation. Specific goals are far more effective for directing
communication to achieve shared meaning and desired results.
The specific purpose should contain a singe idea.
221
Some basic considerations for specific purposed include the following:

a) Is the idea manageable in time allotted for presentations?
b) Is the idea challenging to the audience?
c) Is the idea important to the organizational values?
This exercise should result in developing a thesis statement- a single declarative sentence
that summarizes the main ideas to be presented to the audience.
This is also known as the "core idea". Every core idea should define, what speech-
communication experts Gerald Philips & Jerome/.olten call, "residual message- the idea
that breaks through the resistance, that stays in the listener's mind when everything else is
forgotten".
10.4 SITUATIONAL KNOWl.EDGE: ANAl.YZING THE AUDIENCE
Audience analysis is the process by which business communicators analyse the needs and
knowledge of their listeners in order to improve the likelihood of communicating effectively
through oral presentations.
Audience analysis corresponds to the second component of strategic communication- i.e.

gathering situational knowledge. It helps you to understand the speaking situation as it
unfolds, as well as how best to prepare for the audience's needs and likely responses to
your message.
Because audience analysis gives speakers tools to link their specific purposes to audience
interests and needs it is at the heart of any successful speech or oral presentation.
• Demographic profile of the audience- i.e. Age, social class, educational level, gender,
cultural background, and occupational status- is fundamental to any audience analysis.
Demography (the collection and study of such information) is a necessary first step in
establishing more specific and complex analysis of a target audience.
• Target audience refers to the key decision makers who are members of the general
audience, and should be an important focus for your analysis.
You are more likely to succeed by tailoring your ideas, information, and appeals to there
audience members. Satisfying this target group thus requires asking yourself certain key
questions:
222
a) What docs the audience know about me? This question goes to the heart of speaker
credibility: Will my position and reputation affect audience response?
b) What does my audience know about my organization?
c) How much does the audience know about my topic? Is the topic technical for the
audience, so that it will require explanation?
d) How much interest does the audience have in my topic?
e) How does the audience feel about my topic?
(Supportive, non-committed, or hostile).
t) What is the context for my presentations?
These questions require deliberation and careful analysis of audience to make your
presentation effective. In the words of Peter F. Drucker: ''To improve communication,
work not on the utterer, but the recipient".
Audience attitude toward many social and economic issues can be predicted through
careful demogrdphic analysis.
For example, if you learn that for your presentation on "why the company should be de-
unionize to encourage new hiring policies", your audience consists of mostly blue-collar
male aged between forty to sixty who are union members, you will approach the topic
with careful preparation.
£S Activity B :
a) What audience information would you gather for analysis for a presentation on:
i) Annual Sales Performance
ii) School Sports Plan
iii) Polio Campaign for Uneducated Women
223
b) Name three different occasions when a presentation could be made.
10.5 MAJOR PARTS OF PRESENTATION : INTRODUCTION
One of the most difficult task in any kind of presentation is to begin unless you begin you
cannot continue and conclude.
The question is 'How to begin?'
Let us consider a similar situation: first meeting of a class.
What do the students want to know during the first session/period of a class?
Study has shown that they want to learn three categories of information:
• course coverage - what will be the content and focus of the course
• course requirement- what is required to complete the course
• course instructor- what kind of person will this teacher tum out to be?
These questions fall into three general categories:

a) Orientation- what is happening?
b) Motivation - what is in it for me?
c) Rapport - will I like and respect the teacher?
The introduction to a presentation serves similar functions.

• It informs the listener what the message is about- orientation
• Why the listener should attend to it- motivation
• Why the speaker is a credible source of the message - rapport.
a) Orientation:
i) One method of orientation is to state the topic to be discussed, give the thesis
statement, explain the title of presentation, or review the purpose of presentation.
224
Cnit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
Example: A speaker at a business fundraiser for local arts group. " Some of you
may wonder why this presentation is titled "Give, Don't Give Up".l am here
today to tell you only it is more important now, in the face of difficult economic
times, than ever before to contribute to cultural organizations"
ii) Another method of mienting the audience is to preview the structure of the
message.
Example: "Cultural organizations provide three vital services to our community:

they expand our view of the world and each other; they raise issues that we
need to discuss; and they enrich our lives."
iii) The speaker may also explain why the topic was narrowed as it was:
"When I was asked to give a fundraising presentation to you, business leader in

the community, my first question was what can you do for us? I soon realized
that I needed to tell you what are doing- and help to continue to do for you".
b) Motivation :
i) Motivational strategies include linking the topic and thc..-;is statement to listener's
lives.
Example: "How many of you have attended a cultural event in our community in
the recent past? Think of how our city would be diminished if these events were
no longer held?"
ii) Another motivational strategy is to show how the topic has affected or will
affect the audience's past, present and future.
Example: "You may not have realized it, but tourism generated Rs.34 million for
our city last year. Surveys showed that many of the visitors came to participate
in our numerous cultural events, and in the process they bolstered the profits of
your business."
iii) Third method of motivating the audience to listen is by demonstrating how the
topic is linked to their basic need/goal.
Example: "Cultuml event<> are an important part of making our community vital
and prosperous, and I am sure that all of us would want to keep it that way."
225
c) Rapport:
Building rapport can take several forms:
i) l.anguage - demonstrates competence and credibility. Through your words
and delivery, you must convince your audience that you arc qualified to speak.
Establishing your expertise on the topic that would increase the audience's
receptivity to your message.
ii) Capture attention - the main purpose of your introduction is to capture the
attention of your audience and make them want to hear more. Capturing attention
is a technique to build rapport.
This can be done by:

• Complimenting the audience
• Usinghumour
• Making startling statements
• Anecdotes
• Quotations
• Rhetmical question (question designed to produce audience involvement in a
subject without requiring an answer)
Your introduction should also preview your main points- i.e. Preview things to come. In no
more than a sentence or two, your preview can provide the reasons why your audience
should continue listening.
10.6 MAJOR PARTS OF PRESENTATION: THE BODY

Generating Potential Main Ideas :
Once you have narrowed a topic to a specific purpose and thesis statement and identified
the characteristics of your audience, the next step in planning is to identify and research
your main points. Be it a speech or a presentation, it is imperative that you carry out a
thorough research so that your audience is drawn towards your goal.
For instance, if you are an account executive for an advertising agency and your goal is to
persuade a local hotel to select your agency to handle the hotels advertising campaign,
what are the main ideas you need to stress to show them the benefits of selecting your
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Unit lO Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
agency? Here it becomes necessary to do a thorough research before you make your
presentation to the prospective client. You need to genemte main ideas for your presentation.
There are many ways to generate main ideas, but the topical system has been in use and
still continues to be effective. Topical system uses a small set of headings or topic to
identify standard ways of thinking and speaking about any subject.
The basic premise of this approach is that the infinite member of possible topics contains
finite number of themes- a result of our shared ways of thinking about human affairs.
Putting it in simple terms, the infinite ways in which the humans think and act can be
cla<;sificd into finite number of themes:
1. Attributes :
a) Existence/ Nonexistence of things.
b) Degree or quantity of things or forces.
c) Spatial attributes - location, distribution, and position of things, especially in
relation to other things.
d) Time - when an event took place, how long it lasted, etc.
e) Motion or activity- type, de!:,rree.
f) Form- the physical or abstract shape of a thing.
g) Substance- the physical or abstract content of a thing.
h) Capacity to change- whether an event or situation is predictable or unpredictable.
i) Potency- power or energy, including the ability to further or hinder something
else.
j) Desirability- whether the thing result<> in rewards or penalties.
k) Feasibility- how well the thing works or how practical it is.
2. Basic Relationships :
a) Causality -· the relation of causes to effects, effects to causes, etc.
b) Correlation- correspondence between, coexistence of, as coordination of things

or forces.
c) Genus- species relationships- common characteristics or distinguishing

characteristics of a thing a<; group of things.
227
d) Similarity or dissimilarity in appearance, content, form, shape, etc.

e) Possibility or impossibility of an event happening.
Now let us consider the case of an account executive of an advertising agency. In

view of the attributes he/she could come up with the following·points:
a) Existence: The ad agency has been serving the community for more than 30
years.
b) Degree: The agency handle..:; more than 20 hostel accounts and gains more every
year (degree of expertise)
c) Spatial attributes: lbe agency i.:; conveniently located in a business center.
d) Time: The agency can put together a trial campaign in two weeks.
e) Activity: The agency's clients have reported substantial increase in customers.
0 Form: The agency can provide latest designs and graphics for the look of
campaign.
g) Substance: The agency will work with hotel management to decide on the precise
message for the campaign.
h) Capacity to change: The agency will modify the campaign if it is not bringing the
desired result.
i) Potency: The agency can promote increased business of the hotel based on the
campaign done for similar hotels in the past.
j) Desirability: The agency can promote increased business that will enable hotel
owners to open another hotel.
k) Feasibility: The agency is a practical choice because of its expertise in the area
of hotel advertising and iL.:; competitive rates.
Once the main ideas of your topic has been developed you could choose few of these
themes to stress dming your presentation. However, it is not possible to cover all the
themes during one presentation, but could be taken up during subsequent presentations.
The main thing to remember in business presentation is to do a thorough spade work

before making the presentation. As it is read: "People don't plan to fail, they fail to plan".
228
Providing Support Material for Ideas :
Regardless of the purpose of your presentation, you will use some form of supporting
materials to give creditability to your main ideas and to awake the message more informative,
interesting, relevant, clear, and acceptable, s~pporting materials facilitate learning
Although teaching the audience is a fundamental goal of most presentations, for some
people learning can be an uncomfortable or frightening experience, and therefore can be
resisted.
Certainly, people tend to resist a speaker's attempts the speaker to overcome these barriers
to complete a successful presentation.
These materials include:

• Explanation
• Example
• Statistics
• Listening
• Visual aids
a) Explanation :is an act or process of making a subject plain or comprehensible. This

is often accomplished through a simple statement of the relationship of a whole and
its parts. There are many ways in which explanation can be offered- such as providing
a definition, using comparison between the familiar and the unfamiliar, showing
contrasts, giving a brief history, and so on.
b) Examples : comment the main ideas of presentation with a real or and ideal situation
thought out by to speaker. Examples take a variety of forms, which include illustrations,
specific instances, etc. The speaker may involve the listeners in a hypothetical illustration
by suggesting, "imagine yourself.
c) Statistics : describes the result of collecting, organizing, and interpreting numerical

data. They are specially useful when you want too accomplish the following:
• Reduce large masses of information to general categories (the average score of

college students on the communication skills is 75).
• Emphasize the size of something (corporate houses spend more than Rs. 200
cross annually for training and development).
229
• Indicate trends (from 1997 to 2000, state government expenditure on prisons

increased 30% while spending on higher education fell by 18%).
d) Testimony: a statement by a credible person (who is quoted by the speaker) that

trends weight and authority is the speaker's presentation. The tes~ny gains credibility
proper timidly to the expertise of the person who is the source of testimony. For
insistence, any relevant quotation from Peter F. Drucker used in a management speech
will give credibility to the presentation.
e) Visual Aids: Business speaker after structure their presentations around series of
slides that provide visual appeal and content, interest, clarity. Experienced speaker
have added number of interesting option to the usc of visual aids in written documents.
PS Activity C :
Name some visual aids you would usc for the following presentations :
i) Book Review
ii) Ad campaign by an ad agency
iii) Student case study
230
(Jnit I 0 Developing ami Delivering Effective Presentations
10.7 MAJOR PARTS OF PRESENTATION: THE CO~CLUSION
The conclusion of a speech or an oral presentation performs four important functions:

• It surnmari:tes your message.
• It extends your message to a broader context
• It personalizes your message
• It calls for specific future action.
Like the introduction, the conclusion should take about 10 percent of your presentation
time.
As you think about you conclusion, keep in mind that these arc the lac;t words your listener
will hear and that it is important to leave them with a lasting impression. Remember, also
that your listeners need a signed that your speech is over. Use your conclusion to communicate
closure. Your conclusion is not the place at which to make yet another point.
a) Summarize your message
Think of your summary as you last opportunity to "nail" your main points. As Winston
Churchill once said: "If you have an important point to make, don't try to be subtle or
clever. Usc a pile driver. Hit the point once. These come back and let it again, there
hit it a thirst time- tremendous whack.
When you want to make your point over again, do not repeat, but recast it in way,
that would he remembered by you audience. Restatement is absolutely necessary to
get your point across. If you arc forced to cut-short your speech as presentation,
your summary may be even more critical. When forced with the constraint of time
you may omit some details or visual aids, but your sununary can still make your point
As one expert or public speaker says, ''te1l them in bticf, what you would have told
them in full if you had not run out of time."
Summarizing should have the following points.
• Restating the main points. Once you have everyone's attention repeat your main
ideas. Be sure to emphasize what you want your audience to do or think. Then
state the key motivating factor.
• Outlining the next steps: Some speeches and presentations require the audience
to reach a decision or to take specific action. Be ce1tain that everyone agrees on
the outcome and understands what should happen next.
231
• Ending on a positive note: Your final remarks should be enthusiastic and

memorable. The end of your speech should leave a strong and la-;ting impression.
b) Extend your Message to a Broader Context

Use you conclusion to look ahead. Do not let your presentation begin and end in the
lecture hall; it should extend beyond the present context audit your ideas to broader
from work of goals and ideas. For example, giving a lecture to students on
communication skills should conclude by bordering the thought-; from merely pa-;sing
the exam to the use of communication skill in the world.
c) Personalize your Message

At the conclusion of your speech or presentation, reemphasize your focus or your
listeners' needs- that is where their real motivation lies. Listeners who perceive
themselves as the focus of your final remarks are more likely to receive your entire
massage in personal term.
d) Make a Call to Action

Asking your listeners too do something is a task best left to the end of your message.
Many persuasive speeches and sales presentation conclude with appeals that urge
action. In concluding a presentation, you may also talk about the steps that come
next. Talk about responsibilities or tasks that must be accomplished and the people
responsible for them. Leave your audience with a vision and a sense of every.
Table 10.1 : Purpose and Technique in a Formal Presentation
Element Purpose Techniques
Introduction Establish Credibility Refer to your personal background

Capture attention Use humour
Tell a story
IAsk rhetorical questions
Use quotations
Demonstrate
Preview main points Briefly tell your audience what is to come
Body Present main points Rely on common organizational patterns
Use facts, statistics, examples, narratives,
testimony and quotations
I
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Unit J 0 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
Present supporting material

Conclusion Summa~.ize main points Usc repetition
Extend message to broader Fonn conclusions and recommendations
context Focus your message on the needs of your
Personalize message audience
Call to action Focus on the future and what must be
done.
Source: L.E Boone, D.L. Kurtz and J.R. Block. Contemporary Business Communication, pg 459
10.8 VISUAL AIDS

It has been estimated that 11% of what we learn is through hearing, 83% through sight and
the rest through the other threes sources. Hence, visual aids can make your presentation
more effective.
Visual aids help both the speaker and the audience remembers the important points. Some
of the aids, which can serve you well, are snaps, pictures, pictures, charts, motion pictures,
and slides overhead projectors, and blackboard. Two types of visual aids are used to
supplement speeches and presentations. They arc:
• Text visuals help listeners to follow the flow of thoughts/ideas.
• Graphic visuals present and emphasize important facts. They help the audience to
grasp numerical date and other types of information that would be hard to follow of
presented orally.
Types of Visual Aids :
1. Objects and Models:

If you were presenting the prototype for a new product, your best visual aid would
be the product itself. For example, if you were involved in the manufacture of a new
commercial jet, a scaled-drown model would help you demonstrate its pique
characteristics. As objects and models are passed around the room, they encourage
active, hands-on interaction, but also disturb the audience from your presentation.
2. Flip Chart, Chalk and Writing Board and Porters

These media are effective in presenting information to small interaction groups. Flip
charts are most co rumor way to display visuals in a business presentation, allowing
you show a sequence of graphic with a turn of a page.
233
In certain situations, you may actually prefer to write as you speak. When used in this
manner, aids like flip charts and posters arc excellent group- interaction tools.
3. Overhead Transparencies :
Overhead transparencies allow an image to be projected without losing touch with
the audience. They arc easy to use and are widely employed in many business settings.
They are also flexible, allowing you to add or highlight concept while it is being shown.
4. Slides:
Both color and black-and-white slides can add a professional touch to a presentation.
Slides can be used to display any type of two-dimensional visual aid, including
photographs, maps, lists tables, and graphs.
5. Videos:
Videos arc an integral part of many business presentations. Advertising agencies usc
video to scTeen new commercials for clients. A fashion designer may use a video to
display the latest creation on live models.
Videos have the advantage of easy recording and instant playback. Most videos are
shown on small television screens, and are most effective for small audiences.
Table 10.2: Using Visual Aids in Formal Presentations
~rnm
__t _ _--+i_A_u_d_ie_n_c_e_-t-1 Advantages IDisadvantages
, Flip charts Small Help to organize/summarize Low-impact
Chalk and High flexibility: low human
Writing error Informal
boards
. Overhead Medium/large Portable Can be distracting
Transparencies No technician needed Complex charts and
High flexibility graphs are ineffective
Slides Medium/large Flexiblcl!vfodular , Do not show motion
Minimum equipmentnccdlLights must be
Type serves as outline dimmed
Graphs show relationships
Charts save time conceptually
- -- ---'-
234
-----,-- - - - -- ·-
Video I
Smal.Vmcdium High-impact Requires equipment
Cassettes Instant replay Availability
I•1exible
Easy assembly
Supports'other AV format~
Provides change of pace
Source: LE. Boone, D.L. Kurtz and J.R. Block, ContemporaiJ Business Communication, pg 466
10.9 GUIDELINES FOR USING VISUAl~ AIDS
a) Choose the right visual aid
Limit your visuals to important points. Your choice should be determined by the
purpose of your speech, the size of your audience, the needs of the occasion, and
your skill and experience in using the medium.
b) Remember that your audience wants to see you, not your visuals.
For instance, beginning your presentation with slides projected on a screen in darkened
room will prevent you from establishing our immediate audience conviction. On the
other hand, ending with a visual will encourage your audience to remember the visual
instead of you .
c) Don't repeat the context of the visual when you comment on it.
You should explain to the audience the context of the visual.
d) Stop after your main point

Allow the audience to scan the information projected on the visual.
e) Avoid tuning your back on your audience.

Maintain eye contact throughout your speech, even when displaying a visual.
t) Work on your timing.
Never display a visual before talking about it; remove it when you have finished the
thought
g) Rehearse
Integrate your visual and oral presentations before your actual perfonnance.
235
RS Activity D :
a) List some guidelines you would follow while using visual aids.
b) Do you remember having sat through a good presentation? How would you comment
on the:
i) presentation as a whole :
ii) the visual aids used :
10.10 SUMMARY
At some point in your career, you are likely to be called on to give a speech or presentation.
Brief speeches are organized like letters and short memos. Fonned presentations, lasting
up to an hour or more, generally involve more complex subjcct'i and require more interaction
with audience. They are organized like formed repo1ts, with an introduction, a body and a
final summary.
Many long speeches and presentations make use of visual aids such as handouts,
chalkboards, hip charts, overheads. and slides. These should be selected to suit your
purpose and the size and needs of the audience.
236
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Simply stated, interviews arc a conversation between two people. E.C. Eyre, a management
expert, states "an interview is a face-to-face verbal exchange, which endeavours to discover
as much information as possible in the least amount of time about some relevant matter."
A job hunter writes a resume and letter of application to get a job interview. Job interviews
are more than just conversation with prospective employers. Interviews arc valuable
oppostmitics for both parties to see if the applicant fits comfortably into the company
environment. Interviews play an important part in two-way communication. For not only
does the interviewer learn a great deal about the interviewee, hut it also provides an
opportunity to the interviewee to give information about the organization and its ain1s ad
objectives.
Meetings, like interviews, are vital to the functioning of modem organizations. Meeting
provides a form for making key decisions and a vehicle for coordinating the activities of
people and departments. Whether the meeting is held to solve a problem or to share
information, the participants gain a sense of involvement and importance from their
attendance. Because they share in the decision, they accept it and are committed to seeing
it succeed.
There are many committees and meetings in an organization of any size. Not all the
committees and meetings are successful. There are unproductive meetings, which arc
frustrating and expensive. If the management believes in the old proverb: "two heads arc
better than are," they equally ignore another adage: "Too many cooks spoil the broth."
Whatever the outcome, meeting are an indispensable fact of corporate life in which you
are going to be drawn whether you like it or not.
11.2 CATEGORIZING INTERVIEWS
Not all interviews are alike, thus they do not require the same set of skills. One major
difference is that some interviews are dominated by exchange of infom1ation, which the
other are geared more toward the exchange of feeling. Thus, the two types of interviews
are:
• Those dominated by the exchange of information
• Those involving the exchange of feelings.
240
Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
1. Exchange of information:
a) Job interviews
The candidate-seeking job wants to learn about the position and the organization;
the employer wants to learn about Ule applicant's abilities and experience. Both
hope to make a good impression and to establish rapport. Job interviews are
usually fairly formal and structured. Content and critical listening skills are
especially important.
b) Information interviews
The interviews seeks facts that influence a decision or contribute to basic
understanding of certain subject matter. Information flows mainly in one direction
- one person ask-; a series of question that must be covered and listens to the
answers supplied by the other persons. Content and critical listening skills are
dominant.
c) Persuasive interviews
In these interviews, one person tells another about a new idea, product, or
service and explains why the other should act or the recommendations. The
persuader discusses the other person's needs. Thus persuasive interviews require
skill in drawing out and listening to other as well a-; the ability to impart information.
d) Exit interviews
lbe interviews try to understand why the interviewee is leaving the organization
of transferring to another department or division. A department employer can
often provide insight into whether the business is being handled efficiently or
whether things could be improved. The departing employee should be encouraged
to focus on events and process rather than personal gripes.
2. Exchange of feelings :
a) Evaluation interviews
A supervisor periodically gives on employer feedback or whisper performance.
The supervisor and the employee discuss progress toward predetermined
standard-; or goals and evaluate areas that require improvement. They may also
discuss goals for the coming years, as well a-;, the employee's longer-term
aspirations and general concerns. Content, critical, and empathic listening skills
may all be required.
241
b) Counselling interviews
These involve the supervisor's the supervisor's talks with the employee about
personal problems that are interfering with work performance. The interviewer
should be concemed with the welfare of both the employee and organization
and should confine the discussion to business. Critical and empathic listening
skills are both important because the employer needs to evaluate the facts of the
situation and deal with the human emotions involved.
c) Conflict-resolutions interviews
Here two competing people or groups of people explore their problems and
attitudes. The goal is to bring the two parties closer together, cause adjustments
in perceptions and attitudes, and create a more productive climate. Empathic
and active listening skills are useful in fostering these changes.
d) Disciplinary interviews
In these the supervisor tries to conect the behavior of an employee who has
ignored the organization's rules and regulations. The interviewer must not only
get the employee to set the reason for the rules and agree to comply, but must
also review the fact'> and explore the person's attitude. Because of the possible
emotional reaction, neutral observations are more effective than critical comment'>.
Active and empathic listening skills are of prime importance.
11.3 PLANNING THE INTERVIEW
Planning an interview is similar to planning any other form of communication. You begin by
stating the purpose, analysing the other person, and formulating your main ideas. Then you
decide on length, style, and organization of the interview.
Even as an interviewee, you have some control over the conversation. You need to anticipate
the interviewer's question and then plan your answers so that the point-; you want to make
will be covered. Furthermore, by your comments and nonverbal cues, you can affect the
relationship between you and the interviewer.
If you are the interviewer, responsibility for planning the interview session falls on you. On
the simplest level, you must schedule the interview and see that it is held in a comfortable
and convenient location. You need to develop a set of interview questions and decide on
their sequence. Having a plan will enable you to conduct the interview more efficiently.
242
1. Types of Interview Questions :
The purpose of the interview and the nature of the participants determine the types of
questions that should be asked. In terms of the structure of an interview, it is conducted in
fourpha-;es, which can be remembered by the acronym- \VASP -i.e. Welcome, Acquiring
information, Supplying information and Parting.
You should ask question so as to:

• getinformation
• motivate the interviewee to respond honestly and appropriately, and
• create a good working relationship with the other person.
To obtain both factual information and underlying feelings, you would want to use types of
questions, such as:
a) Open-ended questions
b) Direct open-ended questions
c) Closed-ended questions
d) Restatement questions
a) Open-ended questions :
These are questions that invite the interviewee to offer an opinion, and not just one-
word answer. You can learn some interesting and unexpected things from open-
ended questions. They, however, decrease your control over the interview. When
you allow the interviewee to voice his/her opinion or idea that many not be what you
want, you may waste time in getting the interview back on tracks.
Use open-ended questions to put the interviewee at case, or to gain infonnation

when you have plenty of time for conversation.
b) Direct open-ended questions :
These types of questions suggest response, but not opinion. For example, "What
have you done about. . . ?" Assumes that something has been done and calls for an
explanation. With direct open-ended questions, you have somewhat more control
over the interview, yet you still give the other person some freedom in framing a
response. This form of question is good to usc when you want to get a specific
conclusion as recommendation from someone.
243
Business Conmmnication
c) Close-ended questions:
These type of questions require 'yes' or 'no' answers or call for short response. For
example, "Did you make a reservation for the flight?" Questions like these produce
specific information, save time, require less effort from the interviewee, and eliminate
bia-; and prejudice in answers. The disadvantage is that they limit the respondents'
initiative and may prevent important information from being revealed. These questions
arc better for gathering information than for prompting an exchange of feelings.
d) Restatement questions :
Restatement, or mirror, questions invite the respondent to expand on the answer:
"You said you disliked travel vouchers. Is that correct?" They also signal the
interviewee that you are paying attention. Restatements provide opportunities to clarify
points and correct misunderstandings. Use them to persuc a subject further or to
encourage the other person to explain a statement. You can usc restatement question
to soothe upset customers or co-workers. By acknowledging the other person's
complaint, you gain credibility.
2. The Structure of the Interview:

Organize an interview as much as you would organize a written document, with the
interview's
purpose and the audience's receptivity shaping the sequences of questions. Various types
of questions are tools for developing ideas, which should be arranged in a sequence that
will enable you to accomplish your purpose. Following are the purposes:
a) Informational Purpose:
Topical organi7.ation, which is presented in direct order.
b) Analytical or problem-solving purpose:

Organization that allows you to state the problem, review the background and
objectives, suggest solutions, evaluate the pros and cons of each, identify the best
option, and agree on implementation plans.
c) Persuasive Purpose:
Organization that is based on the other person's receptivity. If there is receptivity,
then focus on conclusions and recommendations that highlight the benefit<; of your
ideas; if there is resistance, then focus on the logical argument that gradually builds a
convincing case for your position.
244
Cnit 11 Interviews and Meetings
PS Activity A :
a) You must have been for a few interviews in the recent past. Can you identify the i)
type of interview you attended. ii) the type of questions asked by the interviewer.
b) Looking back at that interview, what was the preparation you took to ensure your
interview went off well?
11.4 EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW
Unfortunately for both companies and employees, there is not much correlation between
interviewing well and actually doing the job well. For this reason, experts now advise that
tests become a larger part of the interview process. Computers have been suggested to
answer multiple-choice questions based on the job description and corporate style.
Applicants tend to be more honest with a computer than with human interviewers when
asked about such things as their goals and preferences.
However, until such testing becomes commonplace, interviews allow employers to decide
how a prospective employee fits into the company. Employment interview may be the
most intense and dynamic communication situation that you ever encounter in your career.
Therefore, you ought to prepare adequately for success at the interview. Here are some
important tips for preparing for an interview.
• Do self-analysis- know your strengths and weaknesses.
• Find out how relevant your competence is to the job you are seeking, and how you
would usc it for performing the required duties.
• Gather information about the hi'>tory, function and development plan of the organization
and visualize the role you could play in its growth and development.
245
• Anticipate the likely questions that could be asked and their answers.
• Discuss, if possible, with some employees of the organization of its work culture,
professional ethics, and growth direction.
1. Attending the Interview :
At the time of interview you should give positive clues to the interviewer - such a~,
punctuality, neat physical appearance, cheerful expression, pleasant manners, presence of
mind, positive attitude and clear and confident voice.
Here are some more practical hint~ :

a) Be brief and spontaneous in your response
b) Present the relevant matter in an organized way.
c) Support your views with nature and rational arguments.
d) Be honest in referring to events, situations, and experiences.
e) Listen carefully to the interviewer's questions, statements and comment~.
f) Be perceptive of the signals that the body language of the interviewer may give.
g) Speak in a conversational style and avoid using unnecessary words.
h) Exhibit utmost courtesy both in manners and speech.
To avoid negative impact take the following precautions:

• Do not give irrelevant infom1ation.
• Do not give excessive details about the topic under discussion.
• Do not try to change the topic of discussion.
• Avoid hasty generalization.
• Do not give any evasive reply in an attempt to hide your ignorance.
• Avoid long pauses while speaking
• Do not keep smiling all the time
• Do not make any disrespectful remarks of people with whom you have worked.
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2. Interview Process :
'The interview would usually start with direct questions, seeking specific information regarding
your qualifications, achievements, and experience. After this introductory exchange, the
interview process becomes more dynamic. At this stage open-ended questions, seeking
substantial information are asked. For instance, you may be asked questions abemt the
types of courses, and projects you did and to explain bow they relate to your professional
ambition. If you have some experience, you may be required to describe it in terms of its
relevance the job you have applied for. Before the interview ends closed-ended questions
may be asked. These usually related to the time you would take in joining the post, the
place of posting, the nature of appointment (temporary, on probation, contracted, etc). or
the expected salary, etc. You may be given an opportunity to ask questions about the job,
comparcy, or clarification about anything that bas been discussed or mentioned earlier.
Various areas from which questions are usually asked are:
• Academic background
• Co-curricular activities
• Extracurricular activities
• General Knowledge
• Experience
• Miscellaneous
3. Expectations of the Employers :
Through the process of interview the aim of the interviewer is not only to assure himself
about the suitability of qualifications and experience required for the job, but also to discover
the significant traitc; of your personality and family environment. Personal happiness and
healthy social relationships are conducive to efficiency in work.
In specific terms what the prospective employer seeks to find out may be classified as
follows:
a) Aptitude
b) Attitude- toward job, employer, colleagues, and towards life and society
c) Achievements
d) Temperament
e) Health
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Bu5incs~ Communication
4. Conducting an Interview :
On becoming, a senior professional, you may be asked to interview candidates for a job
in your organization. Given below arc certain specific guidelines in the form of DOs and
DON'Ts to help you conduct an interview effectively.
Dos:
a) Analyse carefully the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for the job.
b) Study the resume of the candidate to match his attainments to the requirement of the
job.
c) Frame in your mind (or even write) the basic questions you would like to ask.
d) Ask only one question at a time
c) Usc precise expression~ and plain language
1) Repeat the question if the candidate so desires, explaining to him clearly what you
want to know.
g) Allow time to the candidate to warm up and become interactive.
h) Establish a rapport and encourage him to give his best.
0 Be courteous, polite and amiable, but fim1 and professional.
j) Listen carefully with interest to the responses of the candidate.
k) Try to understand what the candidate is and to find out what he knows.
Don'ts:
a) Do not ask a series of questions
b) Do not put the same question to different candidates
c) Do not ask for unnecessary details
d) Do not ask questions to impress the candidate or to display your knowledge.
c) Do not ask highly personal questions
f) Do not continue asking questions on one topic for a long time.
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Unit II Interviews and Meetings
g) Do not put any question when the candidate is answering your colleague.
h) Do not at any time loose your temper or raise your voice.
i) Do not become excited or emotional during interaction.
j) Do not usc slang or uncommon phrases or language.
k) Do not make any comments that may make the candidate feel small or that may hurt
him.
11. 5 :MEETINGS
"Meetings are a strange phenomenon. Everyone calls them; everyone attends them. Yet
nearly everyone is highly critical of them. They think of and talk about meetings as a
necessary evil. Hardly anyone says they are fond of meetings". M.M. Monippally.
Here are some statements about meetings:

l. '·A committee keeps minutes and loses hours".
2. "A committee is a group of the unwilling, picked from the unfit, to do the unnecessary..,
3. "When you don't want to commit, committee yourself'.
4. "A committee is a cul-de-sac into which ideas a.r·e lured. there to be quietly strangled
to death".
5. "Best committee is a committee of two when one is absent".
6. '·If you want to get a thing done, give it to one man; if you don't want it done, give it
to a committee".
7. "Meetings arc indispensable when you don't want to do anything". (J.K. Galbraith)
8. "One either meets or one works. One cannot do both at the some time." (Peter
Drucker)
Meetings arc something that the organizations have to hold them but are seen as wasteful.
They drain the time, money and human resources of a company. They delay decision-
making.
Despite, the fact that committees or meetings are so critically judged by so many, they still
continue to be a part of any corporate culture. They have their own usefulness.
249
a) They give decision a depth that few individuals deciding without consultation can
generate.
b) They help decision-makers see issues from angles that they would not have thought
of on their own.
c) Ideas trigger new ideas in different minds. They prevent many mistakes from being
committed.
d) Diversity and cross-fertilization are the strength of a committee.
11.6 CAUSES 01'' INE:F}"ECTIVE MEETINGS

Universal condemnation of meetings is not without reasons. There are some problems
common to meetings that justifies condemnation. Some of the problems stem from the
conveners, some from the chairperson, and the rest from the attendees.
1. Poor Preparation
This is the most common rea<>on for meetings turning wasteful. Too many meetings arc
convened too causally. The conveners are not clear about why they want the meeting and
so do not prepare any agenda. If they do prepare an agenda, it docs not reflect focused
thinking. The agenda is not distributed to the committee members before the meeting, and
hence, the attendees discuss issue without preparation. As a result, the members discuss
irrelevant matters and this cause delay in decision-making.
2. Failure to Maintain Minutes
One of the common reasons for many meetings to become wasteful is that no minutes are
prepared and circulated. Or, minutes arc prepared and circulated so long after the meeting
that they serve no purpose. Without minutes of meetings people forget what decisions
were taken and who was supposed to do what and when. Thus, the time invested in those
meetings is wasted.
3. Incompetent Chairpersons
Many meetings go off the track because the chairperson is incapable of hedging the
discussion. It is the responsibility of the chairperson to keep the meeting within the limits of
the agenda; and to ensure that everyone participates. Many chairpersons fail to do this
because they are themselves undcrprcpared.
250
Cnit 11 Interviews and Meetings
At times chairpersons are unable to exercise control.because certain members are above
them in power, or have a strong and forceful personality.lt requires high level of skill and
courage to chair a meeting.
4. Cunning Chairpersons
Some managers convene meetings after meeting because they want discussion, but not
decision. Some managers use meetings as a smoke screen for putting off action. Yet some
managers use meetings to hide behind and not take the responsibility of decisions made.
Some cunning managers usc meetings to discuss some controversial matter without the
members arriving at a broad agreement, thus, achieve their objective of delaying decision-
making. The attendees may not suspect that they arc being manipulated by the chairperson
who present<> the delaying tactics in a garb of democracy and the need for looking thoroughly
at all aspects of the issue.
5. Domineering Bosses
The presence of domineering bosses at the meeting may hinder free expression of the
members and render it wasteful. Members may not want to voice dissent once the boss
hac;; made his/her opinion known. They may not want to appear disloyal. Therefore, The
meeting deteriorates into a monologue. Such meetings are wasteful because they add no
value to the decision taken.
6. Spineless Bosses
Just the opposites of domineering bosses are the bosses who shy away from decision
making on their own. They arc risk-avoiders. They have the authority to take decisions,
but not the responsibility of their consequences. They want to spread the responsibility of
the decision made on the members of the committee, and thus hide behind the committee.
This process, however, is time consuming for a lot of people because the chairperson has
to make the attendees say what he wants to say.
7. Hidden Agendas
Meetings, especially departmental and interdepartmental ones within a company, may end
up as time-wasters if there arc hidden agendas. Personality cla<>hes may result in prolonged
discussions and delay decision-making. One or two members may usc the whole time in
discussing issues that they either favor or disapprove, while other members say nothing.
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8. Bloated Committees
Some committees have more members than required. In such cases there will be too many
members who may not contribute. Some are there because of protocol; some arc there
because their names have been suggested. Too many non-con~buting members mean
loss of man-hours.
9. Absence of Key Players
Absence of members who contribute, as well ac;, whose presence is essential for discussing
certain issues, may lead to wasteful meetings. In the absence of such essential members, if
any decision is made they may, at later stage, raise objectives. Or they may show in the
resolution weaknesses that none of those who attended the original meeting may have
noticed.
10. Marathon Meetings
Marathon meetings with long agendas tend to breed wastefulness. When meetings take
long hours, efficiency declines.
Attendees gradually begin to loose concentration because of other responsibilities that

preoccupies their mind. Despite the snacks and beverages served the efficiency is not
created. This leads to a group of people forced to sit waiting for the meeting to end.
£S Activity B :
The role of the chairperson who convenes the meeting is very important. If you have
watched the proceedings of the Lok Sabha on TV, how would you rate the performance
of the Speaker, who is supposed to conduct the daily meetings?
11.7 ARRANGING MEETINGS
Careful planning of four elements -Purpose, Participants, Agenda and Location- is the
key to productive meetings. The main thrust should be to bring together the right people,
in the right place for just enough time to accomplish your goals.
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Unit 11 Interviews and Meeti ngs
1. Determining the Purpose
Before you call a meeting, satisfy yom·self that it is the best way to achieve your goaL Then
the prupose of a meeting can be categorized as infonnational or decision-making (although
many meetings comprise both purposes).
Informational meeting is called so that the participants can share information and possibly
coordinate actions. This type of meeting may involve individuals briefings, by each
participants or speech by the leader followed by question...;; from the attendees.
Decision-making meetings arc mainly concerned with persuasion, analysis, and problem
solving.ll1ey often requires a brain storming session followed by a debate on the altematives.
Such meetings are less predictable than informational meetings.
2. Selecting the Participant'i
Try to invite only those whose presence is essential. The number and choice of participants
should reflect the purpose of the meeting. If the meeting is purely informational and one
person will he doing the talking, you could include a relatively large group. However, if
you are trying to solve a problem, develop a plan, or reach a decision, you should limit
partic;.ipation to between four and seven members. But be sure to include members who
can make important contributions and those who are key decision makers. Holding a
meeting to decide an important matter is pointless if the people with the necessary infonnation
arc not there.
3. Setting the Agenda
Although the nature of a meeting may sometimes prevent you from developing a fixed
agenda, you should at least prepare a list of matters to be discussed. The agenda should
include the following.
a.) the names of expected attendees
b) the exact place and time
c) the time of starting the meeting
d) the time when the meeting is expected to end
e) the objective(s) of the meeting
J) the issues to be discussed and resolved
g) indication of how attendees in general or specific ones among them should prepare
themselves for the meeting
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4. Preparing the Location
Decide where you will hold the meeting, and reserve the location. Consider the seating
arrangement, and give some attention to the overall environment and physical conditions
of the location. Also, if you are working for a large organization wi~ teleconferencing
facilities, you may want to use this technology for your meeting.
In companies where executives would otherwise have to spend time and money traveling
from one location to another, teleconferencing can be a real boon.
11.8 RUNNING A PRODUCTIVE MEETING
Whether the meeting is conducted electronically or conventionally, its success depends

largely on how effective the chairperson is. If the leader is prepared and has selected the
participants carefully, keeping in view the nature of agenda, the meeting will generally be
productive.
The duties of a chairperson are as follows :

1. Pacing the meeting - allotting time for each item to be discussed.
2. Appointing a note taker (secretary)
3. Following the agenda
4. Stimulating participation and discussion
5. Summarizing the discussion or debate
6. Reviewing the recommendations
7. Circulating the minutes
~ Activitv C :
a) Have you arranged a meeting in the recent past? What were the steps you took in
planning the meeting? List them out.
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Unit ll Interviews and Meetings
b) Did you attend a meeting that did not go too well? Now that you have read this unit,
can you identify the reason or reasons why the meeting failed?
11.9 SUMMARY
An interview is any planned, purposeful conversation involving two people. Informational

interviews require mainly context and critical listening skills; emotion-sharing interviews
may require empathic and active listening. Various types of interviews require different
mixes of the four min types of questions: open-ended, direct open-ended, and restatement.
Planning interviews should be tailored to the subject, purpose, and audience and should
include an opening, a body, and a close.
Meetings have to be carefully mastered because they are expensive. They are indispensable,
yet most people think they are a waste of time. They give depth to decisions, prevent
many mistakes, provide diversity and cross-fertilization ofthoughts, and give people the
sense of involvement.
Meetings should be called only when there is a definite purpose. Prepare the agenda well
and select essential members without forgetting numbers whose presence the protect
demands. Effectiveness of a meeting depends upon the skillful leadership of the chairperson.
The goal of a meeting is to get all the participants to share information or to contribute to
a sound decision.
Q 1. Describe the different categories of interviews.
Q2. Explain the planning process of an interview.
Q3. Discuss the various clements involved in planning a meeting.
Q4. Justify that the meetings are wasteful.
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12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the 1950s, social psychologist Kurt Lewin, in his book Field Theory in Social Science,
suggested that group dynamics pervade in all facets of human lives. It is natural for human
beings to be associated with some group or the other- be it social group. athletic team.
student community, business organization, or friends and families. ·
As you enter into a work situation, you are bound to become a part of some group, and
your participation will increao;;e as you move up the organizational hierarchy. Communication
between and within groups is vital to the organization. Before we understand group
communication, we need to understand the nature of a group. We shall attempt to define
a group by observing some important behavioural pattern that arc prevalent in a group -
such as characteristics of groups, group leaders, and special group fmmatli.
In the previous unit, we have studied information-sharing meetings. which arc relatively
wel1-planned and very often routine. In this unit we shall concentrate on the problem-
solving meetings, which consists of information sharing, tasks offinding solutions and making
decisions about events or situations that have the potential to affect the pcrtormance of the
organization. During the process of problem solving. the basic function is to identify and
resolve specific problems by applying strong communication skills and problem-solving
techniques.
Besides problem-solving and decision-making, groups arc also the source of''competitive
communication" (that which is characterised by interdependent yet conflicting goals) within
the organization. This is manifested in the forms of argumentativeness and verbal
aggressiveness. In handling such situations one must have strong commitment to
organizational values and ethical standards, strong verbal and listening skills, interpersonal
commtmication ability, and understanding of group roles, norms, and dynamics.
Competitive communication demands the use of the methods of negotiation and con1l ict
management. Negotiation or bargaining process can attain productive outcomes. However,
there are times when the bargaining sessions can tum into conflict situation. Conflict may
erupt from differences in goals or values. diverse economic or financial interests, role
conflict, environmental changes, or even contradictory group loyalties. A major source of
conflict is misunderstanding and communication failure. By learning productive methods of
negotiation and conflict management, you can contribute a great deal to the groups,
organizations, and people with whom you work.
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Unit 12 Group Communication Strategie~
12.2 WHATISAGROUP?
The intemction that takes place between two individuals is different from that which takes
place among three or more people. As the size of the group increases, the interaction also
begins to take different fmms- the interaction becomes more formal, there is less chance
of each member to participate, topics beeome less intimate, and tasks take longer to
accomplish. Hence, the best way to define a group is to observe the behaviour of the
people within the group.
When a gTOup is functioning, you can observe several important behaviours:

l. The participants know each other by name or role.
Cnlike public speaking, where the speaker does not know the audience individually,
but as a whole. In a group situation, however, the members know each other by their
personal names, or by their roles- i.e. the boss, vice-president, discussion leader,
etc. In a group of friends everyone knows everyone by his/her name.
2. There is considerable amount of interaction among the participants.

ln a group situation, communication plays an important role. During group meetings,
some members request information, and others provide it; there arc agreements and
disagreements among the members; cmd members clatify their positions and statement~.
Communication does not occur in a uniform or consistent manner. Interaction within
a group can vary.
3. Each participant has some degree of influence on each of the other members.
When group members get together, each person influences and is influenced by the
others to some degree. Participants who express forceful arguments that are hacked
by powerful documentation may strongly influence others in the group. Influence may
be verbal a~ well as nonverbaL For instance, if there is member who scowls at another,
may influence the way that person reacts. speaks. or even votes.
4. Each participant defmes himself or herself a~ a member of the group and is also
defined by outsider as a member.
Over a period of time, as a group continues to meet and its members interact, the
participants bond together. In a work situation, the bonding is the task that each
member helps to perform. Belongingness to the group is something that each participant
is proud of and makes no secret of it. This feeling is something that the members
share with others who not the members of the group: and these outsiders identify
them as the members of the group. A sense of membership is a key characteristic of
an effective group.
261
5. The participants share some common goal, interest, or benefit by holding membership
in the group.
In ahnost all cases, common goals arc the binding factor that holds a group together.
They may be the rea<>on why a person chooses to be a part of a group. A person who
does not see that working with others is a means to achieve a common goal, advance
a common interest, or help facilitate a common benefit should withdraw and accomplish
the task on his own.
6. There is leadership.
Within every functioning group, leadership is evident In an informal group leadership
evolves. A leader can emerge from the interaction of the group members. In some
formal groups, a leader is designated. Sometimes group members formally vote and
select a person to lead. At other times, a person is simply looked up to by others as
the group leader, because of the quality of his or her contributions to the group. In
many groups, it is difficult to pinpoint any one person a.<; the group leader. Nevertheless,
leadership is certainly present as group members interact. In such cases, we say that
the group has 'shared leadership'- all of the functions ofleadership are present, but
they are provided by several members, not just one.
~Activity A::
Seek an occasion to be in a group and find out which of the above-mentioned characteristics
are present within the group:
a.
b.
c.
d.
12.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP COMMUNICATION
Group communications, because of the variety of people who participate, require special
effort Among the several factors that affect the quality and quantity of group communication
arc cohesiveness, norms, roles, conformity, group think, and conflict. Some of these have
positive eiiect on the group communication; others become barriers that have to be
overcome.
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Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
1. Cohesiveness :
The term 'group' implies that it has to remain intact, which is its primary goal, no matter
how difficult the situation or challenging the environment. Cohesiveness is the capacity and
degree to which the group remains together. There are two ways in which we can think of
cohesiveness:
a) A group is cohc.<;ive when its members retain their membership. The members desire
membership because of their affinity to other members of the group, perceived benefit<;
that the members can avail, and financial and social investments that cannot be
abandoned.
b) A group is also cohesive if members strongly identify with the group. The more the
participants identify with the purposes and goals of the group, tell outsiders about the
activities of the group, and take pride in their membership, the more cohesive the
t:,JToup remains.
Cohesive nature of a group enables the group as a whole to meet challenges and successfully
overcome obstacles. Maintaining cohesiveness in a group is a challenge, but strong and
effective communication can help.
Following arc the characteristics of cohesiveness of a group:

• The quality and quantity of communication in a high-cohesive group is more extensive
than in low-cohesive group.
• High-cohesive group exerts greater influence over its members that a low-cohesive
group.
• High-cohe..<>ivc group achieves il<; goals more effectively than low-cohe..<>ive group.
• Member satisfaction is greater in high-cohesive group than in a low-cohesive group.
2. Norms:
Group norms are standards or limits that defme appropriate behaviour of its members, as
well a<; that of the outsiders. Generally these norms arc not fonnally communicated to its
members. but arc learnt by the members through observations and experience. Here arc
some exmnples of norms:
a) Negative criticism of other members or another person is unacceptable.
b) Prior permission should be obtained from appropriate person/s before inviting a guest.
c) First name should not be used during meetings.
263
Such norms facilitate the functioning of the group. Any member who fails to follow group
norms may be isolated from other members, ignored, and. in some ca<>es, excluded from
group meetings. However, groups should monitor these nonns so that they do not become
cumbersome and adversely affect the functioning of the group.
3. Roles :
Every member of the group has a role. In many groups. members play several roles.
These roles could either be official or unofficial. For instance, facilitator is an official role
that demands the person to make sure that everyone gets to talk during a meeting. On the
other hand, there may be someone who is a dominator (who speaks too often and too
long during a meeting). which is an unofficial role.
Taking on a role leads others to have some expectations about your behaviour in the
group. For example, you have some expectations about your professor - i.e. prepare you
for the class, take attendance, facilitate discussion, prepare examination, etc.
People in a group emerge in certain roles because of the way they communicate with other
group members. Here are some roles often played by members:
a) Isolate: Sit<> and fails to participate.
b) Harmoniser: Keeps tension low.
c) Free rider: Does not do his/her share of work.
d) Detractor: Constantly criticizes and gripes.
e) Airhead: Is never prep<rred for group meetings.
t) Socializer: Is a member of the group only for social and personal reasons.
4. Conformity :
Confonnity is agreement with or correspondence to a set of ideas, rules, or principles. In
a group, the ideas are often the opinion of one or more dominant members. Participant<>
who value conformity either give in, compromise, or abandon their individual positions to
join others in the group.
One of the reasons for people submitting to conformity is that it is difficult to act with
complete independence of all the members of the group. If one docs tly to act independently
of the group members, then he/she would receive hostile or uncooperative treatment. I 'or
instance, if, during a meeting, an issue has been resolved, and someone attempts to bring
it up for discussion it would spark off another debate. To avoid the situation, highly directive
or authoritative leadership would suppress the individual and encourage conformity.
264
Conformity may be necessary for group effectiveness. Groups eventually must reach
decision, and conformity among group members provides a basis for consensus. Conformity
to vmious rules, to standards, and especially to group goals is necessary under all conditions
of group decision-making.
5. Groupthink:
Groupthink is the tendency of group members to seck agreement. This is conformity carried
to its extreme. In other words, conformity in its extreme form leads to groupthink. Dan
O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon, in their book Strategic
Communication, state that "group gripped by groupthink fails to explore alternative
solutions, problems, or concerns in an effort to present a united or cohesive front to
out()iders."
Four conditions that give rise to groupthink arc :

a) Being out oftouch: When a group meets for long periods of time from its regular
routines, members tend to forget the real world and do what is necessary for the
group to succeed, irrespective of how their decisions or actions may harm others.
b) Being out oforder: Informal and unstandardised decision-making procedures lead
the group into unproductive areas with no way to get back on tracks.ln other words,
failing to follow standard procedures in decision-making could lead astray the group
and thus make no headway.
c) Being overruled: When the group members feel that the leader thrusts decision-
making procedures upon them. they arc likely to follow without much advocacy or
dissention.
d) Being out ofresources: When faced with a critical situation, a short time to make
decision, and no reasonable alternative other than that which is proposed and favoured
by the leader, the group is forced to groupthink.
6. Conflict :
The te1m 'conflict' is greatly misunderstood facet of group communication. We tend to
think of conflict in its negative sense, but overlook the positive side of it. Many group
leaders avoid conflict because they think that a group experiencing conflict is not running
smoothly. Conflict does not mean that a meeting is disorderly, wild, or rude. It is a sign that
I
•
people are actively participating in a discussion. Dan O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and I
Lynda Dee Dixon believe that if a group docs not exhibit conflict by debating ideas or
questioning others, there is very little reason for it to exist. Conflict, then, is the very essence
265
of group interaction. Skilful leaders can use cont1ict ac; a means to determine what is and
what is not acceptable idea, solution, or problem. It should, however, be borne in mind
that conflict here refers to debate about issues and not personalities. A group will not be
productive if arguments are centred on the participants rather than on what the participants
are saying.
RS Activity B :
List down three norms that you can find in the following groups:
a) Officestaff:
b) Your friend circle :
12.4 GROUP PARTICIPATION & GROUP LEADERSHIP
Participation and leadership in groups are likely to be interrelated. The extent to which the
participants contribute to decision-making depends on the leadership style. A
communication-specific definition, as given by Dan O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and
Lynda Dee Dixon, is that "a leader is the member of a group who speaks the most to the
group as a whole. is spoken to the most, and directs the communication in the group to
productive levels."
In the work place, you may be assigned to formal task groups, or you may choose to
volunteer for special project groups. In any case, your level of participation affects the
group process and your attitude toward the group. An important factor influencing group
involvement is the style of participation. Authoritarian, laissez-faire, and participative styles
of decision-making allow varying degrees of participation by members with very different
results.
266
Many training and development programmes today attempt to teach the managers or
supervisors how to be leaders. The focus of these progrmnmes is on transforming managers
from people with titles into people who exhibit true influence, direction, and motivation. A
group cannot function effectively without a leader. Leadership style defines the
communication pattern of a group. In particular, participative decision-making in the
management world is greatly influenced by the leadership style.
Leaders in business organization and other professions can be viewed in four_ways:

• Traits
• Style
• Situationalleadership
• Functionalleadership
1. Styles of Group Participation for Decision-Making :
a) Authoritarian Decision Making

An authoritarian style of decision-making is one in which a leader hands down a
decision to the group. The particip:mts are not involved in the making of decision;
they simply do what the leader tells them to do. 1\vo situations call for authoritarian
decision-making:
z. Crisis: When a group faces crisis, decision has to be made swiftly, and
there is little time for discussion.
u. Lack ofbwwledge: When the members are asked to give their inputs on
a subject, of which they have no knowledge or information- valuable time
is lost. In such situations, authoritarian decision-making becomes necessary.
b) Laissez-Faire Decision-Making
Alai~.:;ez-faire style ofdecision-making is one in which there is minimal involvement
by the group leader. In this style, the members make decision without guidance
or direction from the leader. 'This style is difficult to manage because some people
may assume the role oflcaders without having the required skills. Laissez-faire
groups are likely to grope around for ways to identify problems or establish
decision criteria, in which time and resources are lost.
c) Participative Decision-Making
Dan O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon quote Gary Yuki,
according to whom participation "usually refers to a management style or type
267
of decision procedure through which subordinates are allowed to influence some

of the manager's decision." Participative decision-making enables the group
members to be more committed to the outcome, and yields an interesting and
satisfying experience for group members.
In this style of decision-making,

L leader must have sufficient authority to delegate and share decision-making
with the group,
n. members must be knowledgeable and willing to participate in discussion,
and
llL there must be enough time for the group to complete discussion and reach
a consensus.
Note:
• When decision-making is authoritarian, the leader makes the decision for
the group.
• When decision-making is laissez-faire. the leader turns decision over to the
group.
• When decision-making is participative, the leader makes decision with the
group
2. Types of Group Leadership:
a) Traits
The 'traits' approach is the oldest method by which people have attempted to
measure leadership. Generally. it is assumed that a leader is higher than non-
leaders in intelligence, scholarship, dependability, and responsibility. activity and
social participation, and socio-economic status. Leaders also outdo others in
presenting a compelling vi-;ion. exhibiting power, exemplifying organizational
values, and taking risks. Negative traits that prevent a person from assuming a
leadership role include uninformativeness, nonparticipation, extreme rigidity,
authoritarian behaviour, and offensive verbalization.
b) Style
Another way to conceptualise leadership is to notice the style of a person- the
behaviours that a person exhibits when interacting with group members. A
discussion on leadership style assumes that there is one style that works best for
268
most situations. In other words, you cannot have a combination of styles for one
situation.
Leadership styles follow the same classification outlined for decision-making:

authoritarian. laissez-faire, and Participative. These styles become obvious
depending on the actions of the leader.
c) Situational Leadership
A third view oflcadership suggests that there is no one best style, but rather that
the best style is one that suits the situation. There are two types of situational
leaderships:
• Leader adapts to the situation and maturity level (willingness and ability to
perform the task) of the group members.
• Leader is inflexible, in which the objective is to match the leader's ability

and style to the situation.
d) Ftmctional Leadership
Sometimes groups contain several members who can perform many duties and
responsibilities of a leader. When groups rise to an occac;ion and perform needed
leadership functions, the group is demonstrating functional leadership. Some
people may be very task oriented and push the group toward solving the problem.
These members supply the group with a task function. Other members may be
adept at maintaining harmony and social relations within the group.
RS Activity C :
ldentify the style of group participation for decision-making in the following:
a) Military Operations
b) 1<riends deciding to go on a picnic
c) Deciding the date for a class test.
d) Worker is severely hurt during operating a machine.
c) Deciding to change working conditions of a department.
269
12.5 GROUP COMMUNICATION PROCESS: PROBLEM SOLVING
Several types of meetings are common to most organizations. Planning meetings, staff
meetings, and annual meetings bring together groups of employees and stakeholders to
share information and update them on the direction the group and the organization is
taking. Typically, these meetings are scheduled regularly and have set agendas. However,
when problem-solving groups arc called, their basic function is to identify and resolve
specific problems.
Problem solving groups are also called as task force, troubleshooting teams, or strategic
communication committee. These groups arc called upon to usc their strong communication
skills and special problem-solving techniques. In the process of managing the problem-
solving group communication it is essential that you prepare the agenda, prepare for the
meeting, develop critical thinking, and prepare for managing anxiety.
Preparations :
a) The Agenda :
An agenda is like a road map that enables you to know how to reach you destination.
Before you begin your meeting it is necessary that you prepare your 'road map' to
achieve your goal. An agenda is a guide that specifics what is to he discussed, when,
in what order, and for how long.
The agenda serves as the framework, within which, the group leader organizes time
and topics. But leaders are not the only contributors to the direction of the group.
Effective group members must consider organizational, group, and individual goals.
This requires self-control and constant efforts to be mindful of the purpose of the
meeting.
i. Organizational Goals: These arc uppennost in the organization's hierarchy
and describe pathways to excellence. To work effectively, serve the purpose of
the organization, and avoid conflict<; between group agendas and organizational
goals. Groups are wise to keep in mind the ovcrarching goals of the organization.
270
ii. Group Goals: These serve the mission and purpose of the group itself. Often a
higher authority forms the group and gives it the charge to function, which serves
as the fundamental goal of the group. For instance, a chief executive may appoint
a group to recommend a change in the distribution system of the wholesale
products. The group's fundamental charge may be to develop a new and more
effective distribution system.
iii. Groups may also set to "process goals". Groups attempt to improve their
functioning by setting process goals. If, after a series of meetings, group members
feel they are not working together as well as they could, they may set goals to
improve their internal harmony, research skills, decision-making process, or ability
to deal with time pressure. Putting it differently, a group must constantly monitor
it-; goals to ensure that its actions are serving the best interests of both the group
and the organization.
iv. Individual Goals: These are goals that the group members have, in addition to
the group's goals. Some people join a group either to meet new people at work,
to satisfy their need for achievement, or to gain recognition, knowledge, power,
infonnation, or skill.
However, when you arc asked to be a patt of a group for some specific purpose,
then it would be wise to keep your individual goals in the background and serve
the purpose of the group for which it has been set up.
Groups function most effectively when members place each type of goals in
their appropriate order and have right perspective of each of them while engaging
in meetings.
h) Preparing for the Meeting :
Proper advance planning is important for the success of a meeting. Location,

participants. scheduling, and other environmental issues can affect the outcome of a
meeting.
z. Meeting Facilities : When deciding on the venue of the meeting the primary
concern is that the physical conditions of the place meet the needs of the people
planning to attend. See if the place can accommodate everyone in the group,
has proper natural lighting and ventilation, etc.lt is also important to arrange the
seating positions appropriate for the type of meeting. Decide whether you require
auditorium setup, or a classroom an·angement, or a conference arrd.llgement, or
U-shaped setup. Make sure that there are facilities for audiovisual requirements.
271
u. Setting Rules ofOrder: Meetings run more smoothly when conducted according
to an orderly procedure and established rules. Consult some best-known set of
rules, which give precise standards of parliamentary procedure to follow in
specific situations. One major advantage of using established rules of order is
that the group leader is less likely to be accused of personal bias in decision-
making. Using formal rules can be very effective for proceeding through the
agenda.
iii. Developing Critical Thinking Skills: Many skills arc necessary for effective
communication, participation, and problem solving in meetings. The foundation
of these skills is the ability to think critically about the subject or issue under
discussion. Doing so, allows group members to formulate and express ideas
that move the group toward achieving its goals.
Analysis is the process of tearing apart an issue and examining its components parts to sec
how they relate to the whole. This skill is particularly important when group members are
exploring the characteristics of a problem.
To develop analytical skills for use in a group meeting, participants must exhibit the following:
• Patience with alternative viewpoint<:: and methods.
• Ability to defme terms clearly and willingness to demand that other participants do
the same.
• A broad, open-minded approach to the problem.
• A search for commonalities and differences.
• A comparison and contrast of the problem under discussion with other problems that
have been previously discussed.
• A summary of what the group has discussed up to a certain point.
Group members must demonstrate wide range of competence for effective group
communication.
12.6 NATURE OF COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS IN ORGANIZATION
Group meetings are not always smooth and without problems. There are instances when
the meetings could develop situations where the need for strong communication skills and
problem-solving techniques become necessary. In groups you would encounter people
who are more aggressive than the others. It is likely that they would engage in argument.
272
What happens when people who arc arguing about issues refocus their attention on each
other?
An inclination to argue or a fondness for arguing is called "argumentativeness''.

"Argumentativeness include the ability to recognize controversial issues in communication
situations. to present and defend positions on the issues, and attack the positions which
other people take." Generally speaking, argumentativeness in the workplace is a positive
and constructive strategy. Arguing for causes, positions, and ideas within organizations is
often viewed favoumbly because people who arc effective arguers are likely to achieve
their goals.
On the other hand, tendency to attack other people instead of other points of view is
termed "verbal aggressiveness". It denotes attacking the self-concept of another person
instead of, or in addition to, the person's position on a topic of communication. The
difference between verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness is the focus of attack.
Argumentative people concentrate on positions, issues, reasoning, and evidence. Verbally
aggressive people attack others personality. The difference affects the group performance,
working relationships, and ability to achieve organization goals.
Determining Your Argumentativeness and Verbal Aggressiveness:
One way to find out is to score yourself on scales designed to measure argumentativeness
and verbal aggressiveness. The Strategic Skills Table 12.1 measures argumentativeness.
It measures your reaction to controversy. The Strategic Skills Table 12.2 measures verbal
aggressiveness. It reveals how you usually try to get people to comply with your wishes.
2S Activity D :
Respond to each of the statements in Table 12.1 as honestly as possible to assess your
communication skills in a group situation.
273
Table 12.1
. - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - -- ---------- -- ---,
STRATEGIC SKILLS
1 - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - -
Argumentativeness Scale
1. While in an argument, I wony that the person I am arguing with will form a negative
opinion of me.
2. Arguing over controversial issues improves my intelligence.
3. I enjoy avoiding argument'>.
4. I am energetic when I argue.
5. Once I finish an argument, I promise myself that I will not get into another.
6. Arguing with a person creates more problems than it solves.
7. I have a pleasant, good feeling when I win a point in an argument.
8. When I finish arguing with someone, I feel nervous and upset.
9. I enjoy a good argument over a controversial issue.
10. I get unpleasant feeling when I realise I am about to get into an argument.
11. I enjoy defending my point of view on an issue
12. I am happy when I keep an argument form happening.
13. I do not like to miss the opportunity to argue a controversial issue.
14. I prefer being with people who rarely disagree with me.
15. I consider an argument an exiting intellectual challenge.
16. I find myself unable to think of effective points during an argument.
17. I feel refreshed and satisfied after an argument on a controversial issue.
18. I have the ability to do well in an argument.
19. I try to avoid getting into argument.
20. I feel excitement when I expect that a conversation I am in is leading to an argument
Note A:
If the statement is:
• almost never true, place 1 in the blank space
• rarely true, place 2 in the blank space
• occasionally true, place 3 in the blank space
• often tme, place 4 in the blank space
• almost always true, place 5 in the blank space.
274
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategic:s
Note B:
• Tendency to approach argumentative situation: add scores on spaces 2, 4, 7, 9, 11,
13, 15, 17, 18,and20.
• Tendency to avoid argumentative situations: add scores on spaces 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10,
12, 14, 16, and 19.
• Argumentativeness trait subtract the total of the ten tendency-to-avoid items
from the total of the ten tendency-to-approach items.
• A higher positive score indicates high argumentativeness (score 20 to 40)- A
higher negative score reflects low argumentativeness.
~ ------------- -----~
Source: Adaptedfrom Dan 0 'Hail; Gustav W. Friedrich, and I~vnda Dee Dixon, 'Strategic Communication
in Business and the Professions', New York: Houghton Mifflin Companr 2002, pg. 338
Table 12.2
- - - -- -··-
STRATEGIC SKILLS
Verbal Aggressiveness Scale
-
1. I am extremely careful to avoid attacking person's intelligence when I attack her/
his ideas.
2. I use insult-; to "soften" stubborn people.
3. I try very hard to avoid influencing people by making them feel bad about themselves.
4. If someone refuses to do a task I know is important for a reason that does not
seem valid to me, I accuse him/her of being unreasonable.
5. When others do things I think are misguided, I try to be extremely gentle with
them.
6. If someone I am trying to influence really deserves it, I attack her or his character.
7. When people demonstrate poor taste, I insult them to shock them into proper
behaviour.
8. I try to make people feel good about themselves even when I think their ideas are
useless.
9. When people simply will not budge on a matter of great importance, I lose my
temper and make strong emotional outbursts.
10. When people criticize my shmtcomings, I take it in good humour and do not try to
get back at them.
11. When people insult me, I get a lot of pleasure out of overreacting.
~-------------------------------------------- ------------- - -
275
w
12. When I dislike someone strongly, I try not to show it in what I say or how I say it.
13. I like poking fun at people who do or say careless things to "wake them up".
14. When I attack a person's ideas, I try not to damage his/her self-concept.
15. When I try to influence people, I make an effort not to offend_ them.
16. IfI see someone act cruelly, I tell everyone else how terrible he/she is in hopes of
changing his/her behaviour.
17. I refuse to participate in arguments when they involve personal attacks.
18. When I am unable to influence others through conventional tactics, I resort to
yelling and screaming at them.
19. When I am not able to refute others' positions, I try to make them feel defensive to
weaken their positions.
20. When an argument shifts to personal attacks, I try very hard to change the subject.
Note A:
If the statement is:
• almost never true, place 1 in the blank space
• rarely true, place 2 in the blank space
• occasionally true, place 3 in the blank space
• often true, place 4 in the blank spaccal
• most always true, place 5 in the blank space.
Note B:
• Add your scores on numbers 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, and 20. Call this "Total
A".
• Add your scores on numbers 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 16, 18, and 19. Call this ''Total
B".
• Subtract Total B from Total A.
• If the result is between 20 and 40, you have a low tendency toward verbal
aggressiveness.
• If the result is between 0 and 19, you have a moderate tendency toward verbal
aggressiveness.
• If the result is negative number (below 0), you probably use verbal aggression
frequently.
Source: Adaptedftvm Dan 0 ·Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and I~vnda Dee Dixon, 'Strategic Communication
in Business and the Professions', New York: Houghton M(fJlin Compan): 2002, pg. 339
276
Uncontrolled verbal aggressiveness can lead to interpersonal difficulties. Attacking the

personalities or self-concepts of others demonstrate lack of sensitivity to feelings and hurts
those who arc the targets of this aggression.
Reducing verbal aggressiveness is to undcrst~d how and why it occurs. There are at least
four reasons for verbal aggression:
• Psychopathy: This refers to mental disorder that can stimulate attack on people
(clinical counselling is recommended).
• Dislike of others: This can cause verbal aggressiveness, especial!y if you are put off
by the appearance or personality of the person with whom you are communicating.
• Social learning: Observing and imitating parents, sihlings, peers, and significant others
who use verbal aggressiveness in your presence, can encourage you to verbal
aggressiveness.
• Desperation: This can lead to verbal aggressiveness in final effort to win an argument.
Desperation is a common rca~on for verhal aggressiveness, which is caused by deficient
critical thinking.
Understanding and being aware of these causes of verbal aggressiveness can help you to
control the urge to attack people personally. The best way to control verbal aggressiveness
is to become a better communicator.
Learn and practice the following skills on regular basis:

• Conduct a thorough analysis of the situation.
• Provide logical reasoning for your position.
• Develop a careful interpretation of the conflict issues, both your and others.
• Evaluate your position and that of your pattncr.
You will find that engaging in constmctive argumentation decreases the urge to attack
others personally.
12.7 1.\'EGOT.lAT.lON
Negotiation. or bargaining. frequently involves argumentation and verbal aggressiveness.
It generally occurs when communicators - for example, huyer and seller. union leaders
and company representatives, supervisor and workers- are not in agreement.
277
1. Goal Setting :
Negotiators are different from problem-solving groups because of the differences in affiliation,
the goals, the needs, and communication styles. Problem-solving groups work toward
one common goal; whereas, participant-; in a negotiation session ~!lay have a common
goal, but differ or disagree on the means and methods to achieve it.
Negotiation is usually a planned and structured process of communication. Although

arguments may arise spontaneously from something said in the course of discussion,
negotiators frequently plan tactics to be used and topics to be covered before an encounter.
In a negotiation session, two or more people with different goals exchange communication
to produce a mutually desirable outcome. The parties involved must recognize that they
are mutually dependent, because seldom can an acceptable outcome occur unless all the
parties to negotiation recognize this fact. Most bargaining situations require give-and-take
policy. Communicators must bargain forcefully and strategically, using effective
argumentation skills while at the same time remaining aware that some concessions must
be made so that all parties feel satisfied with the outcome.
2. Formal versus Informal Negotiation :
Negotiation or bargaining process can be observed in both formal and informal situations.
Formal bargaining situations develop when recurring issues require deliberation and
confrontation over time. In organizational setup, the most important formal bargaining is
labour-management negotiation. Other instance of formal bargaining is negotiation between
representatives of government and industry over the issue oflaw or policies; bargaining
with subcontractors or firms offering services, negotiation with suppliers over prices, etc.
Informal bargaining is also quite prevalent in the workplace, which involve situations
that are not often repeated. It may occur when two parties must depend on one another to
resolve divergent goals. For example, managers and employees often bargaining over job
descriptions, salary, and performance standard-;. Informal bargaining could also occur
with outside organizations- for instance, negotiating discounts from vendors, with hotels
about corporate discounts, etc.
Regardless of whether a situation is formal or infom1al, similar negotiation stTategies are

used.
278
3. Communication Competence :
The first step in negotiation is to make an offer within limits acceptable to the other bargaining
party. This would establish that the negotiator is bargaining in good faith. However, if the
offer is not acceptable or does not appear to by reasonable on the first hearing, may in fact
become persuasive as the negotiator takes it through the subsequent steps in the bargaining
process.
Regardless of the quality of your initial offer, you will usually need to persuade others that
your position is wmthy of consideration and their support. Use of strong evidence gives
credibility to your position more effectively than does any other tactics. Evidence usually
consists of some form of infonnation-published documents, statistics, expert opinion, or
testimony. Another persuasive clement in negotiation is summarizing-summarizing your
arguments may clear up confusion about the position you have taken and your reasons for
taking it
Finally, look at the position taken by the other side.
Negotiation is most effective when all concerned participants understand each other's
positions on the issue and when there is no inconsistency.
4. Dimensions of Negotiation :
According to experts, there are three dimensions of negotiation: information management,

concessions, and positioning. Each of them represents a category of strategies, tactics,
and behaviours that are used by negotiators to advance their goals.
• lnfonnation management· When engaging in bargaining with others, have at hand

as much research and information as possible, but manage the information effectively
- use it to promote your goals. Infonnation can be managed in a number of ways that
strengthen your bargaining position- such as seek explanation from your opponents
in an effort to clarify the issues; realign their position according to prevailing evidence;
or reduce ambiguity that can be used against you.
• Concessions: Negotiators come to the bargaining table expecting to give up, or

concede, some of their goals to obtain something in return. Making concessions
demonstrates cooperativeness, which usually makes a positive impression on others
and may encourage them to reciprocate.
279
-
Making concessions is also a good way to maintain interest in the negotiation. Providing
a minor concession from time to time can open new venues of opporttmities. stimulate
fresh approaches to negotiation, and revitalize communication among the bargaining
parties. These concessions, however, should be judiciously administered. Concessions
can take the form of time, money, resources, responsibilities, autonomy, and even
change in job descriptions.
• Positioning: This tenn refers to moving the focus of the negotiation to issues that are
important to you. You must use this technique carefully - i.e. if the issues that interest
you are not central to the discussion, then refrain from emphasising them. Many
negotiators use positioning to show their side in its most favountble light In emphasising
your issues you should not lose sight of your position, or distort or misrepresent it.
Positioning, more than technique, is a result of pre-established rules and procedures. Many
formal bargaining situations prescribe certain methods of discussion. procedures for
decision-making, or an agenda of topics to be discussed.
S. Anxiety Management :
Negotiations can often produce anxiety, but there are some strategies to reduce the
nervousness.
First, remember that bargaining is a normal, accepted business practice. You are not a
troublemaker for entering into a bargaining situation.
Second, set a specific date and time for the bargaining session. This will give you time to
gather enough evidence and data needed to support your position. This will build your
confidence and reduce your anxiety.
Third, keep in mind that bargaining is not a do-or-die situation. Be open and flexible
during negotiations. Create a non-hostile environment by making the first concession.
Negotiation is a common communication strategy in business and professional settings.

The more effectively you can bargain, the more likely you are to attain positions of enhanced
responsibility and authority because you can be trusted to get the best deal for your
organization.
280
f6 Activity E :
a) Remember any negotiation you have had recently, and state if it wao;; formal or informal.
b) Also mention if there was any nervousness on your part and the strategy that you
used.
- - - ·-- - - - - -
12.8 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
When bargainers come to the table with serious purposes, strong negotiation skills, and
mutual dependency, they can attain productive outcomes. But there are many instances
when the bargaining sessions end up in serious conflict situations. When bargaining session
breakdowns into conflict situation then the outcome is unproductive.
What is Conflict?
Conflict can take many shapes in the workplace. It can occur between people representing
different organizational unit.;;, it can occur between organi7.ationallevels such as labour and
management, and it can occur between people who work together. Conflict is a dynamic
process that is precipitated, developed, and governed by the joint communication strategies
of the parties involved.
One expert defines conflict as "an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent
parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other
party in achieving their goals." The parties must be interdependent. Conflict results when
people view other people (people on whom they depend) as the reason they cannot attain
their goaL<;. Interdependency forces the conflict: if a party could attain its goals without
interaction with the other party, conflict would not arise. The same dynamic properties that
make group and organizational communication valuable are the reasons for potential conflict
281
1. Causes of Conflict :
The primary cause of conflict is competing goals. Even though people usually enter into
conflict situation with established goals, the goals may change as the situation develops
and understanding of the opponents increases. As goals change, so dcx:s the communication
of the conflict.
Essentially there arc two types of goals in most conflict situations: content and relational.
a) Content Goals: In this conflict situation, the conflicting parties believe they understand
the real content of the goals in the situation, yet each has a perspective that is different
and unknown to the other party. Thus, content goals involve the obvious reasons for
a dispute, but differing perspectives unknown to the other party. They are issues
characterized by such as decision-making (participation in decision-making process),
and rights (maintaining fairness). Each party understands its goals but has few ideas
about the goals of its conflicting partner. Failure to communicate differing goals usually
leads to conflict.
b) Relational Goals: If in the content goals the .involved parties are unaware of each
other's goals; in relational goals there is an attempt by the conflicting parties to make
their goals less obvious. Relational goals "define each party's importance to the other,
the emotional distance they wish to maintain, the influence each is willing to grant the
other, the degree to which the parties are seen as a unit, or the rights each party is
willing to grant to the other".
2. Managing Conflicting Goals :

Both content and relational goals must be brought out into the open and honestly discussed
to prevent confusion and misunderstandings. The only way that people in a conflict can
share the perspective of their opponents is by understanding their goals.
The following steps can help you to clarify goals:

a) State your goals in clear, unambiguous language (usc language that the other party
can understand).
b) Draw out clearly stated goals from the other party.
c) Openly discuss the difference between your content and relational goals.
d) Make sure that you and your opponent have a shared understanding of each other's
goals.
e) Show that upholding your goals will not prevent managing the conflict productively.
282
lJnit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Having clarified the goals of both the opposing patties, now there should be an attempt to
collaborate the goals -i.e. interdependent solution. The key to managing any conflict is
working toward an interdependent solution. If any party considers only it<> goals and fails
to acknowledge the other party's goals, it will only delay the productive resolution of
differences.
Here are some ways to encourage goal collaboration:

a) Search for commonalities among the competing goals.
b) Recognize that some of your opponent's goals may not have long-term implications
and you may be able to live with them.
c) Remember the adage: ''Every defeat is a victory and every victory is a defeat". People
who always get their way may be disliked for their success.
d) Give some concessions while asking for some.
c) Develop new goals that incorporate and complement the competing goals of all parties.
3. A Strategic Approach to Conflict :

When approaching conflict situations, communicators must remain flexible so that the
strategy they select is suitable for the people concerned, the goals to be achieved, and the
situational constraints involved. Communicators must be able to respond to the changing
conditions of a conflict situation. A number of factors can influence the selection of a
conflict strategy. The various strategies or styles arc competing, accommodating,
compromising, avoiding, and collaborating.
For productive conflict management, you should consider the following factors: goal setting,
situational knowledge, communication competence, and anxiety management.
a) Goal Setting:
An important consideration in any conflict management is that the goals of
communicators can change during the course of a conflict. If the goals of the conflict
appear to be changing, you should be prepared to respond with an alternative conflict
style.
Second consideration for selecting a conflict stylc is the likelihood of multiple goals.
You may choose a particular style because of your opponent's primary goals, but be
flexible enough to shift to a more compromising position if it is productive in bringing
about a resolution.
283
Relational goals also influence the choice of a conflict style-i.e. if you feel connected
to your opponent in some personal way, you are less likely to use competing or
avoiding strategies and use more positive strategies. Also consider professional
relationship you have with your conflict partner. His/her position in the organization
may influence your choice of style.
When you decide on a conflict style, consider the long-term relational consequences
of your action. If you hope to carry on a long-term relationship with your opponent,
employing competing or avoiding tactics may destroy your relationship. 1be destruction
oflong-tem1 relationship may not be worth the short-term gains you may make by
using such tactics. Therefore, it is very important to consider all possible aspects of
conflict in the process of goal setting.
b) Situational Knowledge:
Situational factors are elements in a conflict that affect the nature of conflict and the
styles you select to deal with them. For example, the physical environment (where
the conflict takes place, such as private office, in the cafeteria, or in a meeting) will
affect how you communicate during a conflict. Aggressive tactics are particularly
risky when the conflict occurs in public view.
Time is another factor that influences your choice of style of conflict management.
For example, if you are expected to settle your differences with someone in a limited
time period, you may feel unable to develop a successful, positive style and may
resort to tactics such as competing or avoiding. If you have more time to settle your
differences, you may be able to work out more elaborate styles such as collaborating
and compromising.
c) Communication Competence:
In conflict situation be aware of your strengths and weaknesses - i.e. your
communication competence. Competencies include argumentation skills, control of
verbal aggressiveness, listening skills, and verbal and nonverbal skills.
Controlling verbal aggressiveness is important in conflict situation. Allowing the
discussion to drop to the level of personality attacks accomplishes nothing in the way
of conflict management. It only escalates the conflict.
Listening skills are essential to the choice of conflict style. Knowing what your
opponents are saying and why they arc saying it can tell you a lot about what style will
work best in resolving conflict with them.
Sincere effort to remain flexible also aids in resolving disputes. Aexibility allows you
to adapt to the changing dynamics of a conflict. For example, you may decide to
284
adopt an accommodating style in the initial stages of the conflict, but as the conflict
progresses, the opponent stubbornness or hostility may make competitive tactics
more useful. By remaining flexible, you will he able to make a change in your conflict
style to counter the shift. In general, successful conflict managers are highly sensitive
to shifts in conflict strategies by their opponents.
d) Anxiety Management:
Conflict can be a major cause of anxiety in the workplace. You may dread or avoid
particular situations, such as an argument with a superior, hostility in a group meeting,
or even a sensitive bargaining session, if the possibility of conflict makes you uneasy.
Conflict however, can have productive outcomes, and on some occasions it is better
to engage in conflict than to avoid it.
To lessen your anxiety in a conflict:

• focus on goals and outcomes
• view your conflict partner positively
• seek support of others who share your goals and position
• take a break to collect your thoughts
• call for a time out to relax.
2S Activity F :
a) List some conflict situations that are likely to arise. (two at your workplace and two
in your home environment).
b) Can you recollect a recent situation where you had to face conflicting goals? List the
steps that you took to help you clarify goals.
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12.9 SUMMARY
Group communication is inevitable in any business organization and professional settings.

They are necessary because decisions are reached by groups are superior to decisions
reached by individuals. The nature of group communication grows ou~ of what groups do,
what purposes they serve, and what constitutes a group. A number of factors influence
group communication: cohesiveness, norms, roles, conformity, and groupthink. Groupthink
can lead to poor decision-making.
Another important dimension of group communication is leadership. Leaders can be

classified according to the traits they exhibit, their behavioural styles, their adaptability to
the situation at hand, or their ability to perform the duties and responsibilities of a leader.
Most competitive communication situation can be addressed through negotiation, which

can be formal or informal. The three dimensions of negotiation are information management,
concessions, and positioning. The selection of most appropriate negotiation strategy depends
on the situation, although gencntl guidelines can be applied. When bargaining breaks down
it develops into a conflict. Conflict, the struggle between interdependent parties who perceive
incompatible goals, may exist in all levels, situations, and relationships in an organization.
Successfully resolving conflict requires strategic communication- goal setting, situational
knowledge, communication competence, and anxiety management.

-----------------------------
Q1. Describe what constitutes a group and what are the factors that influence group
communication.
Q2. Discuss the different types of group participations and group leaderships.
Q3. Explain the strategic communication for negotiation.
Q4. Explain the strategic management of conflict in an organization.
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13.1 INTROnUCTION
In the previous units, we focused on the importance of communication skills as both a

speaker and writer. The attempt was to understand the survival techniques, with regard to
communication, in the work place. However, as a graduate from a college or a university,
the first important business letter you would have to write would be im application for a
job.
As an advanced business student, you will share many common qualities with your peers
-at school or at work. If you are not presently employed in a career-path job you probably
also share a desire to find that special job where you will be rewarded with good pay and
praise for your contribution to the team.
But remember that such a job does not come easily. For majority of the students, obtaining
the first major job takes a lot of hard work.
Likewise, for those who are currently employed and working on a graduate degree, a new
job, one that will allow you to use your newly acquired skills, is sometimes difficult to
acquire.
Traditionally, the job search process requires conducting a personal assessment. researching
an organization, preparing a personal resume, writing letters of application, interviewing
with several prospective employers both on campus and off campus, and sometimes
applying for jobs through employment agencies.
Today, the process has been enhanced enormously by taking your job search on-line.
Electronic job searching and on-line career discussion groups that were once used by only
a few arc now considered important job-fmding altematives. In fact, employers are more
frequently bypassing the campus recruiting process and are going straight to potential
employees through on-line job advertising.
You should be prepared for whatever job fmding process you choose. You should be well
equipped to join the working world. In this unit you will learn who you are and what you
want to do, deciding how to market yourself through the preparation of a resume and
different types of employment letters, and selling yourself in the job interview.
13.2 PLANNING YOUR CAREER PATH
Anyone can find a job; finding the right job is more difficult. As an advanced business
candidate, you are faced with tremendous pressure from the school administrators and
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Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
placement centre personnel to complete your resume and make a decision on your major
area of emphasis, and start the interview process.
All too often, candidates do not consider what they want out of the job until, with resumes
completed; they find themselves in the middle of the interviewing process. Presumably,
you will have made your decision about youi career before completing your resume; but if
you have not, then realise that you are competing with the ones who have already made
their decisions. Be as it may, it is essential that you take some time and assess who you are
and what you want to do.
1. Consider Your Skills
Begin with assessing your skills and interest-; and clarifying what is most impmtant to you
in your career. One way of making such assessment is to go back over your life and
identify several successful accomplishmenK Describe each of these accomplishments in
detail and list specific skills that you utilized in the different successes. Ths method, however,
is too descriptive and potential employers would not be interested in going through the
details. Moreover, you may not be able to list more that three or four success stories.
Another way is to compile an inventory of all the major activities that you have been
involved in during your life.
Use the following list as a starting point :

• EducationaWocati01wl programmes that you enrolled in and completed, and which
contributed significantly to your overall education.
• Course work accomplishments those were challenging and beneficial.
• Volunteer, community, and extracurricular activities, which added to your skills,

knowledge, and leadership abilities.
• Personal hobbies those you have enjoyed.
• Military experiences and jobs to which you were assigned.
• Recreational activities that you found enjoyable.
• Travel experiences to different countries and the learning you acquired.
Go back over the inventory and identify specific skills that you have learned and enjoyed
using in different activities and experiences.
291
Review the skills that you have identified and circle the functional skills found in
Table 13.1.
2. Consider Your Interest~ and Values
Richard Bolles, in his best-seller, What Colour Is Your Parachute? stresses three questions
that one must ask in job finding process:
Where do you want to live?

What do you want to do in life?
Who do you want to work for?
First question deals with the location where you would like to spend your remaining time
after work. This should include the kind of people and surroundings you enjoy.
Second question is concerning your personal and professional goals.

You not only want to work, but also grow in your profession.
Review the Table 13.2 and consider work values that affect your career, and write a brief
description of your personal wants, dreams, career interests, and job values.
The third question helps you to summarise and evaluate the types ofjobs that can help you
more fully develop your total personality, potential, and lifestyle.
Table 13.1 : Functional Skills Needed for Professional Employment
Communication & Persuasion Research & Investigation

Writing Listening Analysing
Training Researching
Selling ability Reading
Interviewing ability Data gathering
Making presentation Critical thinking
Negotiation Data analysis
Thinking on one's feet Observing
Conversational ability Outlining
Public speaking
Human Service
Teaching
Interpersonal skills
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I
Organization Management Group process skills

Problem solving Sensitivity to needs
1Lunemanagement Empathizing ability
Decision making Co.unselling skills
Leadership Wormation Management
Meeting deadlines Math skills
Supervision Ability to recognize information
Motivation ability Information management
I
I
Organization Record keeping
Coordinating Attention to details
Administration Logical ability
Ability to put theory into practice
Design & Planning
Ability to delegate
Anticipating problems
Applying policies
Planning
Giving directions
Conceptualising
Assuming responsibilities
Designing programmes
Discriminating tasks
Anticipating consequences of action
Interpreting policies
Seeking new ideas
Setting priorities
Visual thinking
Source : J.M. Penrose. R. W Rasberry, and R.J. Myers, Advanced Business Communication,
Singapore: Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd. 2002, pg., 372. Adaptedfrom Stanford University Career Planning
Guide, 1995-96.
Table 13.2 : Values that affect Career Choice
Some wise person said: ''Work without value is just mere labour." Work values are the
aspects of our work that we regard as important sources of satisfaction. Values can be
generally categorised as those that affect:
• Work enjoyment
• Work condition
• Work of importance to others.
293
L ..-
IWork Enjoyment values might include :

• Excitement, Change, Variety- experiencing a high degree of any of these in the
course of one's work.
• Creativity - creating new ideas, programs, organizational structures, etc., or not
following a format previously developed hy others.
• Knowledge- engaging oneself in the pursuit ofknowledge, truth, and understanding.
• Profit, Gain- having a strong likelihood of accumulating large amounts of money
or other material gain.
• Recognition - being recognized for the quality of one's work in some visible or
public way.
Work Condition values might include :
• Work Alone/Work with Others - doing work, which emphasizes either of these
conditions.
• Independence- being able to detennine the nature of one's work without significant
direction from others.
• Time Freedom - having workre'iponsibilities, which allow for flexible time schedules
or working on one's own time schedule.
• Stability- having a work routine that is largely predictable and not likely to change
over a given period of time.
• Adventure- having work duties, which involve frequent risk taking.
---
Work of Importance to Others might include :
• Moml fulfilment
• Helping society and contributing to the bettennent of the world.
• Helping others, usually in a direct way, individually or in small groups.
• Friendship and community
Source : J.M. Penrose. R. W. Rasberry, and R.i. Myers, Advanced Business Communication,
Singapore : Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd. 2002, Adapted fivm Howard Figle1; The Complete Job Search
Handbook, 1979, and Stanford University Career Planning Guide, 1995-96
294
3. Consider the Kind of Work You Want to Do and With Whom You Want to Do It
In order to consider this part of the process of job searching you have to do intensive
research of the organization that interests you. If you do your research long before you
write your resume and try to establish interview dates, you will come closer to knowing
precisely which companies you do and do not want to work for. You will prepare a better
resume and will be able to ask and answer questions during your interview.
As you proceed in your research, the kind of work you want to do and the company you
want to work for will emerge.
A study conducted showed the characteristics that the employees most want from their
jobs.
The list is ranked in order ofimportance:

a) Health
b) Interesting work
c) Job security
d) Opportunity to learn new skills
e) Vacation time
t) Working independently
g) Recognition from team members
h) Regular hours
i) A job in which I can help others
j) Little job stress
k) High income
1) Working close to home
m) Work important to the society
n) Chances for promotion
o) Contact with people
Find out what are your motivators for the job you are looking for. Make your own list
and ask if the company that you are considering will allow you to meet your objectives.
295
Besides these motivators there are some pertinent questions posed by career specialist,
Edgar H. Schein:
• Will the company give me the opportunity to stretch and really discover what I am
capable of doing?
• Will I really matter inside the organization? Will they see me as a person of worth?
Will they give me real responsibility and a chance to show what I can really do?
• Will I be able to maint.:tin my integrity? Will this company help me achieve a balance
my life, to have a family, and to pursue my individual interests?
• Will this job give me a real chance to grow? Will I be able to learn new things and
develop new talents?
• Will this company meet the ideals of the sound and ethical businesses that I have
studied about? Will working for this organization enhance my self-image?
Source: J.M. Penrose, R. W Rasberry, and R.J. Myers, Advanced Business Communication, Singapore:
Tlwmson Asia Pvt. Ltd. 2002.
~Activity A :
Identify the following:
a) Yourskills
b) Your work condition values
c) Your motivators for job search
296
13.3 PREPARING YOUR RESUME
Is the resume important?
Yes! It is the vital first step for marketing yourself.
As an applicant, you may have excellent qualification, but if you cannot communicate your
qualification clearly in a resume, you may never reach the interview stage. A good resume
is a marketing tool. It should portray you in the most favourable manner possible.
1. Fallacy & J.i'acts about Resumes
Table 13.3 : Fallacy and Fact about Resumes
FAI.•LAL"'IFS :
1. The purpose of yow- resume is list all your skills and abilities.
2. A good resume will get you the job you want.
3. Yom resume will be read carefully and thoroughly by an interested employer.
4. The more good infonnation you present about yow-self. the better.
5. If you want a really good resume, have it prepared by a resume service.
FACTS:
[1. The purpose of your resume is to kindle employer interest and generate an interview.
2. Several good resumes cross employer's desks every working day.
3. Your resume probably has less than ten seconds to make an impression.
4. By including too much infonuation, a resume may actually kill the reader's appetite
to know more.
5. Many resume services use undistinguished standard formats, so you should prepare
your own- unless the position you are after is very high level and you choose the
service very carefully. I
Source: J. V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Inc. 1991.
'Resume' is a French word meaning to summarize; a resume is a summary of pertinent

facts about the candidate. The typical resume consists of one to three pages about the
candidate and includes job objectives, past employment, education, and personal data.
297
Business Commurucation
Developing a strategic plan that focuses on what you want to do now and several years
from now will help you to write a good resume.
2. What should be in your Resume?
As a marketing tool, the purpose of the resume is to 'sell' you. Your resume should include
the most important information about you, your education and your work experience.
From this your prospective employer will make a preliminary determination about whether
you qualify for the job.
Resumes contain many other types of information such as:

a) Personal data - name, address, telephone, fax number, and e-mail address.
b) Career/job objective
c) Educational background
d) Work experience (both full and part-time)
e) Military experience
f) Special qualification, awards, honours, and publications
g) Community activities
h) Personal interests, special skills, and hobbies
i) Statement about references.
The Harvard University Graduate School of Business Student Handbook on Resume

Writing makes the following statement:
''Don't write an autobiography or an obituary; the resume is not an all-inclusive life history!
In it you work mostly with the "plus factors" that will help you sell yourself, so emphasize
your most important assets. Above all, it must be factual. Each statement needs to be
accurate and not blown up beyond its value; on the other hand. it need not be underplayed.
Executives are seeking capabilities, so write up your achievements with the employer's
needs in mind."
[Student Handbook On Resume Writing, Harvard Graduate School of Business and

Administration, Boston, Massachusetts, p. 2 Quoted by J.M. Penrose, R.W. Rasberry,
and R.J. Myers, Advanced Business Communication, Singapore: Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd.
2002]
298
Your resume should be able to balance the employer's needs and what you can offer.
Employer's Needs Your Resume Description

Who are you? Identification section
What do you want to do? Job objective section
What do you have to offer? Education and work history
What can you do? Personal skills
3. Types of Standard Resumes
There arc three kinds of standard resumes :

a) Traditional Resume
b) Functional Resume
c) Skills Emphao;is Resume
a) Traditional Resume
A traditional resume lists your educational background and your work experience in
reverse chronological order. It highlight'> job titles, company and school names, dates
of emolment and employment, and other pertinent information needed by the employer.
A traditional resume is best if you have steady career growth, if you intend to remain
with your current employer, or if you intended profession calls for it. Certain
professions, such as education, law, and accounting, require a traditional resume.
If your response to the following questions arc positive then you should construct a
traditional resume:
i) Can you show continuity in your work history?
ii) Are you looking for a job related to your past experience?
iii) Arc you unconcerned about employers seeing gaps in your past?
iv) Do you want to emphasize non-professional jobs that you have held?
There are, however, some drawbacks with type of resumes. The gaps and
discontinuities in your jobs profile becomes very evident and can cause you difficulty
in getting a job.
299
This is especially true for those who are seeking to re-enter the job market, or for
fresh candidates from colleges whose work experience may be a part-time or summer
jobs. Traditional resumes place little value on non-paid jobs such as community
programmes, campus activities, and volunteer work. Table 13.4 gives an idea of
traditional resume.
b) :Functional Resume
This type of resume is preferable to traditional resume when there arc gaps that you
do not want to highlight.
The functional resume lists your education and job experiences, but in a more
organized manner - allows your experiences to be described by function instead of
by employment history, job titles, company names and dates of employment.
You can, in the functional resume, describe what functions you have most satisfying,
what research you have done, and how you have handled problems or managed
people.
In thi<> type of resume you can describe your other activities and experiences, such as
travel, community activities, and sports achievements.
Functional resume is appropriate if you are:

i) Changing careers.
ii) Entering the job market with no work history, but have other relevant experiences
to offer.
iii) Retuming to the job market after an absence.
iv) Seeking a position unrelated to your previous employment.
v) Moving from one professional rcahn into another (for example, office assistant
to manager).
Table 13.5 is a sample of functional resume.
c) Skills Emphasis Resume
A skills emphasis resume resembles a functional resume in format. It begins with the
identification section, followed by an objective or desired position.
300
f
The objective should indicate and highlight some of the skills that the applicant mentions in
the resume.
For instance,
"Desired: A Sales Position leading to a career in marketing and management staff that calls
for skills in leadership, communication, financial analysis, and creativity."
Following this include short background information, and a description, which would explain
how this background has helped you in developing skills such as leadership, comrmmication
analysis, and creativity. Table 13.6 shows the skills emphasis resume.
Table 13.4 : Traditional Resume

Kyle Woo
123Baseline
Boulder, CO 23920
(310) 555·7321
kwoo@mail.coc.edl,l
Career •·oeus: International Business

Education
l:niver>ity of C'.olorodo
B.S~ BllSinhs Admi..istratlon (200 I)

Empluuis: lntemotk>J>ol Busintss
R~presentative Coursework
lntroductitln to fmemauooat Business International FillJIOO:
Mana.~:ement of Multinational Enterprises Jntemational Malt<till&
Won.J Cotnn~ette and Dcvel<>pment International Management
Related E.q>eriences
- Pacific Rim Trip: Vi,;ted Hong KOO).c. Bangkok, Seoul, ~ Sinppon: in COM<Ctioo with CU ~
Opportunity gave exposure ro conducting busines.• in the l'lcift<: Rim.
- lntcnutlQSUtl IJusloess lntemslllp: Under direction of CU Sm~ll Business Center. wOOtecJ with tnttepre·
neurs fmm ireland in researclling, i<k:ntlfyin&. ond conractin& componi<!s offering p<llt!Kial for import/export
bu~incss:
- I111pon E>:puien= Presently employed with Far East Trade Compony which specia6zes in importina fine
P"lry from Hong Kl>og. MalaysiA, illld lodia; m:ommeod product purdwe, mainlllin inventory. and orga-
ni"b< &bows for sales in f""' western stOICS.
Computer Usage
l!:<ten.,iV< computer COUtllCwOO< (60+ houn) with knowledge of various desklop lwllware and soflw..., applicnlioos.
indllding lotus 1·2·3, M.icroooft Offoce. and liBaselli+ and IV. E.'ltensive application ol Wutd W"Jde Web.
Emplo~t Summary
Penonally fi~ 100'*- of education through the followins employment
lmp<l111Sale<: Far East Trade Compony 199')..Presenr

A>sistant Manager/Driver: Boulder Cab 1998-1999
Convca~ion Coordinator Bmker Hotel 1997- 1998
Waiter. Bouldrado Hotel 1996-1997
AffiJjations
lrMcrmtional Busin~ A\SQCiation
Pocifac Rim Tro<k: AS50Ciation
Toosr.masters Jnternariunal
Desire lo Rt>loc:lte-References Upon Request
301
!J...
2S Activity B :
a) Construct a Functional Resume presenting your qualifications.
b) Construct a Traditional Resume presenting your qualifications.
13.4 APPLICATION LEITERS
A letter of application is written to sell one's services. It should, therefore have all the
qualities that arc required in the sales of any tangible product. When you write an application
letter you must keep the requirement of the employer's point of view in mind. Having these
requirements in mind, you must analyse to see if you have the required qualities.
Putting it differently, before applying for any job, you should be able to a<>sess the requirement
and your own personal qualities and achievement<>.
The job analysis will help you to understand the kind of person the company is looking for
and self-appraisal will enable you to prepare an inventory of your personal details and
achievements.
There are two kinds of application letters :
1. One-part letter in which all the information- your qualification, experience, and
personal details- is written in just one letter, and
2. 1\vo-part letter in which there are two parts. The first part is short and serves as a
covering letter, containing reference to the infom1ation about the vacancy -such as
advertisement- to which you are responding; the second pru.t consists of your resume.
304
The second type of application is more common and effective. In this type of application
the applicant has more scope of revealing his personal qualities and experiences. It enables
the prospective employer to examine your resume more effectively.
Letters of application and their accompanying resumes can be solicited or unsolicited.

• A solicited letter responds to a specific announced job opening in a newspaper.
• An unsolicited letter explores the possibilities of employment based either on the
infonnation received or past experience of the company.
Whether solicited or unsolicited, the letter of application consists of the following

components:
• Opening : name the job position and the context
• Body: develop m<Uor selling points and create a match between writer's qualification
and prospective employer's needs
• Penultimate (second-to-last) paragraph of the body (if necessary): refer to
desirable personal qualities
• Close : request an interview and facilitate contact
1. Drafting the Application
The letter of application is a special letter and functions as a sales letter. It prepares and
invites the reader to have a closer look at the product that is being offered - i.e. lhe
resume.
It prepares the reader- here the prospective employer- by indicating the need advertised
by the employer, and invites the employer to examine the resume and thereby know the
"product" (i.e. the applicant) the employer wishes to acquire.
As any other letter the application also has three parts- introduction. body. and conclusion.
a) The introduction should attract the attention of the employer besides saying whether
you are applying in response to an advertisement, or at someone's suggestion, or on
your own initiative. Some common ways of starting such an introduction arc:
• I wish to apply for the post of Manager HR, as advertised by your company in
Times of India of 6 November, 2006.
305
• Please refer to your advertisement on page 12 of Times ofIndia of 6 November,

2006 for the post of Manager HR. I wish to be considered for this post.
• I should be grateful if you would consider me for the post of Manager HR
advertised by your company in Times ofIndia, dated 6 November, 2006.
You could use a more dynamic approach by writing something like this:
• My qualification and experience as an Assistant HR. Manager for five years in

TELCO, Pune makes me confident that I cm1 do the job of Manager HR.
advertised by your company in Times ofIndia of 6 November, 2006.
b) The body of the application letter should contain information that would help develop
the interest of the prospective employer. Make an attempt to show, with evidence,
how you arc the person the company is looking for.
You could do this by indicating that you possess the qualities and experience, which
the post requires.lf you have made any contribution that is worth mentioning, do it.
Encourage the reader to go through your resume. Ifthere is any indication of mentioning
expected salary then mention your present salary and further give a range within
which you would be willing to except the job.
Do not specify the salary that you want; it is better to discuss the details of salary at
the time of interview.
The question about the salary is a sensitive issue, though all of us work for that.
Therefore do not take the initiative to start the discussion on salary but allow the
interviewer to start it.
c) The conclusion should be such that it would motivate the employer to respond to
your application. The purpose and goal of your application letter should be to secure
an interview. If your application letter gets you an interview you have achieved your
purpose.
Some ways of concluding your application letter are as follows:

• I look forward to hearing from you.
• I hope that my qualifications will merit your consideration.
• I trust you will favour me with an interview.
306
• I would very much appreciate if an opportunity is given to me for providing

further details.
• 1would appreciate an opportunity of attending an interview.
Source: R.C. Sharma, Business Correspondence and Report Writing, pp. 284- 285
2. Portfolios
One of your options in applying for a job is to submit a portfolio along with your resume
and letter of application. Portfolios are display of assets. Portfolios concerned with your
communication assets would be indicative of your oral as well as your written skills such
as:
a) Topics you can handle

b) Audience for which you have written
c) Designs you have created
d) Visuals and graphics you have designed and used
e) Organizational and development strategies that you have used in various projects
f) Presentational strategies, including multimedia
g) Genres or types of writing you arc skilful and comfortable with.
Source: H.R. Ewald and R.E. Bumett, Business Communication
The content of the portfolio would depend on the nature of job you are applying for and
the skills you wish to highlight. The purpose of portfolio is sales: you are marketing yourself.
Since your task is to display your communication skills you would have to include everything
that will enable you to demonstrate them.
The design of portfolio should help the reader to get in it and out of it without much
difficulty or loss of time.
At the same time the reader must learn something useful about your abilities. Your resume
should provide the reader with an overview of your credentials and the context for your
portfolio.
307
Busine~s Communication
2S Activity C :
Prepare the following application letters for a position of Management Trainee:
a) Solicited
b) Unsolicited
13.5 OTHER TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT MESSAGES
In search of a job, you may have to prepare other types of messages, as the case may be
-such as job-inquiry letter, application form, and application follow-up letters.
1. WritingaJob-InquiryLetter
Some companies will require of you to fill out and submit an application form for a job.
The purpose of a job-inquiry letter is to get you an application form. You should include
enough information about yourself indicating that you have sufficient qualification for the
position that you are seeking for. This would increa-;e your chances of getting the necessary
application form.
Another approach would be to go to the company in person to obtain the application

form, which you may be able to get at the reception counter or the personnel department.
This would give you an opportunity to get a first hand impression about the company. It
would also indicate your initiative.
2. Filling out Application Fonns
Some organizations require an application form instead of a resume, and many require
both and application form as well as a resume for all positions.
308
An application form is a standardized data sheet that simplifies comparison of applicants'

qualifications. Moreover, it provides a convenient one-page source for the information,
which is essential for the employer to make decision.
The most important thing about filling the application form is to be accurate and thorough.
Use your resume as a reference for such details as dates of employment, educational
qualifications, etc. When not sure of date for which you have no reference then give an
approximate date.
Many application forms request that you provide information about expected salary. Unless
you are sure what the range of salmy is for the company's employees do not commit. The
safest thing would be to suggest a range that is common in the job market for that particular
position, or write "Negotiable" or "Open".
One of the major drawbacks of the application form.c;; is that it does not provide enough
space to indicate one's abilities and skills. You could, however, fill out the form, as best as
you can, and wait for the interview time when you can provide all necessary information.
3. \VritingApplication Follow-ups
If your application letter fails to bring a response within a certain period. say a month or
so, it would then be proper to write another letter. The purpose of the follow-up letter is to
keep your file active. This will give you an opportunity to upgrade your original application
letter with additional information that will job-related.
For example :
Since applying to you on May 3 for an office secretary position, I have completed a
course in office management. Also, my typing speed has increased to 75 words per minute.
Please keep my application in your active file, and let me know when you need skilled
secretary.
Even if you have received a letter acknowledging your application and saying that it will be
kept on file, do not hesitate to send a follow-up letter two or three months later.
309
J6 Activity D :
You must have had the opportunity to till a number of application forms as a student or
while applying for a job. What were the drawbacks you faced? List three of them.
13.6 SUMMARY
A resume is a factual report about your qualifications that is intended to fetch you a job.
The organizing of a resume depends on the type of information that you wish to supply to
your prospective employer.
Depending on the need and type of information that you wish to offer you could either use
the traditional type of resume, or functional, or skills emphasising resume.
An application letter often accompanies a resume. An application letter is a sales letter,

which is meant to sell your services to an employer.
This has to have an introduction, a body and a conclusion that would fetch you an opportunity
for an interview. The application letter has to be carefully drafted so as to inform the
reader about you and win an interview.
Application letter could either be a solicited or an unsolicited one.
There are other types of employment related messages- such as job-inquiry letter,
application form. and follow-up letters.
Application forms arc often used by organizations to make their search easier. These need
to be filled out completely and accurately.
Application follow-up letters are intended to keep your file active in the organization for
the future.
310
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is central for the success of any organization, and so the challenge for
businesses is to create a communication system that is both effective and efficient. The
advancement and growth in technology hac;; made impact on eve1y facet of organiY.ational
life, and the need to develop effective and efficient communication systeh1 hac;; intensified.
The use of technology in the communication process has been termed "electronic
communication" or "c-communication". Electronic communication - voice mail,
teleconferencing, e-mail, electronic databases, and electronic networks- is increasingly
common in business world. While technology may change the speed with which a message
is generated and received, the amount of infmmation available, and the number of people
involved in generating and receiving message, the technology does not change the quality
of the message itself.
In other words, while technology changes the human clement remains constant. Effective
communicators still need to consider the purpose, audience, and occac;;ion of a message,
regardless of the way the message is generated or transmitted.
Traditional media, such as written messages. phone calls, and face-to-face communication,
are now being replaced by e-mail as the preferred channel in the business world. Increasing
use of Internet and intranct is decreasing the importance of brochures and organization-
wide memos. These changes have influenced organizational communication internally as
well as externally.
"To maximize the impact of technology ac;; a communication method, organi'l.ations must be
aware of the possible benefits and associated problems in order to create both the process
and atmosphere for effective communication". (P. O'Kane, 0 Hargie. and D. Tourish)
14.2 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
The formal netwmks of communication are reflected visibly in a company's organi7.ationa1

chart, informal networkc;; are invisible and yet influential. When you work in an organization,
you arc automatically part of both its formal communication network as weJJ as its informal
networks.
When you need to communicate with someone- whether a co-worker within the organil'.ation
or a client across the country- you have a wide choice of technologies to choose from.
The two key tools for facilitating c-communication are: the Internet and e-mail.
314
Cnit 14 Communicating with Technology
1. The Internet
The Internet is a system of networked computers. It had its beginnings in the 1960s
in the form ofArpanet, commissioned by the Department of Defence to promote the
sharing of super-computers amongst researchers in the US. Since then it has
metamorphosed into the World Wide Web (yVWW), becoming an almost indispe~le
source of information globally. The use of Internet has grown to such an extent that it
has permeated every aspect of human activity, and in particular the economic activity.
Internet is considered as the "public face of the organization "(P. O'Kane, 0 Hargic,
and D. Tourish). A research suggests that image creation is the major function of a
corporate home page.
2. Website
As suggested by P. O'Kane, 0 llargie, and D. Tourish, a corporate website should

have the following characteristics:
• Easy to navigate
• Provide relevant information
• Represent the company image.
Organizations design their website in one of the following formats:
a) Static:
i) It provides a fixed message
n) Itis not interactive
iii) It serves as a promotional brochure
iv) It gives "cyberpresence" to the organization.
b) Broadcast :
i) Content of the message is continually changed and refmed
ii) It is one-way message - i.e. it is not interactive
iii) Hyperlinks arc provided so that the visitors can navigate specific areas of
interest
315
......
Examples: Special information, events, we.:'lther, etc.
c) Interactive :
i) These sites encourage two-way communication (visitors can interact with

the infonnation) ·
n) E-mail addresses are provided for interested visitors to contact specific

corporate staff members
iii) Since the sites are interactive they should be well manned and managed to
deal with inquiries.
The key factors that the organizations need to bear in mind arc: the audience,
available resources, and products.
Audience :An organi:t,ation should design their website depending on the needs
of its customers.
• Manufaclllringorengineeringfirmsmayrequireinfonnationsitewithfeedback
and contact options.
• Trading firms and banks may require transaction tools because of high
level of interaction needed with the users.
• Younger audience may require information on latest music scene, healthier

life-styles, etc.
Resources:
• Companies should have resources to deal with extra orders they may receive
by way of their website.
• Companies should be fully competent to deal with difficulties associated with
overseas selling, such as exchange rates and tax tariffs
• Continual maintenance of the website
• Training staff to deal with customer-service and communication.
Product: Many prefer to browse the Internet for products to standing in a shop
to do their purchasing. Therefore, many organizations are moving the sales of
their product<; onto the Internet site.
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Unit l4 Communicating with Technology
According to one management expert, to transform traditional business

transaction into e-commercc one must follow these five steps:
• Redefine the competitive advantage- decide what the company can offer
that no one can.
• Rethink business stmtegy - how does this need to change in order to capture
the cyber market.
• Re-examine traditional business and revenue models -integrate the figures

for doing business on to the net in order to assess financial viability.
• Re-engineer the corporation and website- the company needs to pursue

the proposed changes and e nsure that the site meets the company needs.
• Re-invent customer service- the unique needs ofthe Internet customer

must be met.
[Source: P ()'Kane. 0 lfargie. and D. Tourish]
3. E-commcrcc
E-commerce is the usc of electronic information technology for business transactions

such as displaying catalogues, selling and buying goods and services, processing
payments, etc.
There are three types of E-commerce: inter-organizational, retail, and intra-

organi:zational.
a) Retail:
Many companies have established their own websites, which are mainly used
for passing on information about their products and also for the purpose of
sales. The direct contact between the producer and the consumer can boost
sales, and the time and money spent on despatch, advertisements, stationary,
etc. can be cut down dramatically. However, in order to target their market the
companies need to develop a profile of their customers who can receive tailored
infonnation.
Furthem1ore, creating a site that enables the user to have a personalized experience
increases its usage potential. For instance, hotmail.com provides horoscopes
and up-to-elate news, which encourages the user to return to the site. This form
of "virtual marketing" both draws the visitors to the site as well as keeps them
there.
317
The Jnternet differs from othcrfonm ofcustomer communication in that it requires

the individual to make the first move- this is known as "pull strategy". This
means that a person who is interested in a product or a service should log onto
the site.
In such cases the organization must build a relationship wiili the client, and this
can be done by:
i) Regular e-mail contact
ii) Prompt response to queries
ill) Provide a medium for personal contact- to clarify information, close a
transaction, correct an error, etc.
b) Inter-organi7.ational :
According to R.C. Sharma & K. Mohan, business-to-business E-commerce

has been expanding faster than business-to-consumer E-commerce because
many reputed companies are already in possession of necessary technology
infrastructure. Internet is used in sourcing suppliers and resources. It gives the
organization an opportunity to investigate and gain infonnation on many different
producers and products in order to select the most relevant. It also provides an
opportunity to fmd out the competitors' produclc; and services in order to remain
up-to-date. The Internet not only makes other organizations vulnerable, but
also exposes your organization to the competitors.
c) Intra-organizational:
E-commerce occurs within an organization too. The objective is to link the

members of the organization and increase the flow of information. For instance,
Internet presents a new opportunity for training. P. O'Kane, 0 Hargie, and D.
Tourish state: "E-learning enables employees to manage their own education
time table and encourages 'bite-sized' learning, which breaks it into manageable
chunks that can be undertaken at the employee's convenience... From an
organi7.ational view point it is easier to manage and assess training progrdll1Illes
as the facilities are in place to allow reporting of progress". [Pg.81]
4. Intranet and Extranet
An "intranet" facilitates increased collabomtion among employees, as it flattens the

organizational structure and introduces "anyone-to-anyone" connectivity within the
company. An "extranct" extends this form of communication to the external stakeholders
such as spet--ific customers or shareholders. These media can have stmtegic advantages
318
unit 14 Communicating with Technology
such as improved decision making and innovation.
The intranet has a different role to play than the Internet in the field of organizational
communication. Consequently. the designing and managing of the intranet has to
different because it caters to a specific audience. Following are the guidelines:
a) Know your audience: As the intranet audience is much smaller there are fewer
needs to be catered for. 'Visitors' access it only to find out information, which is
work-related.
b) Deliver work productivity: To discover the productivity of the site, find out what
the site is used for, who uses it, and how frequently it is used. It should consist of
a directory, search facility, and corporate news.
c) Empha.<;;ize breadth over depth: Intranet sites should allow employees an easy
access to imporumt information and applications. Links to information should
be available as early as possible.
d) Minimize the graphics: Intranet is meant for quick reference and not to for long
accesses. If a person wants to access a telephone number, then it would be
irritating and cumbersome to go through graphics or news that are not relevant.
e) Colloquial labelling can work: An intranet audience is more defined and therefore
specialized, and hence company- or organization-specific labels can be
incorporated to aid understanding.
The extranet is a more common feature in corporate websites, in which companies allow
their customers to keep a track of their orders or their account~ online. Corporate information
can be limited to "members only" to make it cost effective.
Like the intranet the extranet also has information that is relevant, accessible and up-to-
date. For security purpose, the company can have sign-in and sign-out procedures.
5. E--mail
Electronic mail or e-mail is the method of communication electronically with other

users of the network. "The central advantage of e-mail is that it enables the 'instant
transfer of messages and docmnents world-wide between people on the same private
network, or with access to the same public network"
319
Uses of e-mail:
a) Saving of cost and reduction of time

b) Electronic filing and distribution of information
c) Dissemination of useful marketing infonnation
d) Making time-critical corporate announcement<>
e) Multimedia
The e-mail is informal in nature, which can be the cause of misunderstandings. Spellings
and grammatical errors that would be unacceptable in written memos or letters arc readily
accepted in e-mail. In business contexts, words and phrases need to be chosen carefully.
Table 14.1 presents guidelines for e-mail composition. which should be incorporated into
employee training.
Table 14.1 : Rules for the Composition of Business E-mail
1. Decide that e-mail is definitely the most effective medium. Would face-to-face,
telephone or 'paper' communication be better?
2. Be aware of your audience. Tailor the style to the person to whom it is being sent.
3. Always use a signature as this gives vit.:1.l contact details for fol1ow-up.
4. Select the 'subject' line carefully to reflect the content.
5. Only prioritise or mark 'urgent' when it really is.
6. Keep the message brief and to the point.
7. Keep emphasis to a minimum.
8.
9.
Check for spelling and grammar- this is often overlooked in casual e-mail.
Re-read me..<osagc to check for clear understanding. d

10. Do not get involved in 'flaming'. There is a natural temptation to respond to mde e-
mails in kind. But remember, if you lose your temper you lose the argument.
Source : P. O'Kane, 0 Hargie. and D. Tow·ish, "Communication ll'itlzout frontiers: The impact of
technology upon organizations", Key Issues in 01gani:::aticmal Communication. Eds. Dennis Tourish
& Owen Hargie, Routledge, London. 2004
320
~Activity A :
a) Go to the Internet and select some companies in India and identify at least three that
have designed their websites in the following formats:
• Static websites
• Broadcast
• Interactive
b) Do you know any organization that uses intranet? Talk to an employee and find out
how be would list out the benefit<;.
c) In your organization, is e-mail used extensively? How would you define the e-mail
etiquette which is followed?
14.3 ISSUES COMMUNICATION WITH ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY
When an organization embarks upon the process of introducing new technology for
communication purposes it must look at issues surrounding cost, time, and storage and the
underlying consequences, which include changes in organizational structure, legal, security
and privacy issues, and technologies. P. O'Kane, 0 Hargie, and D. Tourish make the
following observation:
321
1. Cost:
Reduction in cost is one of the compelling motives in the introduction ofnew technology
for organizational communication.
a) Sending messages via the e-mail is far cheaper than written messages, which
involves the cost of stationary, postage, and internal mail costs.
b) E-communication also allows the organi:t.ation to eliminate the supply chain by

using Internet to sell goods ad services. This not only reduces the cost for the
organization, but also for the consumers (as well as an opportunity for improved
customer relations).
However, in introducing new technology. care should be taken in providing proper

support system, maintenance, and training of the staff.
2. Time:
Use of e-mail for transmitting messages, in an organization, can have both positive as
well as negative effects.
a) E-mail reduces the time for both internal and external transfer of messages. It
also provides a quick way to send messages to both the employees and the
customers.
b) There is a temptation to waste time by reading e-mails related to gossip, jokes,

and other unproductive mateiials.
c) Internet misuse, through excessive web surfing, and problems associated with
the technology, can lead to loss of productivity.
While introducing E-communication technology in the organization there has to be a

monitoring system to control the use of Internet.
3. Information }'low :
A core advantage of e-mail has been in the field of infmmation transmission.
a) You can send documents as attachments that would save time. not only over
long distance, but also within the organi;,r..ation (which would otherwise be carried
physically from one place to another).
322
Unit 14 Communicating with Technology
b) Bulk mailis distributed, company-wide, customer-wide, and a-; well as to specific

audience, without much delay and thus all arc kept informed about the activities
of the organization.
c) Information can be easily and speedily updated on the Internet- i.e. there is an
increase in information exchange. For example, from the point of the organization,
employees have more relevant material available to them - such as during some
major change the employees and customers can be quickly informed.
d) The case with information flows can lead to information overload - the level of
material available to employees can become overwhelming. This infom1ation
overload can affect productivity. Por instance, in one survey the respondents
stated that the work would be more effective if information overload was reduced.
Such overload could be handled if the employees are trained to prioritise their
e-mails.
e) Some organizations create electronic distribution list.;; and indiscriminately send

messages to everyone on those lists, which can create information overload.
You should consider the following questions while sending information in order to
avoid information overload:
i) Does the recipient need the information?
il) Do recipient begin to ignore all messages if many of them are irrelevant?
iii) Is selecting only certain messages to read or installing 'filter' to prevent messages
from certain individuals an appropriate solution for information overload?
4. Storage and Retrieval :
a) The traditional form of storage such a filing cabinets and cupboards are being
replaced by the storage facility that the computers applications provide. For
example, the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 32 volumes is available in just one
CD-ROM at a fraction of the cost.
b) Information stored on the website, which reduces the possibility of it being lost,
because it cannot be removed by an individual, and it can be easily retrieved
much quicker than form a traditional fJ.ling system.
323
5. Organizational Structure :
Electronic networks are changing traditional hierarchies in organizations where

employees can directly contact anyone else in the organi;r,ation, regardless of rank or
position (although some organizations actually forbid staff from ~ending e-mails to
level higher than immediate line manager).
This widespread access through technology has impacted the work culture in
organizations in various ways:
a) A sense of empowerment in the employees because of their ability to pull

information towards them rather than pushing the information at them.
b) Technology enables the employees to complete their task with case, which
influences their self-image as effective workers.
c) Higher level of collaboration becomes possible because infmmation sharing

between members of the same community has become more readily available
through features such as bulletin boards on the intranet. It has a positive affect
on the relationships among the employees.
d) It was observed that in companies with low level of dynamism and complexity,
an increased use of Internet and intranct led to increases in organizational
innovation.lnforrnation technology can help to generate ideas in a company, but
it should be implemented with certain amount of caution.
e) The increase in communication across all levels that has resulted form the
introduction of e-communication has impacted upon the internal mechanism of
most companies. One problem is the threat to management jobs, because
decisions arc increasingly becoming the responsibility of the employees. This
could lead traditional managers to view e-communication with an air of mistrust.
The loss of power may be associated with accompanying feeling of loss of
status. This feeling may result in lack of motivation to help build a communication
technology system that may be their end of authority and power. A" one of the
managers ha" observed: "The cultural effect is enormous. It's helping to dissolve
the old corporate hierarchy".
1) Computer-based interactive media facilitates information exchange, yet creates

interpersonal distance. For instance, people may opt to exchange e-mails with
colleagues in adjacent offices rather than engage in face-to-face communication.
324
This raises important issues such ac;;:
i) Social presence that is conceptualised as the prominence of the other persons

involved in an interaction, and the consequent prominence of the interpersonal
relationship. In other words, the mo~ aware we are of the other person's presence
the more it will result in interpersonal relationship. Various media simulate the
'presence' aspect of a dyadic encounter.
ii) Media richness is a result of social presence and refers to a channel's capacity
to carry information based on:
• Availability ~md speed of feedback

• Ability to communicate many cues simultaneously, such as voice tone and
nonverbal behaviours
• Use of language rather than statistics
• Ability to transmit affective components of messages.
Thus, social presence is reduced when communication channels that simulate

'presence' are available.
However, face-to-face communication is hest when:
• Issues are inherently complex
• Conflict is involved
• Reducing uncertainty is a priority
• Building interrelationship is an urgent requirement.
Therefore, managers must make intelligent and infmmed choices about channel
and media selection, depending on the numerous variables, before using them.
g) E-cornmunication also enables some employees to make the decision to work

away from the office for an extended period of time. While this arrangement
could have its merits, it also can result in decreased job satisfaction. There is a
clear 'isolation effect' associated with a remote working environment. In other
words, working away from the organization could isolate a person from fellow-
workers and the organizational setup, which could have an adverse affect.
325
...
6. Technostress :
Technology can add stress to the workplace. The phenomenon has been termed as
"Tech nostress" or "information fatigues yndrome". This is caused by various factors
such as challenge to learn new and ever-developing technology. ~hanges to existing
work routines, meeting deadlines, systems problems, and computer errors.
Physical problems include backaches, eyestrain and headaches. Emotionally, the

workers are affected in more serious ways by technophobia, ineffective training in
use of computer, negative experiences (such as losing important documents or
contracting virus), and inability to use the equipment (keyboarding skills).With sufficient
encouragement to usc the technology, and appropriate support, these difficulties can
be overcome.
7. :Facilitating group communication :
The Internet, e-mail and their applications have important role to play in enhancing
group communication. Using technology for discussion over long distance and time
results in greater flexibility in the structure of task groups and members can participate
without having to travel for the meetings. Managers need to be aware of number of
factors that influence meetings using technology and the dynamics of e-group, which
differs forn1 f acc-to-face communication.
8. Legal, security and privacy issues :
When a company install the Internet system, it hao;; to protect ito;;elf from the legal and
security problems that are associated with it. Intewet being a worldwide network,
companies should take care to safeguard ito;;elf from any infringements.
"People often e-mail messages that they would never send in a formal written paper
document. They forget that the 'delete' button is not a destruct button. Messages
have a permanency in the system and can be tracked and traced." (P. O'Kane, 0
Hargie, and D. Tourish)
Table 14.2 indicates some areas for which monitoring meao;;urcs arc required.
326
Table 14.2: Privacy, Legal and Security Issues

r- ---------- ------------------------
Legal
Cognisance must be taken of the following legal possibilities:
• Copyright infringement
• Corporate espionage
• Harassment and discrllnination
• Admission against interest
• Adverse uses -liability for company
• Defamation
• Invasion of privacy
Security
Here, protection should be developed against:
• Hackers - e-communication exposes the company to external hackers
• VIruses- these can lead to the theft, destruction or alteration of vital data
• Unauthodzed access to confidential information- can be illegally transfeiTcd by
employees
Privacy
An 'electronic trial' is left form which it is possible to identify the source of the message
and view the contents. This can allow organization to:
• Track worker productivity
• Monitor e-mail content
• Monitor web usage
Source: P. O'Kane. 0 Hargie, and D. Tourish, "Communication without frontiers: The impact of
technology upon organizations" in Key Issues in Organizational Communication, Eds. Dennis
Tourish & Owen /Iargie. Routledge, London 2004
There is a necessity to monitor employee actions in terms of e-mail content and website
accessed in order to protect the company. The question, however, is to what extent should
the employees be monitored? O'Kanc et a1 quoting a research conducted state: "several
327
studies of telecommunications and clerical workers suggest that electronically monitored

workers experience higher levels of depression, tension and anxiety, lower level of
productivity, and more health problems than unmonitored employees". Table 14.3 gives
some recommendations that could be followed in monitoring the use of e-mail by the
employees.
Table 14.3 : Recommendations for managing employee e-mail
1. Develop an e-mail system plan.
2. Fonnulate an e-mail policy.
3. Identify who will put this e-mail policy into practice.
4. Appoint an e-mail system manager.
5. Implement technical forms of privacy protection within the e-mail system.
6. Consider the consequences for employees.
7. Understand the implication for the organization.
8. Take cognisance of the wider extemal consequences.
9. Clearly communicate to all employees the e-mail policy and system.
10. Undertake regular audits and reviews of thee-mail policy.
Source : P O'Kane, 0 Hargie, and D. Tourish, "Communication without frontiers: The impact of
technology upon organizations" in Key Issues in Organi:;ational Communication, Eds. Den11is
ToUJ·ish & Owen Hargie, Routledge. London 2004
2S Activity B :
a) Interview a person from a company that uses electronic technology for communication
and identify the following:
i) Impact on the organizational hierarchy.
328
ii) Symptoms of "Technostress" experienced by the people in the company.
b) Check out if your company has an email policy. If it does, what arc the point<>
highlighted?
!
14.4 SOl"'TWARE FOR BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
You will have access to many different types ofcomputer software typically used in business.
One of your challenges will be to know what software to use for a particular audience,
purpose. conm1unicator role or occasion.
Table 14.4 indicates various communication problems encountered in an organization and

the corresponding technological software that offers solution.
Table 14.4: Communication Problems Solved with Software

··-
COMMUNICATION PROBLEM SOFTIVARE SOLUTION
- -
You need to generate, revise, and store Word processing software such as
and print documents Microsoft Word or Word Perfect.
You need to organise numeric data in : Spreadsheet software such as I ,otus 1-2-3
I
order to complete computation or or Microsoft Excel. Spreadsheets are useful

transfom1ations. for forecasting and decision-making.
'---·
You need to create tables, graphs, Dmwing and graphing software such as
diagrdllls, drawings, and other visuals. Claris Draw, Lotus Freelance, or Adobe
Illustrator enables you to create graphs and
~J.;= of various kinds that can be placed
ctly into documents.
329
Busint:ss Communication
You need to produce high-quality Desktop publishing software such as Aldus

documents without the expense of PageMaker or Ventura Publishing.
outside designers and typesetters. I -· -
You need to collaborate to share ideas Groupware such as Lotu~ Notes or CE
and expertise, coordinate schedules, Software's TeamVision allows you to
work on projects, and prepare collaborate with physically distant groups,
documents. sharing schedules, database, mail, memos,
and reports.
You need to organize and have easy Database management software such as
access to large amounts of data that can Microsoft's Access let<; you obtain, organize,
be shared with colleagues. transform, and display information so that it
can be shared and used in a variety of
documents and oral presentation.
You need to Project planning or project management
1. do complex. long-range project software such as Microsoft Project. Most
planning. , planning packages enable you to generate
2. be able to track every aspect of the 1 information for report<; at various stages in
project, and the process.
3. quickly obtain up-to-date information
about the project.
--
You need to create presentations with Presentation software such as Aldus
transparencies or slides and coordinate Persuasion or Microsoft PowerPoint.
handout materials.
You need to create a presentation that Persuasion or PowerPoint in conjunction
attracts the audience tlu·ough multiple with QuickTune video clips lets you integrate
senses. slides, clip art, video clips, and sound into
simple multimedia presentation.
-
You need to input the information from Imaging software enables you to scan paper
paper documents and picture into a documents or pictures so they are digitised
computer. in the computer and can be imported into
the current document.
Source : Helen Rothschild Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, Business Communication,

Prentice-Halllntemational. Inc. NJ, 1997.
330
Four types of software are particularly important for business communication:

• Groupware
• Database management software
• Project planning software
• Multimedia software
1. Groupware
This type of software is becoming increac;;ingly important to business communication

because it allows you to collaborate with physically distant people.
Following arc the features of groupware software:

i) Aid to productivity
ii) Communicating electronically with colleagues
ill) Pool information about prospective client.;;
iv) Draw on the expertise of the others in the organization
v) Helps you to answer a question or resolve a problem
vi) Collaborative interaction
vii) Access database to retrieve useful infom1ation
viii) Overcome and move pac;;t restrictions imposed by social or political pressures
in an organii'~tion
2. Database Management
This is vital to business communication because it gives users access to huge amounts
of information that would otherwise be overwhelming or inaccessible.
Its features arc:

~ Allow you to obtain, organize, and display variety of information, which can be
used in oral presentations.
ii) Access to database can change the way people do their job - lets employees
know what information is available so that they can draw on it and improve.
ill) Coordinates information about customers' orders and current inventory.
331
iv) Writing reports become easy, interesting, and useful.
3. Project Planning
Another very important kind of software for business communication is project

planning software that lets you keep track of and update deadlines, resources, and
costs.
The functions of project planning software are as follows:
i) Visualize your plan
ii) Allocate resources efficiently (equipments and personnel)
iii) Manage large projects
iv) Monitor progress
v) Create custom graphs and reports
Big value of this software is when there is a change in the original plan. With the
change in plan comes the change in schedule and cost. Project planning software
enables you to identify the steps for each job, construct a schedule, assign resources
and estimate costs.
4. Multimedia Software
Multimedia presentations integrate slides, clip art, video clips, and sound (voice,
music, sound effects) to create appealing business presentations. Multimedia
presentations are widely used in sales and marketing presentations, in conference
presentations, and at important meetings.
Multimedia could be used at different levels and for different purposes. Firstly, it
could be used for making a simple presentation using simple graphs and charts that
could be for promoting a product or service. Secondly, it could be used for preparing
a presentation for, say annual stockholders meeting or trade show booth. You could
make such presentation intcmctive for the benefit of the participants. Tilirdly, multimedia
could be used to prepare more advanced production for the viewing of general public.
1bis would include the use of sound, musical score, animated maps, video sequence,
etc.
332
2S Activity C :
a) Prepare a PowerPoint presentation on "Environmental Awareness" for the benefit of
the employees of a company.
b) Open Microsoft Project and list down the features that are helpful in preparing a
project report.
c) Have you had the experience of working on a database? How did you use it and
what were the advantages you saw?
14.5 SUMMARY
The machines have taken over many of the routine functions of a business office such a-;
recording information, receiving and sending messages. calculating and accounting, gathering
and analysing data. Consequently, paper has considerably reduced and there has been an
enormous increa<;e in efficiency. The introduction of computers has facilitated the processing
ofinformation, reproduction of document-; and communication with person~:~ or organizations
anywhere in the world.
Internet and intranet has become a part of the business world that enables the companies
not only to make a "cyber presence", but also to encounter their customers directly and
effectively. Electronic networks also serve employees at every level of the organization,
from executive to worker on the production line. Different types of software make the
functions of the employees quicker and easier.
333
While electronic communication system is a boon to mankind it also raises a number of

challenges to the management. Installation of electronic communication system also compels
an organization to consider the problems oflegality, security, and privacy.
14.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUES'llONS

- ------
Q 1. Describe the characteristics of a corporate website.
Q2. Discuss the three types of e-commerce.
Q3. Explain the following issues related to communication with electronic technology:
a. Wormation flow
b. Organizational structure
c. Technostress
Q4. Has technology reduced the use of paper in business organisations? How would you
suggest some ways to achieve this?
Q5. Explain the different types of software used in business communication.
Q6. How important is the aspect of "privacy" in electronic communication? Can you give
an example of a situation where privacy nom1s were encroached upon?
Q7. Match the following:

a) Technology in communication process. 1. lnteracti ve website
b) System of networked computers 2. __ Virtual marketing
c) Gives "cybcrpresence" 3. Intranet
d) Encourages two-way communication 4. __ Low dynamism
e) Drawing visitors to the site 5. Technostress
t) Increases employee collaboration 6. Viruses
g) Increased usc oflntemet and intranet 7. PowerPoint
h) Information fatigue syndrome 8. Static website
i) Alteration of vital information 9. E-communication
j) Used to create a presentation 10. Internet
334
15.1 INTRODUCTION
An effective letter, memo, or report docs more than store words on paper. It must get to
the right person, make an impression, and tell the recipient who wrote it and when it was
written. Over the centuries, certain conventions for formatting and laying out business
documents have developed. Though some aspects ofbusincss documenlc; have remained
the same, the organization and style often varies to suit the needs. Effective communicators
know that format, the way information is ananged on a page, helps readers to move
through documents in a predictable and logical fashion.
Fmmatc; are not about rigidity, but about consistency and fulfilling reader expectations.
Most organizations recognize that documents appearance actc; as an expression of company
image. The function of company stylesheets is to make that image consistent. For example,
most companies establish guidelines for how they want headings situated, greetings worded,
persons addressed, and so on. Companies also specify how they want these guidelines to
appear- whether it is conventional block style or a customized style. Regardless of what
type of organization you belong to. that organization is going to have some idea about how
it wants its image and ideas conveyed through written documents, and you should be
aware of these written conventions.
15.2 Ji'ORJ.'\tiATS O:fi' BUSINESS DOCUMENTS

A) Letters
A letter or other written document is often the first or only contact that a person has with
your organization. Therefore, it is important for documents to look neat and professional
and to be easy to read. Several elements - the paper you usc, the letterhead, and the
typing - tell the readers a lot about you and your company's professionalism.
Elements:
1. Stationary :
a) Paper:
The paper used for letterheads and other company documents should be of the
finest quality. The texture and thickness of the paper should all spell of class. Do
not economize on the paper by writing business letters on very thin paper, or
poor quality of paper. It may offend the recipient and will be counterproductive.
338
Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents
Never send out business letters on ruled or coloured paper. White is the safest
colour all over he world. The size of the paper that is most popular is the A4 size
(297 mm x 210 mm). For short and routine letters we may useA5 size (21 0 mm
x 148 mm). The idea is that the text should match the size of the paper used.
b) Letterhead:
The letterhead should be elegant. Letterpress printing for the letterhead should
be avoided because it not even and sharp. Screen-printing is recommended for
smaller quantity and offset printing fore bigger print-orders.
Get the letterhead designed professionally for maximum positive impact on the
potential reader. The colour scheme adopted should project the company in a
favourable light. M. M. Monippally states: "I .oud colours may be good for a
flashy designer's firm, but not good for serious commercial organization. The
stationary is like the clothes you wear; they should match and support the image
you want to project."
c) Typing:
The kind of typing or printing you adopt is also important because they appeal
to the reader in different ways. For instance, hand written note may give a personal
touch, but a long official letter written by hand may seem odd. It is advisable to
type out the letter and print in on a laser printer that may give the letter a
professional look. fn business situation creating <m impression is very important
for business deals and relationships. A letter not well written and printed may
give an impression that the person is either not serious or lacks secretarial
assistance.
d) Envelopes :
Many attractive letters loose out by sending them in envelops that arc not good
enough. An envelope is more than a cover; it packages the letter. It is the first
impression. An ill-chosen envelope can spoil the image that you are trying to
create with your letter.
Cheap envelopes may easily come open in the course of shipment, and important papers
may be displaced. Such open envelopes also pose the danger of the contents of the letter
being read by someone else.
339
Business Communjcation
Letters carry communication from one person to another. Whatever the content, they are
the medium by which communication is transferred form one to another. In other words,
the content of the letter is the voice of the people; and it must be sent in the most appropriate
and acceptable manner.
Standard Letter Parts :
According to Thill and Bovee, all business letters typically include seven elements in the
following order:
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Inside address
4. Salutation
5. Body
6. Complimentary close
7." Signature block
According to Sharma and Mohan, the following 12 clements usually constitute the structure
of a business letter.
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Reference
4. Inside address
5. Attention line
6. Salutation
7. Subject
8. Body
9. Complimentuy close
10. Signature
11. Identi11cation marks
12. Enclosures
340
Cnit 15 formats for Business Documents
Table 15.1 : Components of a Business Letter

- - -- - -----,
1. Heading
2. Date - -- -
3. Your Reference
4. Our reference
5. Inside address
6. Attention- - -
7. Salutation- -
8. Subject_
9. Body
11. Signature
12. Identification marks
l 13. Enclosure
___ _ _._ _j
Source: R C Sharma & Krishna Mohan. Busin f'ss CorrPspondence and Report Writing
1. Heading
Most business organization use printed letterheads for correspondence. The letterhead
show the organization's name, ful1 address, and almost always the telephone number
and telegraphic address (if any). Executive letterhead bears the name of the person
who is within the organization.
Generally. the name and address are p1inted in the top middle of the letterhead and
any other infom1ation is indicated in the margins.
2. Date
The date is placed two spaces below the last line of the letterhead; or typed immediately
below the return address. The date is written on the upper right-hand comer. When
you arc typing the date, the full name of the month (no abbreviations) is written,
followed by the day (in numerals), then a comma, and then the year: November 14,
341
- Business Communication
2003. You could also write it in the following manner: 14 November 2003 (notice
there is no comma after the name of the month).
3. Reference
Some letterheads contain two lines to indicate references- our reference and your
reference. This usually happens when there is a series of correspondence that require
references. For example, some companies prefer to indicate the reference number of
the correspondence in the body of the letter:
Thank you for your letter No. G'B/54/S32l of November 14 2003.

This is with reference to our letter No. FG/65/E786 of November 12 2003 ...
The reference number is advantageous when you want to continue discussion on a

specific topic that you have been engaged in with your reader.
4. Inside address
The address of the recipient, whether a person or an organization, should be written

two spaces below the date and two spaces above the attention line. In case there is
no attention line then the inside address should be written two spaces above the
salutation in the left margin.
The addressee's name is preceded by a courtesy title - such as Mr., Ms., Dr:, and so.
The accepted courtesy for women in business is Ms; however, a woman who is
known to prefer the tile Miss or Mrs. should be accommodated. Any other title, such
as Professor or General should not be abbreviated.
The person's organizational title, such as Director may also be included in the first
line along with the name or in the next line below; the name of the department may
also follow.
5. Attention Line
To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter, which is addressed to a firm, is marked

to a particular person (either by designation or name) of a department. This is usually
written two spaces below the inside address. Attention line is generally underlined.
Example: Attention: The Sales Manager or Attention: Mr: R.C. Gupta.
342
6. Salutation
Salutation in a letter is an essential element, which is like greeting a person when you
meet. It should be placed two spaces below the attention line, if there is one, or
below the inside address. The choice of salutation depends upon the personal
relationship between the writer and the reader.
If you arc addressing a firm, a board, a club, a society, or an association, use 'Dear
Sirs".
Letters to people you do not know well enough to address personally should use the
courtesy title and last name followed by a colon. Addressing someone as Dear Lewis
instead of Dear Professor Lewis, whom you do not know well, may demonstrate
disrespect and the stranger might resent it.
When you are writing to a government officer by name, your salutation should be
'Dear Sir', 'Dear Smt.' , followed by his or her surname- example: 'Dear Sir Gupta'
or 'Dear Smt. Sharma'. In government departments, letters that are addressed by
name are known as demi-o.fficialletters (DO). They are written to draw attention
of the concerned officer and to ensure prompt action.
7. Subject
In business correspondence the subject line enables the reader to immediately know
what the massage is all about. This also helps to direct the letter quickly to the concerned
person. The usual practice is to type the line in double space between the salutation
and the ftrst line of the body of the letter. Some organizations prefer to have the
subject line between the attention line and the salutation.
The subject must be mentioned if it has been indicated in the letter you are replying
to. Like the reference the subject line helps to keep track of numerous correspondence
that will be exchanged on the subject.
8. Body
The body of the letter is the message. The main purpose of the letter is to convey a
message and the main purpose of the message is to produce a suitable response in
the reader. This achieved through the body of the letter.
In the first paragraph, reference, to any correspondence, which has already taken
place, should be mentioned. In the second paragraph the main message should be
343
Business C'onmJUnication
stated. The paragraphs arc not given headings, unless the letter is a long one with
many important points, which ought to be indicated.
Almost all letters arc typed single-spaced. There, however, should be double spacing
before and after salutation, between the paragraphs, and before the complimentary
close.
Complimentary close is a polite way of ending the letter. It is typed two spaces below
the last line of the body of the letter. The close must agree with the salutation- i.e.
depending upon whom you are addressing to.
A number of alternatives for wordings arc available- such as faithfully, obediently,

respectfully (when you arc writing to someone who is senior to you or some dignitary);
trul.v, or sincerely (when the salutations arc formal): sincerely is very commonly
used. To place Yours before these words is a common practice.
10. Signature
Signature is the signed name of the sender and is placed below the complimentary
close. After leaving three to four spaces below the signature the name of the sender is
typed. The sender's title or designation may also be written along the name or just
below it.
For a partnership firm. any one of the partners may sign either by writing in ink the
name of the finn or by putting his signature below the typed name of the finn. The firm
may also delegate the authority of signing letters to an officer by executing a legal
instrument called Power of Attorney in his favour. Such an employee will write per
pro. or pp. before the name of the finn and then sign below it. [Per pro. or pp. is the
abbreviation of a Latin phrase per procurationem meaning 'agency' or 'on behalf
of'l
11. Identification marks
These mark-; arc put in the left margin to idcntify the typist of the letter, and are placed
one or two spaces below the signature. These marks arc also known as "reference
initials'', which show who helped prepare the letter. When the writer's name has been
typed in the signature block. then only the typist's initials arc necessary. But ifonly the
department name appears in the signature block then the initials of both - the one
344
who dictated and the one typed the letter- will appear in the following fom1: RSR/sm
or RSR:sm. (thr first set of initials is the writer's and the second is the typist's.
12. Enclosures
If there is anything attached to the letter then it must be notified. This is the enclosure
notation, which appears at the bottom of the letter, one or two lines below the
identification marks.
Some common forms are as follows:

Enclosure
Enclosures (3)
Enclosures: Resume
Photograph
Encl.
Letters Format~ :
There are several styles that are used for writing business letters. Individual taste and
preference decides the choice of style used for writing letters.
1. According to Sharma and Mohan, the following are the styles used for writing
business letters :
• The Indented style
• The Block style
• The Complete-block style
• The Se~-block style
• The Hanging-indented style
a) The Indented style

In this style of writing each new item is indented two or four spaces. Perhaps the
oldest style of writing letters, yet many usc it. Closed punctuations are used in
this style of writing.
b) The Block style

In this style the date line, the complimentary close, and the signature arc aligned
with the right margin. All the other parts of the letter are set to the left side.
345
Double spacing indicates division between the different parts of the letter. That
is to say the distance between the reference, inside address, salutation, body,
signature, and identification marks is all double space.
c) The Complete-block style

All the parts of the letter are aligned with the left margin. There is no indentation
required for this style. There is very little usc of punctuation in this fom1 oflctter.
d) Semi-block style
The format of this style is like the block style-date line, complimentary close
and signature are all on the right side- except that the paragraphs are indented
and spaced.
e) The Hanging-indented style

This style is like the block style except that the first line of each paragraph is
aligned with the left margin whereas, all other lines in each paragraph arc indented
four or five spaces. This style uses mixed punctuation.
Punctuation Styles :
• Open Punctuation refers to omission of unnecessary commas and full stops.

Open punctuation uses no colon or comma after the salutation or the
complimentary close. It does not even use f ulJ stops in any part of the letter
except in the body in which usual punctuations are used.
• Mixed Punctuation uses a comma after the date, the salutation, and the
complimentary close and a full stop follows the last line of the inside address.
• Closed Punctuation makes use of punctuation in the main parts of the letter-
such as commas and full stops. Sometimes instead of putting a comma after the
salutation a colon is used - Dear Sir:
2. According to Thill & Bovee and Ewald & Burnett there are basically three
types of letter formats:
• Block format
• Modified format
• Simplified format (also known as AMS -Administrative Management Society
Simplified Letter format)
346
Cnit 15 rormats for Business Document~
The major differences among these formats arc the way the paragraphs arc indented, the
placement of letter part<>, and some of the punctuations. However, each part of the letter is
separated form each other at least by one line. If the paragraphs arc indented, the indention
is normally five spaces.
In addition to these three letter formats, letters may also be classified according to the way
the punctuations are used. Mixed punctuation style uses colon after the salutation (a comma
if the letter is social or personal) and comma after the complimentary close. Open
punctuation uses no colon or comma after the salutation or the complimentary close. Either
style of punctuation can be used with block or modified formats. But because the simplified
letter format has no salutation or complimentary close, the style of punctuation is irrelevant.
Tables 15.3, 15.4, and J5.5 indicate block, modified, and simplified fmmats respectively.
Table 15.2 : Components of Business IJetter

- ·
Components Explanation Issues & Considerations
Dateline • Include month (spelled out), day. • Block- date is aligned with
and year. left margin
• Place approximately 2 inches • Modified block - date is
from top of the page:o placed in the right two-third
• If letterhead is being used. of the page
I place dateline two spaces • AMS - same as block
below letterhcado
• If standard address line is
used, place dateline
immediately below address
·-
Inside Address"" • Include name (with Dr.. Mr., Ms., • Unless the person explicitly
etc) and title of person, company refers to him- or herself as
(optional department), street a Dr., or Rev., defer to Mr.,
ddress, city, state abbreviation, or Ms. Usc "Mrs" only if
and ZIP. that is her preference.
I
• Cnless the addressee is in a

leadership or noteworthy
position, title is not needed.
I
Salutation
I.
I
I
Use appropriate courtesy title
unless you are on a first-name
basis with the addressee.
• Mixed style of punctuation
requires a colon after
salutation.
I I I
347
Components Explanation Issues & Considerations
• Use "Ladies and Gentlemen'' • Open style requires no

when addressing a letter to a punctuation after salutation.
general and unidentified • Al\IJS omit<> salutation.
audience.
Body • Use single spacing; leave space • Block - paragraphs are not
between paragraphs. indented.
• Avoid indenting paragraphs. • Modified block -
Indentation is appropriate only indentation is optional
when a more "personal" style is • AMS - paragraphs arc not
wanted - when correspondence indented.
is addressed to customers.
Complimentary 1 • Rely on using Sincerely or • Mixed style of punctu ation
Close Yours truly in more fom1al requires a comma after
situations; Cordially in Jess close.
Ll - - -- -+-- --- - -
Signature and
Title
formal.
- - -
• Place title below signature unless •
both are short, then a comma .
•
• Open style requires no
punctuation after close,
AMS - close is omitted.
Modified block- sometimes
initials after the name and
1
1
can be used to separate. j title in the "From" section at
the top of the page can
L I substitute for a signatw·e.
Source : lie/en Rothschild Ewald & Rebecca E. Bumett. Business Communication
348
B) Memos
Interoffice memos are not distributed outside the organization and thus may not need to be
typed on the best-quality paper. They, however, are official documents that convey
important information. Clarity, careful organization, and neatness are important. Guidelines
that have developed for memos enable the reader to understand the content at a glance.
Many organizations have memo forms printed, with labelled spaces for date, the receiver's
name, the sender's name, and the subject. Fig 15.1 shows a sample of a preprinted memo
form.
MEMO
DATE: ___________________
TO: ----------------------- FROM: _ _ ___ __ _ _ __
DEVr: __________________ TELEPHONE: _____~-----
SUBJECT: _______________
For your LJ Approval 0Information Ocomment
Me..c;;sage, Comment, or Reply ____ _ j
Fig 15.1
Following are the considerations for a memo :
• The memos typed or printed should always have a title- MEMO or INTEROrFICE
CORRESPONDENCE (all in capital) centred at the top of the page and aligned
with the left margin.
• The four elements- Date, To, Prom, and Subject- should also appear on the memo
sheet.
• Some memos also have the word "File" for the purpose of file or reference number.
• If the memo is to be sent to a long list of people, the notation See distribution list or
See below goes in the place provided for '~b".
• Sometimes the memo is addressed to a group of people - All Sales Representatives,
Production Personnel, Assistmt Vice Presidents, etc.
352
Unit 15 Fomtats for Business Documents
• Courtesy titles need not be used anywhere on a memo; in fact, first initials and last
name, first name, or even initials are sufficient.
• The body of the memo struts on the second or third line below the heading. Like the
body of the letter, it is usually single-spaced. In case the memo is very short, it may be
double-spaced.
• Paragraphs arc separated by blank lines, but may or may not be indented.
• Unlike the letter the memo docs not require a complimentary close, because the
writer's name is already mentioned on the top. However, the writer may initial the
memo.
• All other elements - such ac; reference initials, enclosure notations, and copy notations
- are treated as they are in a letter.
• Memos may be deli vcrcd by hand, by post office (in case the recci ver is working in
the same organization, but at a different location), or through interoffice mail.
q Meeting Documents
Meetings arc important forum for business communication. But the success of any meeting
depends on the preparation of the participants and on the follow-up measures they take to
implement decisions or to seek information after the meeting. Meeting document<> - agenda-;
and minutes- aid in this process.
1. Agenda:
Small, informal meetings may not require a written agenda, but any meeting involving
relatively large number ofparticipants or covering numerous points will run smoothly
if an agenda is distributed in advance. The advantage of having a written agenda is
that it helps participants prepare by telling them what will be discussed, and it helps
keep them on track once the meeting begins.
353
Table 15.6 :Agenda Format
AGENDA
A PLANNING COMMITTEE MEETING
TUESDAY,AUGUST21, 1991
10:00am
EXECUTIVE CONFERENCE ROOM
I. Call to Order
II. Roll Call
ill. Approval of Agenda
IV. Approval of Minutes from Previous Meeting
V. Chairperson's Report
VI. Subcommittee Reports
a) New Markets
b) New Products
c) Finance
VII. Unfinished Business
Vill. New Business
IX. Announcements
X Adjournment
Source: Adapted from J. V. Thill & C. L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication
2. Minutes:
The body of the minutes, which follow the heading, should note the time at which the
meeting started and ended, all the major decisions reached, all assignments of tasks
to the participant~. and all subject~ that were deferred to a later meeting. In addition,
the minutes should objectively summarize important discussions, noting the names of
those who contributed major points. Additional documentation, such as tables, charts
submitted by participants, should be noted in the minutes and attached.
At the end of the minutes, the words "Submitted by" should be added, followed by
few blank lines for signatures, and then the name of the one who prepared the minutes.
354
,...
Unit 15 Fonnats for Business Documents
D) ReportFormat
'lbercportfonnathas these following components: !From "StandardReportComponentc;;"

in H R Ewald & R E Burnett, Business Communication]
• Letter ofTransmittal
• Title Page
• Table of Content
• Text Body
• Appendixes
• Bibliography /Works Cited
1. Letter of Transmittal
I..etter of transmittal will contain three main paragraphs:
• Introduction to report subject and purpose
• Focus on some key points -such as central problem, recommendations
• Courtesy close and a call for action
Letter of transmittal should provide a context for the report that follows. Readers
should be provided with enough information so that they will know what to expect in
the report.
2. Title Page
Title page should contain three main sections (all centred):

• The report title
• Title type style should match the highest-level heading found in the text (all
caps)
• If report title is more than one line in length. double-space between lines
and divide the line according to logical units.
• Person or group for whom the report is prepared
• Receiver line (the name of the one who receives the report) is preceded
by the words "prepared for"
355
• Receiver line should note the title of the receiver, company, and company address
• Identification of report writer(s)
• Preparer line (name of the pcrsonls who has/have prepared the report) should
be preceded by the words "prepared by"
• Preparer line should note the title of the preparer, company, and company address
• Preparer line should include date after address and a space:
3. Table of Content
Table of content has three functions:

• Locating device for topics
• Forecasts extent and nature of topics
• Shows logical arrangement and relationship of parts
Following are some considerations :
• A table of content can serve as an outline while drafting report

• You should match entries to page numbers using a dotted line for easy reading
of topic and page number
• You should also space out entries; overcrowding can hinder referencing
• You should match heading in the content with the highest-level headings found in
the text
4. Text Body
Genenilly, all reports will have certain basic components in the following order·-
• Overview
• Background
• Recommendations
• Evidence
• Discussion
356
Considerations :
• All sections of the report must be easy to find (by good usc of space and logical
arrangement of headings)
• Remember that reports arc persuasive documents that are not to be diluted with
extraneous materials; this will reduce the power of the report.
5. Appendixes
• If appendixes arc used, they need to be listed in a separate section after the
Table of Content
• Appendixes should be used only if visuals arc referred to in multiple sections of

the report
6. Bibliography/Works Cited
• In order to make your report credible, outside research data must be used to
support the report's ideas and argumentative points. In so doing, all outside
sources must be attributed within the text (footnotes, parenthetical citations,
etc.) and in the bibliography.
• You should be knowledgeable of your organization's style preference and use it

properly and consistently.
Visit a company and request them for

1. A blank memo form.
2. A letter written by them to the general audience. Study its format.
3. Formats they use to write reports.
357
15.3 DOCUMENTATION AND CITATION
This section contains excerpts from Business Communication by Helen Rothschild Ewald
& Rebecca E. Burnett
Documentation and citing indicates that you are a careful researcher. It also enables your
readers to make judgement about the credibility of your argument based on these resources.
Let us define these terms.
• Documentation typically refers to the source lists that appear at the end of a document.
When these lisle;; are called Sources, References, or Bibliography, they typically list
all sources used in preparation of a document. When the list is called Source Cited,
it typically lists only sources acn1ally referred to in the document.
• Citation typically refers to the in-text of end-of-document references for specific
materials. These in-text notes (usually in parenthesis or brackets), bottom-of-page
footnotes, or end-of-document notes identify the source for quoted or paraphrased
information. While text citation appear in the text or at the end of the document,
citation for data in visuals or for entire visuals are typically placed immediately after
the visual (as in the case of table, or a figure, etc.)
Circumstances that require citations :
• When you quote material directly, using the exact words from the original source
• When you paraphrac;;e or summarize material, using your own words but generally
reflecting the content and organization of the original source
• When you refer to any information (theories, practices, examples, etc.) that is unique
to or typically associated with a specific person, publication, or organization
• When you use data or information from a source as the content of a visual
• When you usc an entire visual of any sort
Styles for documentation and citations :
There are three most commonly used manuals for documentation and citations:
• Chicago Manual of Style

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA)
• MLA Handbook, published by Modem Language Association
358
Documentation and Citation Formats
1. Journal Articles:
MLAStyle
Jaffe, W. "Walras's Economics As Others See It." Journal ofEconomic Literature
18 (June 1980): 528
In Text: (Jaffe 528)
Footnote: W. Jaffe, "Walras's Economics As Others Sec It,'' Journal of Economic

Literature 18 (June 1980): 528
APAStyle
Jaffe. W. (1980, June). Walras's Economics As Others Sec It. Journal of Economic
Literature, 18, 528
In Text: Jaffe, 1980, pg. 528)
Chicago Manual Style

Jaffe, W. 1980. Walras' s Economics As Others See It. Journal ofEconomic Literature
18:528
In Text: (Jaffe 1980, 528)
Footnote: Jaffe, "Walras's Economics As Others See It," Journal ofr:conomic Literature
18 (June 1980): 528
2. Books:
MLAStyle
Kuhn, T.S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1962
In Text: (Kuhn 123)
Footnote: T.S. Kuhn, The Structure ofScientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1962) 123
359
APAStyle
Kuhn, T.S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
In Text: (Kuhn, 1962, 123)
Chicago Manual of Style

Kuhn, T.S. 1962. The Structure ofScientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
In Text: (Kuhn 1962, 123)
Footnote: T.S. Kuhn. The Structure ofScientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1962), 123.
3. Reference nooks (Signed Articles in a Reference Book) :
MLAStyle
Krooss, Herman. "Business and Industry, History of." Collier:v Encyclopaedia. 1989
ed. 20-27
In Text: (Krooss 20-27)
Footnote: Herman Krooss, "Business and Industry, History of," Collier's Encyclopaedia,
1989 ed. 20-27
APAStyle
Krooss, Hennan. (1989). Business and Industry, history of. In Collier:\' Encyclopaedia
(1989 ed., Vol. 5, pp. 20-27). New York: Macmillan
4. Electronic Resources :
a) CD ROM
MLAFonnat
Weidman, Christine Ingleborg. "Prices for Earnings Expectations: The Role of Loss
Functions". ProQuest. CD-ROM. 1994
360
Unit 15 formats for Business Documents
APAStylc
Weidman, Christine lngleborg (1994). Pricesfor Earnings Expectations: The Role of
Loss Functions {CD-ROM!. Abstract from: ProQuest File: Dissertation Abstract Item:
9409570
b) On-Line Journal Article- General Access
APAStylc
Haynes, Jenny. (1994). Checklist on market makers [ 17 paragraphs]. NASDAQ Financial
Executive Joumal [on-line serial], 4(2). Available: http://www.law.cornell.edu/nasdaq/
nasdtoc.html

Haynes, Jenny. 1994. Checklist on market makers. In NASDAQ Financiall:!.'xecutive
Journal (Vol. 4, no. 2) lon-line serial] Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Law School.
fAvailable from http://wwwllaw.comell.cdulna<>daq/na<>dtoc.htmlj
c) Software-With Author
Ml .AFormat
Wright, Will. Sim City 2000. Computer software. Orinda, CA: Maxis, 1993
APAStyle
Wright, Will. (1993). Sim City 2000 [computer softwarel. Orinda, CA: Maxis.

Wright, Will. Sim City 2000, Maxis, Orinda, CA
RS Activity B :
a) Visit an on-line site and vlrite the citation for On-line Journal Article in all three styles
MLA, APA, and Chicago Manual.
361
h) Write a citation for an abstract from CD- ROM in the MLA and APA style.
15.4 SUMMARY
An effective letter, memo, or report not serves to store messages, but also get across to
the right person and makes the necessary impact to get the appropriate action from the
receiver. To make the right impact on the reader the message has to have the correct
format and medium. Business documents have defmite format that has to be used in order
to create the necessary impact.
All business letters have components that are common - such as heading, date, inside
address salutation, body, complimentary close, and signature block. However, the format~
differ depending on the indentation and punctuation style. I .etters may be used for internal
conununication or external, depending on the type of message. Similarly, memos also have
definite fom1at and arc used primarily for communication within the organization. Other
forms of business documents are the meeting documents - agendas and minutes- and the
reports.
Reports are more elaborate form of written communication. which are usually organized
around a certain problem that the organization encounters. They have definite format and
have the following components - letter of transmittal, title page, table of content, text
body, appendixes, and bibliography/works cited. All these components have their specific
functions that make the report appear professional and credible.
The process of writing reports involves considerable amount of research for which number
of sources have to be referred to. The sources that are used have to be cited. Documentation
and citation arc important part of report writing and should be incorporated in the report.
Giving credit to the referred sources requires a definite format. The most professional
forms of citing these sources are according to the following fom1at - Chicago Manual of
Style; Publication Manual of the American PsychologicalA~sociation (APA); and MLA
Handbook, published by Modem Language Association. Sources for research arc available
in the library in the form of books, journals, reference books, etc., as well as the Internet.
362

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Business Communication

To live is to communicate. Every facet of existence needs communication. Business being

However, one of the neglected areas of human development is communication. Peter

1.2 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION

To tmderstand the nature of communication it is important to know its various dimensions.

1. Communication can be Intentional or Unintentional. Words are used to express

communicate something other than what is intended- they have an unintentional

2. Communication can be Verbal or Nonverbal. Human communication is often

3. Communication can be Internal or External. Internal, or intrapersonal

4. Communication can involve Humans, Machines or Animals. Communication

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Because communication is so important in business, organizations want and need people

Table 1.1 : Chronology of Management Views of Communication

I Management's View of Communication

Management has seven functional areas, including directing

Managerial jobs have ten working roles; communication and

1974 Drucker Communication is one of five ba-;ic management functions.

1983 Kanter The most common roadblock for managers to overcome is

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1. Information: The objective of business is to infonn, which means to transfer

Businessmen thrive on information relevant to their business activities. They must

In order to expand or secure a place in a highly competitive market the businessman

b) Internal Information- information about the strength and weakness of the

• Business organization also needs to communicate information intemally to its workers,

Organizations usc communication process to overcome motivation problem. Following

a) Emotional Climate. The management should use communication in such a

b) Setting Goals or Objectives. Set defmite objectives before the workers so

c) Organizational Information. With the help of house journals, direct talks or

d) Participation in Decision-making. When subordinates are encouraged to

It should be remembered that high or low morale is not a permanent feature of a

a) Maintaining a steady stream of communication between workers, their

c) Employing communication devices such as employees' conferences, audio-visual

c) Stopping false rumours about favouritism, strikes, retrenchment or lock outc;.]

t) Giving fair hearing to employee grievances and accepting their suggestions,

g) Expressing appreciation for good work done and rewarding it.

a) Informal meetings at which the workers arc encouraged to speak freely.

b) Collecting information through the different channels and

c) Circulating specially prepared questionnaires.

4. Order and Instruction : An order is an oral or written communication directing the

Instructions are oral or written orders on a recommended manner in which the

5. Education and Training : Communication in business can be used to widen the

Business communication can achieve the objective of Education at three levels of

prob1em it is necessary for these seniors to undergo special training, refresher

c) Education during Induction: When new personnel join an organization they

Besides these objectives there arc other objectives of business communication

a) State the type of objectives of communication for the following instances:

1.5 I!'ORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

The importance of communication in business becomes more obvious when we consider

Communication is essential for the internal functioning of enterprises, because it integrates

Extemal-opcrational communication includes all the efforts of business in direct selling,

Radio, television messages, newspaper and magazine advertising, website advertising,

An important aspect of external-operational communication is that it displays a company's

The positiveness of tllis message is what is called as good business etiquette.

And good business etiquette contributes to the image of the company.

External-operational commtmication facilitates managerial functions. It is through information

It is through communication that any organization becomes an open system interacting

Not all communication that occurs in a business organi?.ation is operational-deiiliug with

Furthermore, the extent to which personal communication is permitted within an organi7.ation

1.6 COMMUNICATION NETWORK OF THE ORGANIZA110N

Thus, there are basically two types of communication network in an organization:

In an effective organization, communication flows in the following directions:

a) Downward Communication: This is the flow of communication form people

and procedures, giving feedback about performance, and indoctrinating or