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Simplified Power System Modeling Load Models

• Balanced three phase systems can be analyzed using • Ultimate goal is to supply loads with electricity at
per phase analysis constant frequency and voltage
• A “per unit” normalization is simplify the analysis of • Electrical characteristics of individual loads matter,
systems with different voltage levels. but usually they can only be estimated
– actual loads are constantly changing,
changing consisting of a large
• To provide an introduction to power flow analysis we number of individual devices
need models for the different system devices: – only limited network observability of load characteristics
– Transformers and Transmission lines, generators and loads
• Aggregate models are typically used for analysis
• Transformers and transmission lines are modeled as a
• Two common models
series impedances
– constant power: Si = Pi + jQi
– constant impedance: Si = |V|2 / Zi
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Generator Models Per Unit Calculations

• Engineering models depend upon application • A key problem in analyzing power systems is the
• Generators are usually synchronous machines large number of transformers.
• For generators we will use two different models: – It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers
– a steady-state
y model,, treating
g the ggenerator as a constant
power source operating at a fixed voltage; this model will be • Thi
This problem
bl isi avoided
id d by
b a normalization
li i off all ll
used for power flow and economic analysis variables.
– This model works fairly well for type 3 and type 4 wind • This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
turbines
– Other models include treating as constant real power with a actual quantity
fixed power factor. quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1 Three Phase Per Unit

1. Pick a 1 VA base for the entire system, SB Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use a 3VA base, and use line to line
voltage bases
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns 1. Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system, S B3
ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
3 Calculate
3. C l l the h impedance
i d base,
b ZB= (VB)2/SB VB. Voltages are line to line.
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB 3. Calculate the impedance base
5. Convert actual values to per unit
VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
ZB   
Note, per unit conversion on affects magnitudes, not the angles. Also, per unit S B3 3S 1B S 1B
quantities no longer have units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

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Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd
4. Calculate the current base, IB
S B3 3 S 1B S 1B
I3B     I1B
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Bus Admittance Matrix or Ybus
• First step in solving the power flow is to create what
is known as the bus admittance matrix, often call the
Ybus.
• The Ybus ggives the relationships
p between all the bus
current injections, I, and all the bus voltages, V,
I = Ybus V
• The Ybus is developed by applying KCL at each bus in
the system to relate the bus current injections, the bus
voltages, and the branch impedances and admittances
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Power Flow Analysis
• When analyzing power systems we know neither
the complex bus voltages nor the complex current
injections
• Rather, we know the complex
p ppower being g
consumed by the load, and the power being injected
by the generators plus their voltage magnitudes
• Therefore we can not directly use the Ybus equations,
but rather must use the power balance equations
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
9/16/2011
Power Flow Analysis
• We now have the necessary models to start to
develop the power system analysis tools
• The most common power system analysis tool is the
power flow (also known sometimes as the load flow)
– power flow determines how the power flows in a network
– also used to determine all bus voltages and all currents
– because of constant power models, power flow is a
nonlinear analysis technique
– power flow is a steady-state analysis tool
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Ybus General Form
•The diagonal terms, Yii, are the self admittance
terms, equal to the sum of the admittances of all
devices incident to bus i.
•The off-diagonal terms, Yij, are equal to the negative
of the sum of the admittances joining the two buses.
•With large systems Ybus is a sparse matrix (that is,
most entries are zero)
•Shunt terms, such as with the  line model, only
affect the diagonal terms.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Power Flow Slack Bus
• We can not arbitrarily specify S at all buses because
total generation must equal total load + total losses
• We also need an angle reference bus.
• To solve these problems we define one bus as the
"slack" bus. This bus has a fixed voltage magnitude
and angle, and a varying real/reactive power
injection.
• A “slack bus” does not exist in the real power system.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
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Power Balance Equations Real Power Balance Equations

n n
From KCL we know at each bus i in an n bus system
Si  Pi  jQi  Vi  Yik*Vk*   Vi Vk e jik (Gik  jBik )
the current injection, I i , must be equal to the current k 1 k 1
that flows into the network n

n
  Vi Vk (cos ik  j sin  ik )(Gik  jBik )
k 1
Ii  I Gi  I Di   Iik Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
k 1
Since I = Ybus V we also know n

n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
Ii  I Gi  I Di   YikVk n
k 1
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
The network power injection is then Si  Vi I i* k 1

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Newton-Raphson Method (scalar) Newton-Raphson Method, cont’d

G en eral fo rm o f p ro b lem : F in d an x su ch th at 3. Approximate f ( xˆ ) by neglecting all terms
f ( xˆ )  0 except the first two
1. For each guess of xˆ , x (v)
, define df ( x (v ) ) (v )
f ( xˆ )  0  f ( x( v ) )  x
dx
x ( v )  xˆ - x ( v )
4. Use this linear approximation to solve for x( v )
2. Represent f ( xˆ ) by a Taylor series about f ( x )
1
df ( x ( v ) ) ( v )  df ( x( v ) ) 
f ( xˆ )  f ( x ( v ) )  x  x ( v )    (v)
 f (x )
dx  dx 
1 d 2 f ( x( v ) )
 
2 5. Solve for a new estimate of x̂
 x ( v )  higher order terms
2 dx 2 x (v 1)  x ( v )  x (v )
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Newton-Raphson Example Newton-Raphson Example, cont’d

Use Newton-Raphson to solve f ( x)  x 2 - 2  0
x( v 1)  x( v )   ( v )  (( x ( v ) ) 2 - 2)
1
The equation we must iteratively solve is 2x 

 df ( x( v ) ) 
1 Guess x (0)  1. Iteratively solving we get
x (v)
   f (x )
(v )
v x(v) f ( x(v ) ) x ( v )
 dx d 
0 1 1 0.5
   ( v )  (( x ( v ) ) 2 - 2)
1
x ( v )
2x  1 1.5 0.25 0.08333
3
x (v 1)  x ( v )  x ( v ) 2 1.41667 6.953  10 2.454  103
6.024  106
x (v 1)  x ( v )   ( v )  (( x ( v ) ) 2 - 2)
1 3 1.41422
2x 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

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Newton-Raphson Comments Multi-Variable Newton-Raphson

• When close to the solution the error decreases quite Next we generalize to the case where x is an n-
quickly -- method has quadratic convergence dimension vector, and f (x) is an n-dimension function
• f(x(v)) is known as the mismatch, which we would  x1   f1 (x) 
like to drive to zero x   f ( x) 
x    f ( x)   
2 2
• Stopping criteria is when f(x(v))  < 
   
• Results are dependent upon the initial guess. What if x   f ( x) 
we had guessed x(0) = 0, or x (0) = -1?  n  n 
Again define the solution xˆ so f (xˆ )  0 and
• A solution’s region of attraction (ROA) is the set of
initial guesses that converge to the particular solution. x  xˆ  x
The ROA is often hard to determine
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Multi-Variable Case, cont’d Multi-Variable Case, cont’d

The Taylor series expansion is written for each fi (x)
This can be written more compactly in matrix form
f1 (x) f (x)
f1 (xˆ )  f1 (x)  x1  1 x2    f1 (x)
f1 (x) f1 (x) 
x1 x2 
 x x2 xn 
f1 (x)  f1 (x)     x1 
1
xn  higher
g order terms  f (x)   f 2 (x)
f 2 (x) f 2 (x)  
xn  x 
f (xˆ )  
2    x1 x2 xn   2 
       
f n (x) f (x)  f ( x)        
 n    xn 
f n (xˆ )  f n (x)  x1  n x2   f (x)
f n (x) f n (x) 
x1 x2  n  
 x1 x2 xn 
f n (x)
xn  higher order terms  higher order terms
xn
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Jacobian Matrix Multi-Variable N-R Procedure

The n by n matrix of partial derivatives is known Derivation of N-R method is similar to the scalar case
as the Jacobian matrix, J (x) f (xˆ )  f (x)  J (x)x  higher order terms
 f1 (x) f1 (x) f1 (x)  f (xˆ )  0  f (x)  J (x)x
 x 
x2 xn  x   J (x) 1 f (x)
 1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x)

f 2 (x) 
x(v 1)  x(v )  x( v )
J (x)   x1 x2 xn 
  x(v 1)  x(v )  J (x( v ) ) 1 f (x( v ) )
     
 f (x) f n (x) f n (x)  Iterate until f (x( v ) )  
 n  
 x1 x2 xn 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

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Multi-Variable Example Multi-variable Example, cont’d

 4 x1 2 x2 
x  J (x) = 
Solve for x =  1  such that f (x)  0 where  2 x1  x2 x1  2 x2 
x2 
Then
f1 (x)  2 x12  x22  8  0 1
 x1   4 x1 2 x2   f1 (x) 
f 2 (x)  x12  x22  x1 x2  4  0  x     2 x  x x1  2 x2   f 2 (x) 
 2  1 2
First symbolically determine the Jacobian
1
 f1 (x) f1 (x)  Arbitrarily guess x(0)  
 x x2  1
J (x) =  
1
1

 2 x)
f ( f 2 (x)  1  4 2   5  2.1
x(1)         
 x1 x2  1  3 1  3 1.3 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Multi-variable Example, cont’d Real Power Balance Equations

n n
1 Si  Pi  jQi  Vi  Yik*Vk*   Vi Vk e jik (Gik  jBik )
 2.1 8.40 2.60   2.51 1.8284  k 1 k 1
x(2)           
1.3  5.50 0.50  1.45  1.2122  n

Each iteration we check f (x) to see if it is below our

  Vi Vk (cos ik  j sin  ik )(Gik  jBik )
k 1
specified tolerance  Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
0.1556  n
f (x )    Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
(2)
 Pi 
0.0900  k 1
If  = 0.2 then we would be done. Otherwise we'd n

continue iterating.
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
k 1

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Newton-Raphson Power Flow Power Flow Variables

In the Newton-Raphson power flow we use Newton's Assume the slack bus is the first bus (with a fixed
method to determine the voltage magnitude and angle voltage angle/magnitude). We then need to determine
at each bus in the power system. the voltage angle/magnitude at the other buses.
We need to solve the power balance equations  2   P2 (x)  PG 2  PD 2 
n      
   
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin  ik )  PGi  PDi
 n   Pn (x)  PGn  PDn 
k 1 x   f ( x)  
n V  Q (x)  QG 2  QD 2 
 2  2 
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
     
k 1
   
 Vn   n
Q ( x )  Q Gn  QDn 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

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N-R Power Flow Solution Power Flow Jacobian Matrix

The power flow is solved using the same procedure The most difficult part of the algorithm is determining
discussed last time: and inverting the n by n Jacobian matrix, J (x)
Set v  0; make an initial guess of x, x( v )  f1 (x) f1 (x)

f1 (x) 
 x x2 xn 
While f (x )   Do
(v)
 1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x)

f 2 (x) 
x( v 1)  x(v )  J (x( v ) ) 1 f (x(v ) ) J (x)   x1 x2 xn 
 
v  v 1      
End While  f (x) f n (x) f n (x) 
 n  
 x1 x2 xn 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Power Flow Jacobian Matrix, cont’d Two Bus Newton-Raphson Example

Jacobian elements are calculated by differentiating
each function, fi (x), with respect to each variable.
For example, if fi (x) is the bus i real power equation
n
fi ( x)   Vi Vk (Gik cosik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
For the two bus power system shown below, use the
Newton-Raphson power flow to determine the
voltage magnitude and angle at bus two. Assume
that bus one is the slack and SBase = 100 MVA.
Line Z = 0.1j
0 1j

k 1
One 1.000 pu Two 1.000 pu
fi ( x) n

 i
  Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cosik ) 0 MW
0 MVR
200 MW
100 MVR
k 1
k i

fi ( x) 2    j10 j10 

 Vi V j (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik ) ( j  i ) x    Ybus   
 j  V2   j10  j10 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Two Bus Example, cont’d Two Bus Example, cont’d

General power balance equations P2 (x)  V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0
Q2 (x)  V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0
n 2
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cosik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1 Now calculate the power flow Jacobian
 P2 (x) P2 (x) 
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin
i ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
 
k 1 V 2 
J ( x)   
2
Bus two power balance equations  Q 2 (x) Q2 (x) 
V2 V1 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0    V 2 
 2

V2 V1 ( 10cos  2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0 10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2

2

 
10 V2 sin  2 10 cos 2  20 V2 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

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Two Bus Example, First Iteration Two Bus Example, Next Iterations
0   0.9(10sin(0.2))  2.0  0.212 
Set v  0, guess x(0)    f(x (1) )    
1   0.9( 10cos(  0.2))  0.9 2
 10  1.0  0.279 
Calculate  8.82 1.986 
J (x(1) )   
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0   1.788 8.199 
 2.0 
f(x(0) )       1
 0.2   8.82 1.986  0.212   0.233
 V2 (10 cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0 
2
1.0  x(2)         0.8586 
 0.9   1.788 8.199  0.279   
10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2  10 0 
J (x(0) )      0.0145   0.236 
10 V2 sin  2 10 cos 2  20 V2  
 0 10  f(x (2) )    x (3)   
0.0190   0.8554 
1
0  10 0   2.0   0.2  0.0000906 
Solve x(1)            f(x (3) )    Done! V2  0.8554  13.52
1   0 10  1.0   0.9   0.0001175 
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Two Bus Solved Values PV Buses

Once the voltage angle and magnitude at bus 2 are known we can
calculate all the other system values, such as the line flows and the • Since the voltage magnitude at PV buses is fixed
generator reactive power output there is no need to explicitly include these voltages
in x or write the reactive power balance equations
– the reactive power output of the generator varies to
200.0 MW -200.0 MW maintain
i t i the
th fixed
fi d terminal
t i l voltage
lt (within
( ithi limits)
li it )
168.3 MVR Line Z = 0.1j -100.0 MVR
– optionally these variations/equations can be included by
just writing the explicit voltage constraint for the
One 1.000 pu Two 0.855 pu -13.522 Deg
generator bus
200.0 MW 200 MW
168.3 MVR 100 MVR |Vi | – Vi setpoint = 0

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Three Bus PV Case Example Solving Large Power Systems

For this three bus case we have
 2   P2 ( x)  PG 2  PD 2  • The most difficult computational task is inverting the
x   3  f ( x)   P3 ( x)  PG 3  PD3   0 Jacobian matrix
   
 V2   Q2 (x)  QD 2  – inverting a full matrix is an order n3 operation, meaning
the amount of computation increases with the cube of the
Line Z = 0.1j
0 1j size size
One 1.000 pu Two
0.941 pu – this amount of computation can be decreased substantially
-7.469 Deg
by recognizing that since the Ybus is a sparse matrix, the
170.0 MW 200 MW
68.2 MVR Line Z = 0.1j Line Z = 0.1j
100 MVR Jacobian is also a sparse matrix
– using sparse matrix methods results in a computational
Three 1.000 pu order of about n1.5.
30 MW
63 MVR
– this is a substantial savings when solving systems with
tens of thousands of buses
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

7
 9/16/2011

“DC” Power Flow Five Bus Power Flow Example

T2
• The “DC” power flow makes some approximations to T1
800 MVA
1 5 Line 3 4 345/15 kV 3 520 MVA
the power balance equations to simplify the problem 345 kV
– completely ignore reactive power, assume all the voltages 50 mi
400 MVA 800 MVA
are always 1.0 per unit, ignore line conductance, assumes 15 kV 15 kV
angles
l across the
th lines
li are small.
ll

Line 2

Line 1
400 MVA 345 kV 345 kV 40 Mvar 80 MW
– Line flow is then approximated as (i – j)/Xij
15/345 kV 100 mi 200 mi

• This makes the power flow a linear set of equations, 2

which can be solved directly = B P

-1
280 Mvar 800 MW

• While the DC power flow is approximate, it is widely Single-line diagram

used to get a feel for power system MW flows.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

DC Power Flow Example 37 Bus Power Flow Example

Metropolis Light and Power Electric Design Case 2

• For the system shown in the previous slide with bus 1 as SLA CK3 4 5
A

MVA
A

MVA

2 2 0 MW
1 .0 3 pu RA Y 3 4 5
slack 5 2 Mvar
System Losses: 10.70 MW
the system slack and with the below B matrix (100 MVA 1 .0 2 pu

MVA
A
T IM3 4 5
A

MVA
A

MVA

1 .0 2 pu
A

MVA

RA Y1 3 8
A
SLA CK1 3 8
A

MVA

1 .0 3 pu
MVA
T IM1 3 8 33 MW A

base) numbered from buses 2 to 5, determine the bus 1 .0 0 pu

1 .0 2 pu
A

MVA
A

MVA

T IM6 9
1 .0 1 pu
1 3 M var
1 5 .9 Mvar

PA I6 9
1 8 MW
5 Mvar
A

MVA
1 .0 2 pu
MVA

RA Y 6 9
1 7 MW
3 Mvar
A

MVA
1 .0 3 pu

3 7 MW
1 3 Mvar

1 .0 1 pu GRO SS6 9 A

angles using the DC power flow approximation the and

A

2 3 MW
MVA
MVA
FERNA 6 9
7 Mvar A
1 .0 1 pu WO LEN6 9
A A
12 MW
MVA
H ISKY 6 9 3 M var
MVA MVA PET E6 9 A
A
A
4 .9 Mvar
MO RO 1 3 8 MVA
5 8 MW A MVA

3 9 MW MVA
4 0 Mvar 1 .0 1 pu

the flow on the line between bus 1 and 5,

5 which has a pu
MVA
1 3 Mvar 1 .0 0 pu B O B1 3 8 A
12 MW H A NNA H 6 9 2 8 .9 M var DEM A R6 9 A A
5 M var 60 MW
MVA

MVA MVA
1 9 M var
1 .0 0 pu 2 0 MW
1 .0 0 pu
A
1 .0 2 pu BO B6 9
1 2 Mvar
0 .9 9 pu 1 4 .2 M var UIUC6 9 MVA

X of 0.02.
1 .0 0 pu
1 2 .8 Mvar 124 MW 56 MW
KYLE69 A A

4 5 M var
A
MVA MVA 1 3 M var LYNN1 3 8
16 MW
MVA
A -1 4 Mvar
25 MW A A
MVA 14 MW
3 6 M var BLT 1 3 8
A M A NDA 6 9
MVA
1 .0 0 pu MVA 4 Mvar
A 0 .9 9 pu A A

MVA 25 MW MVA MVA SH IMKO 6 9 1 .0 2 pu

A
H O MER6 9 1 0 M var 1 .0 1 pu A 7 .4 Mvar
BLT 6 9 MVA
A
1 .0 1 pu MVA
A
MVA 1 5 MW
2 0 MW
H A LE6 9 55 MW 5 Mvar
3 M var MVA A

2 5 M var A

1 .0 0 pu MVA
MVA

A
A
36 MW A
1 .0 1 pu
60 MW MVA 1 0 M var 7 .3 Mvar MVA
A
A

MVA
1 2 M var
1 .0 0 pu 1 .0 0 pu PA T T EN6 9 MVA

0 .0 M var A
MVA

4 5 MW 1 4 MW RO GER6 9
MVA
1 .0 1 pu WEBER6 9 0 Mvar
LA UF6 9 2 Mvar
1 .0 2 pu
2 3 MW
2 2 MW 1 0 MW
A A
6 Mvar 1 4 MW A

2 0 MW 1 5 Mvar 5 Mvar
MVA MVA 3 Mvar MVA
2 8 Mvar
1 .0 2 pu JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
LA UF1 3 8 1 .0 2 pu SA VO Y 6 9 3 8 MW
1 .0 0 pu
3 Mvar
1 .0 1 pu BUCKY1 3 8 A

A MVA A

1 5 0 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 pu SA VO Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
0 Mvar
MVA MVA

1 5 0 MW
A
0 Mvar

P15 = (1 – 5)/X15 = 0.072/0.02 = 3.6 pu = 360 MW

MVA
1 .0 3 pu
1 .0 2 pu A

MVA

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Good Power System Operation Looking at the Impact of Line Outages

Metropolis Light and Power Electric Design Case 2

• Good power system operation requires that there be no reliability SLA CK3 4 5
A

MVA
A

MVA

2 2 7 MW
1 .0 3 pu RA Y3 4 5
4 3 Mvar

violations for either the current condition or in the event of

slack

System Losses: 17.61 MW A A A

1 .0 2 pu SLA CK1 3 8
T IM 3 4 5
MVA MVA MVA

1 .0 2 pu RA Y1 3 8
A A
A
1 .0 3 pu

statistically likely contingencies

MVA MVA

T IM1 3 8 33 MW A MVA

1 .0 1 pu 1 .0 3 pu
1 3 M var MVA
1 6 .0 M var 18 MW
A 1 .0 2 pu RA Y6 9
A 5 M var 37 MW
MVA A
17 MW A
MVA
P A I6 9 1 3 M var
1 .0 1 pu MVA 3 M var MVA
1 .0 2 pu T IM6 9

• Reliability requires as a minimum that there be no transmission A

2 3 MW
7 M var
A
A

MVA

H ISKY6 9
A

MVA
1 .0 1 pu GROSS6 9
MVA
A

FERNA 6 9
12 MW
3 M var
1 .0 1 pu WOLEN6 9

MVA MVA
P ET E6 9 A

line/transformer limit violations and that bus voltages be within acceptable MO RO1 3 8

12 MW
3 9 MW
1 3 Mvar
H A NNA H6 9
A

MVA

2 8 .9 Mvar
58 MW
4 0 M var

DEM A R6 9
1 .0 1 pu
4 .9 M var

1 .0 0 pu BOB1 3 8 A
A

MVA
MVA

5 M var
A A

60 MW
MVA

limits (perhaps 0.95

0 95 to 1.08)
1 08) 1 .0 0 pu
0 .9 0 pu
1 9 M var

1 1 .6 M var
1 .0 0 pu
UIUC6 9
20 MW
1 2 M var
1 .0 0 pu
MVA

MVA
1 .0 2 pu
MVA

BO B6 9

1 2 .8 Mvar 124 MW 5 6 MW
KYLE69 A A

4 5 M var

• Example contingencies are the loss of any single device. This is known as n- 1 3 Mvar LYNN1 3 8
A
MVA
16 MW
MVA

MVA
A -1 4 M var
25 MW A
14 MW
A
MVA
3 6 M var BLT 1 3 8
A M A NDA 6 9
MVA
1 .0 0 pu MVA 4 M var
A 0 .9 0 pu

1 reliability.
A
A

110% 25 MW MVA MVA SH IM KO 6 9 1 .0 2 pu

MV A
HO MER6 9 1 0 M var 1 .0 1 pu 7 .3 Mvar
A
A

BLT 6 9 MVA
A
1 .0 1 pu MVA
A
15 MW
20 MW 135%
MVA

H A LE6 9 55 MW 5 Mvar

• North American Electric Reliability Corporation now has legal

3 M var MVA
A

3 2 M var A

0 .9 4 pu MVA

3 6 MW 1 .0 1 pu
A A MVA

A
60 MW MVA 1 0 Mvar 7 .2 M var MVA
A
A

MVA
1 2 M var
1 .0 0 pu 1 .0 0 pu P A T T EN6 9 MVA

0 .0 M var A
MVA

45 MW 14 MW ROGER6 9

authority to enforce reliability standards (and there are now lots of 1 .0 1 pu

20 MW
A

80%
LA UF6 9
A
MVA

23 MW
6 Mvar
1 .0 0 pu

2 2 MW
1 5 Mvar
WEBER6 9

10 MW
5 M var
1 4 MW
3 M var
0 M var
2 M var

4 0 M var
MVA MVA
MVA
1 .0 2 pu JO 1 3 8 JO3 4 5

them). See 0 .9 9 pu
LA UF1 3 8

MVA
1 .0 0 pu BUCKY1 3 8

A
1 .0 1 pu
1 .0 1 pu
A

MVA
SA V OY6 9

SA V OY1 3 8
3 8 MW

A
9 M var

MVA
150 MW
4 Mvar

http://www.nerc.com for details (click on Standards)

MVA MVA

150 MW
A
4 Mvar
MVA
1 .0 3 pu
1 .0 2 pu A

MVA

Opening one line (Tim69-Hannah69) causes an overload. This would not be

allowed (i.e., we can’t operate this way when line is in.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

8
 9/16/2011

Contingency Analysis Generation Changes and The Slack Bus

Contingency • The power flow is a steady-state analysis tool, so

analysis provides the assumption is total load plus losses is always
an automatic equal to total generation
way of looking • Generation mismatch is made up at the slack bus
at all the
statistically
i i ll • When doing generation change power flow studies
likely one always needs to be cognizant of where the
contingencies. In generation is being made up
this example the • Common options include system slack, distributed across
contingency set multiple generators by participation factors or by
Is all the single economics
line/transformer
outages
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Generation Change Example 1 Generation Change Example 2

SLA CK3 4 5
A

SLA CK3 4 5
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA

0 MW
MVA
0 .0 0 pu RA Y3 4 5
1 6 2 MW sla ck
3 7 Mvar
0 .0 0 pu RA Y3 4 5
sla ck
3 5 Mvar A A A

A A A
0 .0 0 pu SLA CK1 3 8
T IM 3 4 5
MVA MVA MVA

0 .0 0 pu SLA CK1 3 8 -0 .0 1 pu RA Y1 3 8
T IM 3 4 5
MVA MVA MVA
A
A
-0 .0 1 pu RA Y1 3 8 A
0 .0 0 pu
A
A MVA
T IM1 3 8
MVA
A
0 .0 0 pu
0 .0 0 pu 0 MW
A MVA
MVA
T IM1 3 8
MVA
0 .0 0 pu
0 .0 0 pu 0 MW
A MVA
0 M var
-0 .1 Mvar 0 MW
A MVA
0 .0 0 pu A
0 .0 0 pu RA Y6 9
0 M var 0 Mvar 0 MW
-0 .1 Mvar 0 MW
A MVA
A MVA
-0 .0 1 pu RA Y6 9 MVA
A
0 MW A

MVA
MVA 0 Mvar 0 MW 0 .0 0 pu T IM6 9 P A I6 9 0 Mvar
A
0 MW A
0 .0 0 pu MVA 0 M var MVA
0 .0 0 pu T IM6 9 P A I6 9 0 Mvar A
0 .0 0 pu MVA 0 M var MVA
0 MW 0 .0 0 pu GROSS6 9 A
A A
0 M var
MVA
0 MW 0 .0 0 pu GROSS6 9 A
MVA
FERNA 6 9
A
0 .0 0 pu WO LEN6 9
A
0 M var
MVA MVA
MVA
FERNA 6 9 A 0 MW
MVA
A
0 .0 0 pu WO LEN6 9 MO RO1 3 8
HISKY6 9 0 M var
MVA
A 0 MW
MO RO1 3 8 MVA
A
HISKY6 9 0 M var
MVA A
0 .0 M var
A
MVA
A
0 MW A MVA
-0 .1 Mvar 0 M var
MVA
0 MW 0 .0 0 pu
0 MW MVA
A MVA
MVA
0 M var 0 MW -0 .0 1 pu 0 Mvar A
-0 .0 3 pu BO B1 3 8
P ET E6 9 A

0 Mvar A
-0 .0 3 pu BO B1 3 8
MVA
DEMA R6 9
0 .0 0 pu
MVA A A
P ET E6 9 A

HA NNA H6 9 0 MW
MVA
DEMA R6 9
0 .0 0 pu
MVA A A
0 MW 0 Mvar
MVA MVA
HA NNA H6 9 0 MW
MVA
0 MW
0 M var 0 .0 0 pu BOB6 9
A
0 MW 0 Mvar
MVA MVA

0 MW 0 M var
0 M var
A
0 .0 0 pu BOB6 9 -0 .2 Mvar
UIUC6 9 0 .0 0 pu
MVA
0 M var -0 .1 Mvar
-0 .2 Mvar 0 .0 0 pu -1 5 7 M W 0 MW
UIUC6 9 0 .0 0 pu
MVA

-0 .1 Mvar
A
-0 .1 Mvar -4 5 M var
0 .0 0 pu -1 5 7 M W 0 MW A
0 M var LYNN1 3 8
-0 .1 Mvar
A

0 MW
MVA
-4 5 M var
A
0 M var LYNN1 3 8 A
MVA
0 Mvar
0 MW
MVA
A
A
MVA
0 Mvar
MVA
A
A
0 MW A
0 MW
-0 .0 0 3 pu B LT 1 3 8
MVA
MVA

0 MW A
A
0 MW 0 M var MVA -0 .0 3 pu MVA 0 M var
-0 .0 0 2 pu B LT 1 3 8
MVA

0 M var MVA -0 .0 3 pu MVA 0 M var 0 .0 0 pu A M A NDA 6 9 A

A

SHIM KO6 9 0 .0 0 pu
A
0 .0 0 pu A M A NDA 6 9 A
A

HO MER6 9 0 MW
MVA

-0 .1 Mvar
MVA A
SHIM KO6 9 0 .0 0 pu
A
0 M var -0 .0 1 pu
MVA A
HO MER6 9 0 MW
MVA
MVA
0 .0 M var
A
BLT 6 9 MVA
MVA
0 M var 0 .0 0 pu A A -0 .0 1 pu MVA
BLT 6 9 MVA
0 MW 0 MW
A -0 .0 1 pu MVA A
MVA

0 MW A
0 MW 0 M var HA LE6 9 A 1 9 MW 0 Mvar
MVA
0 .0 0 pu 5 1 M var
MVA A
0 M var HA LE6 9 A 0 MW 0 Mvar
MVA
0 .0 0 pu 5 1 M var
MVA A
0 MW 0 .0 0 pu
A A MVA
MVA A

A
A
0 MW A MVA
0 .0 0 pu 0 MW MVA 0 Mvar 0 .0 Mvar MVA A
A

0 MW 0 Mvar 0 .0 Mvar A
MVA
0 Mvar
MVA MVA A 0 .0 0 pu 0 .0 0 pu P A T T EN6 9 MVA
MVA
0 Mvar 0 .0 M var A
MVA

0 .0 0 pu 0 .0 0 pu P A T T EN6 9 MVA
0 MW 0 MW RO GER6 9
0 .0 M var A
MVA

0 .0 0 pu WEBER6 9 0 M var
MVA
0 MW 0 MW RO GER6 9 LA UF6 9 0 M var
MVA
0 .0 0 pu WEBER6 9 0 M var 0 .0 0 pu
LA UF6 9 0 M var 0 MW
0 .0 0 pu 0 MW 0 MW
0 MW
A A
0 Mvar 0 MW A

0 MW 0 MW 99 MW 0 M var 0 M var
A A
0 Mvar 0 MW A
0 M var
0 MW 0 M var 0 M var -2 0 Mvar MVA MVA MVA

0 M var 0 .0 0 pu JO1 3 8 JO3 4 5

4 M var MVA MVA MVA
LA UF1 3 8 0 .0 0 pu SA VOY 6 9 4 2 MW
0 .0 0 pu JO1 3 8 JO3 4 5 0 .0 0 pu
LA UF1 3 8 0 .0 0 pu SA VOY 6 9 0 MW -1 4 M var
0 .0 0 pu 0 .0 0 pu BUCKY1 3 8 A

3 M var
0 .0 0 pu BUCKY1 3 8 A
A MVA A

0 MW
A MVA A
0 .0 0 pu SA VOY 1 3 8
0 Mvar
MVA A A MVA
0 MW
0 .0 0 pu SA VOY 1 3 8
2 Mvar
MVA A A MVA
MVA MVA

MVA MVA
0 MW
0 MW
A
0 Mvar
A
2 Mvar MVA
0 .0 0 pu
0 .0 0 pu A
MVA
0 .0 0 pu
0 .0 0 pu A
MVA

MVA

Display shows “Difference Flows” between original 37 bus case, and case with Display repeats previous case except now the change in generation is picked
a BLT138 generation outage; note all the power change is picked up at the slack up by other generators using a participation factor approach

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Sitting New Wind Generation Example What does the Future Hold for Wind?
MVA

1.02 pu RAY345
sl

System Losses: 8.73 MW A A A

1.02 pu M VA M VA SLACK138 M VA

MVA
A
TIM345
A

MVA
1.01 pu RAY138
A

M VA
1.03 pu
• Wind has experienced rapid growth over the last decade;
TIM138 A

1.00 pu 1.02 pu

MVA
A

MVA
PAI69
A
1.02 pu
MVA

RAY69
A
but with a large drop in installations expected for 2010.
1.01 pu M VA M VA
1.02 pu TIM69
1.01 pu GROSS69

• Nuclear and renewal generation are running into strong

A A

M VA M VA
FERNA69
A
1.00 pu
A A
12 MW
M VA
HISKY69 3 Mvar
PETE69

“head winds”
M VA M VA
A A

MORO138 M VA
M VA
1.01 pu
0.99 pu BOB138
12 MW HANNAH69 DEMAR69 A A

1.00 pu
5 Mvar

1.00 pu
Wind69 1.00 pu
UIUC69
20 MW
12 Mvar
MVA

M VA
1.01 pu
MVA

BOB69
causedd bby low
l
1.00 pu

A
50 MW A

MVA
A

MVA
0 MW
0 Mvar
56 MW
13 Mvar natural gas prices.
A A
M VA

HOMER69
A

MVA
1.00 pu AMANDA69
-2 Mvar

1.00 pu
A

M VA
MVA
0.99 pu
A
BLT138

M VA
MVA

A
SHIMKO69
• Expiring tax credits is a
BLT69
A

M VA HALE69
A

MVA

A
1.01 pu

A
MVA

continual concern.
1.01 pu MVA
MVA
A A
1.01 pu

• State renewable
A
MVA MVA
A
M VA

1.00 pu 1.00 pu PATTEN69 MVA

A

14 MW ROGER69
M VA
1.01 pu WEBER69
1.02 pu
A
LAUF69

A
2 Mvar

A
portfolio standards will
help with growth.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

9
 9/16/2011

Hurricanes Impact Energy Prices Hurricanes Impact Energy Prices

• Many oil refineries Hurricane Ike, Sept. 2008

and natural gas
pipelines off the coast
• Need to be shut down
and evacuated
• Takes time to get the
systems back up and
running afterwards http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/special/hurricanes/
gustav_091308.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/steo/pub/special/pdf/2008_sp_03.pdf
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

What does the Future Hold for Wind? Distributed Generation (DG)
Vestas to Cut 3000 Jobs (14%) (10/26/10)
Vestas Stock Price Over Last Five Years
Closed
at 176 on
• Small-scale, up to about 50 MW
Wednesday and
169.4 on
• Includes renewable and non-renewable
Thursday! sources
• May
M bbe iisolated
l t d from
f the
th grid
id or grid-
id
connected
• Usually near the end user
Long-term the outlook for wind is probably good. On 9/1/10 EIA reduced their 2010 forecast
for US capacity
additions to 4.3 GW in 2010 and 6.5 GW in 2011; the totals for 2007 were 5.2 GW, 2008 8.4
GW and 2009 10.0GW

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Integrated Generation, Transmission, Pluggable Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Buildings, Vehicles (PHEVs) as Distributed Generation
• Can charge at night when electricity is
cheap
Renewables

Grid
kWh
kWh
PHEV
Smart
meters

Vehicle-to-Grid
Heat kWh

Source: http://www.popularmechanics.com/automotive/new_cars/4215489.html
Combined
Heat and
N. Gas
Power (CHP) • Can provide services
back to the grid
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Source: www.calcars.org
Source: Masters

10
 9/16/2011

San Francisco charging stations, 2009 DG Technologies, Excepting Solar

• Microturbines
• Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines
• Biomass
• y
Micro-Hydro
• Fuel Cells (we’ll be skipping)
• Concentrated solar power is talked about in Chapter 4,
but we’ll skip until after we cover Chapter 7.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charging_stations_in_SF_City_Hall_02_2009_02.jpg
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Reasons for Distributed Generation Terminology

• Cogeneration and Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
• Good for remote locations – capturing and using waste heat while generating electricity
• Renewable resources • When fuel is burned one product is water; if water vapor
• Reduced emissions exits stack then its energy is lost (about 1060 Btu per
ppound of water vapor)
p )
• Can use the waste heat
• Heat of Combustion for fuels
• Can sell power back to the grid – Higher Heating Value (HHV) – gross heat, accounts for latent
heat in water vapor
– Lower Heating Value (LHV) – net heat, assumes latent heat in
water vapor is not recovered
– Both are used - Conversion factors (LHV/HHV) in Table 4.2

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

HHV and LHV Efficiency Microturbines

• Find LHV efficiency or HHV efficiency from • Small natural gas turbines, 230 kW fuel

the heat rate: 500 W to 100s kW

120 kW hot
3412 Btu/kWh • Only one moving part water output
HHV( LHV )  (3.16)
Heat Rate (Btu/kWh) HHV( LHV ) • Combined heat and power
80% CHP 65 kW electrical
• High overall efficiencyEfficiency output

• Convert to get the

LHVother
 efficiency:
HHV  LHV  (4.1)
 HHV 
45 kW waste heat
Capstone 65 kW Microturbine
Note the LHV is less than the HHV
Source: http://www.capstoneturbine.com

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

11
 9/16/2011

Microturbines Microturbines and Renewable Energy

1. Incoming air is • Microturbines are not a renewable energy source since they
compressed ultimately use natural gas as their fuel. But when used for
2. Moves into cool side of combined heat and electricity they can be quite efficient and emit
recuperator & is heated significantly less CO2 than coal.
3. Mixes with fuel in • A possible scenario: If natural gas prices remain low,
combustion chamber commercial/industrial entities will increasingly go “off grid.”
4. Expansion of hot gases Hence they will not be subject to state renewable portfolio
spins shaft standards or utility taxes. This will mean renewable energy
subsidies will increasingly be born by residential customers.
5. Exhaust leaves Average residential price per therm is $0.57 in October in Illinois;
Figure 4.1 with a heat rate of 8.5 this gives electricity at 4.8 cents/kWh.

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Biomass – Current Conditions Biomass – Future Possibilities for

Electricity
• Biomass, including waster, currently provides about 4% of the US • Newer crops are being considered for future biomass,
total energy, a value that is projected to grow to about 7% by including various grasses (such as Miscanthus and
2030.
Switch Grass) along with algae
• In 2008 the 3.85 quad of biomass was split between biofuels such
as ethanol (1.37 quad), waste such as landfill gas (0.436 quad) • Potential uses include both fuel to
and wood (2.04 quad). create
t electricity
l t i it (primarily
( i il the
th
– About 1/10 of the wood was used to produce electricity, primarily by the grasses), and conversion to liquid
paper industry; total generation capacity in US is about 11.3 GW fuels such as ethanol.
– We are not considering liquid fuels for non-electricity use in ECE 333;
ethanol usage was growing at 30% per year – On campus 320 acres in the South
Farms are devoted to biofuel research
• Little to no fuel cost for wood waste but little growth

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Biomass – Future Possibilities for Electricity Cofiring

• Burn biomass and coal

• A full consideration of biomass is beyond our scope of since it
gets into agricultural economics issues • Modified conventional steam-cycle plants
• Miscanthus can be harvested at rates of about 15 tons per acre in • Allows use of biomass in plants with higher
Illinois Once established it does not need to be replanted.
Illinois. replanted This efficiencies
ffi i i
allows the energy potential of about 225 Mbtu per acre; income
depends on energy price, say $2/Mbtu = $450 per acre. For • Reduces overall emissions
comparison corn can yield up to 200 bushels per acre at say
$5.50/bushel = $1100 per acre
– Energy yield is about 225/15 = 15 Mbtu/ton which is similar to coal
– Not a native species so containment could be an issue

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

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Gas Turbines and Biomass
• Cannot run directly on biomass without
causing damage
• Gassify the fuel first and clean the gas before
combustion
• Coal-integrated gasifier/gas turbine
(CIG/GT) systems
• Biomass-integrated gasifier/gas turbine
(BIG/GT) systems
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
A Biomass plant
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
9/16/2011
Biomass and Transportation
• A key issue associated with biomass is the transportation
costs – these grasses are quite bulky.
• A rough estimate of the cost per ton for transportation is
about $1 + 0.1 * round trip distance in miles +
h
harvesting
ti costs t off about
b t $22 per ton.
t So
S if the
th power
plant is 50 miles distant, total cost would be $33 per ton,
or about $33/ton/($15 Mbtu/ton) = $2.2 per Mbtu
• Total US corn planting is about 87 million acres, which
if planted in grass could yield about 20 quad of energy.
– Won’t meet all our needs but could play a major role
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
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