AWS G2.3M-G2.3-2012 - Guide For The Joining of Solid Solution Austenitic Stainless Steels

AWS G2.3M/G2.
3:2012
An American National Standard
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Guide for the
Joining of Solid
Solution Austenitic
Stainless Steels
Provided by IHS Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale, 08/18/2014 09:29:33 MDT
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
An American National Standard
Approved by the
American National Standards Institute
October 16, 2012
Guide for the Joining of

Solid Solution Austenitic
Stainless Steels
2nd Edition
Supersedes AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2009
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Prepared by the
American Welding Society (AWS) G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys
Under the Direction of the

AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by the
AWS Board of Directors
Abstract
This guide presents a description of solid solution austenitic stainless steels and the processes and procedures that can be
used for the joining of these materials. This standard discusses the welding processes and welding parameters, qualifica-
tions, inspection and repair methods, cleaning, and safety considerations. Practical information has been included in the
form of figures, tables, and graphs that should prove useful in determining capabilities and limitations in the joining of
austenitic stainless steels.

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
International Standard Book Number: 978-0-87171-824-2

American Welding Society
8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166
© 2012 by American Welding Society --`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America
Photocopy Rights. No portion of this standard may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form, including mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright
owner.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only or the internal, personal, or
educational classroom use only of specific clients is granted by the American Welding Society provided that the appropriate
fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, tel: (978) 750-8400; Internet:
<www.copyright.com>.
ii
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Statement on the Use of American Welding Society Standards

All standards (codes, specifications, recommended practices, methods, classifications, and guides) of the American
Welding Society (AWS) are voluntary consensus standards that have been developed in accordance with the rules of the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). When AWS American National Standards are either incorporated in, or
made part of, documents that are included in federal or state laws and regulations, or the regulations of other govern-
mental bodies, their provisions carry the full legal authority of the statute. In such cases, any changes in those AWS
standards must be approved by the governmental body having statutory jurisdiction before they can become a part of
those laws and regulations. In all cases, these standards carry the full legal authority of the contract or other document
that invokes the AWS standards. Where this contractual relationship exists, changes in or deviations from requirements
of an AWS standard must be by agreement between the contracting parties.
AWS American National Standards are developed through a consensus standards development process that brings
together volunteers representing varied viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus. While AWS administers the
process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the development of consensus, it does not independently test, evalu-
ate, or verify the accuracy of any information or the soundness of any judgments contained in its standards.
AWS disclaims liability for any injury to persons or to property, or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether
special, indirect, consequential, or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance
on this standard. AWS also makes no guarantee or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information
published herein.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In issuing and making this standard available, AWS is neither undertaking to render professional or other services for or
on behalf of any person or entity, nor is AWS undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person or entity to someone
else. Anyone using these documents should rely on his or her own independent judgment or, as appropriate, seek the
advice of a competent professional in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances. It is
assumed that the use of this standard and its provisions is entrusted to appropriately qualified and competent personnel.
This standard may be superseded by new editions. This standard may also be corrected through publication of amendments
or errata or supplemented by publication of addenda. Information on the latest editions of AWS standards including
amendments, errata, and addenda is posted on the AWS web page (www.aws.org). Users should ensure that they have the
latest edition, amendments, errata, and addenda.
Publication of this standard does not authorize infringement of any patent or trade name. Users of this standard accept
any and all liabilities for infringement of any patent or trade name items. AWS disclaims liability for the infringement of
any patent or product trade name resulting from the use of this standard.
AWS does not monitor, police, or enforce compliance with this standard, nor does it have the power to do so.
Official interpretations of any of the technical requirements of this standard may only be obtained by sending a request,
in writing, to the appropriate technical committee. Such requests should be addressed to the American Welding Society,
Attention: Managing Director, Technical Services Division, 8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166 (see Annex F).
With regard to technical inquiries made concerning AWS standards, oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered.
These opinions are offered solely as a convenience to users of this standard, and they do not constitute professional
advice. Such opinions represent only the personal opinions of the particular individuals giving them. These individuals
do not speak on behalf of AWS, nor do these oral opinions constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of
AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and should not be used as a substitute for an official interpretation.
This standard is subject to revision at any time by the AWS G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys. It must
be reviewed every five years, and if not revised, it must be either reaffirmed or withdrawn. Comments (recommendations,
additions, or deletions) and any pertinent data that may be of use in improving this standard are required and should
be addressed to AWS Headquarters. Such comments will receive careful consideration by the AWS G2 Committee on
the Joining of Metals and Alloys and the author of the comments will be informed of the Committee’s response to the
comments. Guests are invited to attend all meetings of the AWS G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys to
express their comments verbally. Procedures for appeal of an adverse decision concerning all such comments are provided
in the Rules of Operation of the Technical Activities Committee. A copy of these Rules can be obtained from the American
Welding Society, 8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166.
iii
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
This page is intentionally blank.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
iv
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Personnel
AWS G2 Committee on Joining Metals and Alloys
F. S. Babish, Chair Sandvik Materials Technology
G. Dunn, Vice Chair ExxonMobil Development Company
A. L. Diaz, Secretary American Welding Society
R. E. Avery Consultant to Nickel Institute
S. O. Luke Black & Veatch
R. C. Sutherlin ATI Wah Chang
D. J. Tillack Consultant to Nickel Institute
AWS G2E Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Alloys

S. O. Luke, Chair Black & Veatch
A. L. Diaz, Secretary American Welding Society
R. E. Avery Consultant to Nickel Institute
F. S. Babish Sandvik Materials Technology
R. D. Fuchs Böhler Welding Group USA, Incorporated
D. W. Haynie Kobelco Welding of America, Incorporated
W. E. Layo Midalloy
C. D. Ross ESAB Welding and Cutting Products
J. W. Sowards National Institute of Standards and Technology
D. J. Tillack Consultant to Nickel Institute
M. D. Yaple Böhler Welding Group USA, Incorporated
Advisor to AWS G2E Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Alloys

H. W. Record Böhler Welding Group USA, Incorporated
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
v
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
vi
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Foreword
This foreword is not part of AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012, Guide for the Joining of Solid Solution
Austenitic Stainless Steels, but is included for informational purposes only.
The American Welding Society formed the G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys in 1992 in response to an
industry demand for information on welding the metals and alloys that have not been covered by other documents and com-
mittees. This document is written by the G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Underlined text in clauses, tables, or figures indicates an editorial or technical change from the 2009 edition. A vertical
line in the margin also indicates a revision from 2009 edition.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this standard are welcome. They should be sent to the Secretary,
AWS G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys, American Welding Society, 8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130,
Doral, FL 33166.
vii
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
viii
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table of Contents
Page No.
Personnel ......................................................................................................................................................................v
Foreword.....................................................................................................................................................................vii
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................xi
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................................................xii
1. General Requirements .......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope.............................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Units of Measure...........................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Safety ............................................................................................................................................................1
2. Normative References .........................................................................................................................................1
3. Terms and Definitions .........................................................................................................................................2
4. General Information ..........................................................................................................................................4
4.1 History ..........................................................................................................................................................4
4.2 Properties ......................................................................................................................................................8
4.3 Product Forms...............................................................................................................................................8
4.4 Specifications................................................................................................................................................8
5. Metallurgy.........................................................................................................................................................15
5.1 Ferrite Discussion .......................................................................................................................................15
5.2 The Ferrite-Sigma Phase Relationship .......................................................................................................21
5.3 Corrosion Resistance Related to Welding...................................................................................................21
5.4 Heat Tint .....................................................................................................................................................23
5.5 Elevated Temperature Performance ............................................................................................................24
6. Welding and Fabrication Considerations ......................................................................................................26
6.1 Weld Joint Design .......................................................................................................................................26
6.2 Cleaning Prior to Welding ..........................................................................................................................27
6.3 Thermal Arc Gouging and/or Grinding ......................................................................................................28
6.4 Distortion Control .......................................................................................................................................29
6.5 Welding Preheat and Maximum Interpass Temperature .............................................................................29
6.6 Welding Position .........................................................................................................................................30
6.7 Root Pass Welding ......................................................................................................................................30
6.8 Shielding Gas and Cleanliness....................................................................................................................33
6.9 Fixtures and Fitting Devices .......................................................................................................................33
7. Weldability Considerations .............................................................................................................................33
7.1 Solidification Cracking ...............................................................................................................................33
7.2 Mitigation of Solidification Cracking with Ferrite Control........................................................................33
7.3 Various Effects of Sulfur.............................................................................................................................34
7.4 Reheat Cracking in Type 347-SS ................................................................................................................34
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7.5 Other Forms of Weld Cracking and Prevention Strategies .........................................................................34

7.6 Welding Techniques to Minimize Weld Cracking ......................................................................................35
8. Welding Processes ............................................................................................................................................35
8.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) .......................................................................................................35
8.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) ..........................................................................................................40
8.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) ..............................................................................................................48
ix
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Page No.
8.4 Flux Core Arc Welding (GCAW) .............................................................................................................52
8.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) ..............................................................................................................58
8.6 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) .....................................................................................................................60
8.7 Laser Beam Welding (LBW) and Electron Beam Welding (EBW) .........................................................60
8.8 Resistance Welding...................................................................................................................................60
8.9 Brazing .....................................................................................................................................................60
9. Postweld Operations ........................................................................................................................................61
9.1 Visual Inspection ......................................................................................................................................61
9.2 Weld Size..................................................................................................................................................61
9.3 Final Visual Inspection .............................................................................................................................62
9.4 Weld Discontinuities.................................................................................................................................62
9.5 Slag Removal............................................................................................................................................62
9.6 Grinding and Finishing.............................................................................................................................62
9.7 Media Blasting..........................................................................................................................................63
9.8 Cleaning, Pickling, and Passivation..........................................................................................................63
9.9 Electropolishing........................................................................................................................................65
10. Heat Treatment.................................................................................................................................................66
10.1 Solution Annealing...................................................................................................................................66
10.2 Stress Relief..............................................................................................................................................66
10.3 Stabilization Anneal .................................................................................................................................67
11. Storage and Shipping Recommendations .......................................................................................................67
12. Maintenance and Repair .................................................................................................................................67
12.1 Maintenance .............................................................................................................................................67
12.2 Repair .......................................................................................................................................................68
Annex A (Informative)—Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart .............................................................................71
Annex B (Informative)—Informative References ......................................................................................................79
Annex C (Informative)—ASTM Base Metal Specifications for Austenitic Stainless Steels.....................................81
Annex D (Informative)—Estimating the Ferrite Content of Cast Base Materials .....................................................85
Annex E (Informative)—Engineering Terms, Common Conversions, and SMAW Electrode Diameters.................87
Annex F (Informative)—Guidelines for the Preparation of Technical Inquiries........................................................91
List of AWS Documents on the Joining of Metals and Alloys ..................................................................................93
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
x
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
List of Tables
Table Page No.
4.1 The Chemical Composition Limits of Common Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materials ..........5
4.2 The Chemical Composition Limits of Common Cast Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materials .................9
4.3 Mechanical Properties of Wrought Annealed Stainless Steel Alloys ..........................................................12
4.4 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Common Cast Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materials ..................14
5.1 Ferrite Diagram Comparisons of Chrome and Nickel Equivalencies ..........................................................18
5.2 Typical Physical Property Comparisons of Austenitic Stainless Steels versus Carbon Steels ....................26
6.1 Purging Guidelines for Piping......................................................................................................................32
8.1 Chemical Analysis of Stainless Steel SMAW Electrodes............................................................................36
8.2 SMAW Electrodes (AWS A5.4/A5.4M) (specified tensile properties)........................................................38
8.3 SMAW Electrodes: Welding Current, Position of Welding, and Operating Characteristics .......................39
8.4 SMAW Electrodes: Suggested Amperage Ranges for E3xx-15, -16, and -17 Type Electrodes ..................40
8.5 Suggested Welding Parameters, Manual GTAW..........................................................................................42
8.6 Suggested Argon Torch Flow Rates, Manual GTAW ..................................................................................42
8.7 Suggested Gas Cup Size versus Maximum Welding Amperage, Manual GTAW .......................................42
8.8 GTAW (TIG) Shielding Gas Selection.........................................................................................................43
8.9 Chemical Compositions of Bare and Metal Cored Filler Metals (AWS A5.9/A5.9M) ...............................45
8.10 Nickel-Based Consumables, Chemical Composition Ranges......................................................................47
8.11 Nickel-Based SMAW Electrodes, Specified Tensile Properties ..................................................................48
8.12 GMAW (MIG) Shielding Gas Selection ......................................................................................................50
8.13 GMAW Parameters (Short Circuit, DCEP, He + 7.5%Ar + 2.5%CO2 Shielding Gas) ...............................51
8.14 GMAW Parameters (Spray Transfer, DCEP, 98%Ar + 2%O2 Shielding Gas) ............................................51
8.15 FCAW Electrodes Classification Scheme (AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010) .....................................................54
8.16 FCAW Electrodes: Chemical Composition Requirements ..........................................................................55
8.17 AWS A5.22/A5.22M FCAW Electrodes and Rods (specified tensile properties).........................................57
8.18 Shielding Gas Selection for Flux Core Arc Welding ...................................................................................57
8.19 Typical Submerged Arc Welding Parameters, DCEP ..................................................................................59
A.1 Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart—Wrought Standard Grades..........................................................73
A.2 Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart—Wrought Proprietary Grades ......................................................76
A.3 Filler Selection for Stainless Steel Castings ................................................................................................77
E.1 Common Engineering Terms .......................................................................................................................87
E.2 Data ..............................................................................................................................................................87
E.3 Common Welding-Related Conversion Factors...........................................................................................88
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
xi
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
List of Figures
Figure Page No.
4.1 Alloying Variations of Common Austenitic Stainless Steels.........................................................................7
5.1 The Schaeffler Diagram ...............................................................................................................................16
5.2 The DeLong Diagram ..................................................................................................................................17
5.3 WRC-1992 Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal...................................................................................19
5.4a Carbide Precipitation in Type 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel......................................................................22
5.4b Carbide Reaction Temperature Ranges........................................................................................................23
5.5 The Effects of Chromium, Nickel, and Other Elements on the Oxidation Resistance of Steels and
Stainless Steels.............................................................................................................................................25
8.1 Waveform Components and Arc and Burn-Off Rate ...................................................................................53
D.1 The Schoefer Diagram .................................................................................................................................85
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
xii
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Guide for the Joining of

Solid Solution Austenitic Stainless Steels
1. General Requirements
1.1 Scope. This guide presents a description of solid solution austenitic stainless steels and the most commonly used
welding processes and procedures for joining these materials. The most commonly used welding processes, including
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), submerged
arc welding (SAW), and flux core arc welding (FCAW), are discussed in detail; laser beam, electron beam, plasma arc,
resistance, and braze welding are not covered in great detail.
The welding processes discussed in this guide include recommended welding parameters, filler metals, shielding gases,
and fluxes. Procedure qualifications, inspection and repair considerations and methods, and cleaning and safety con-
siderations are also discussed. Practical information has been included as figures, tables, and graphs that should prove
useful for determining the capabilities and limitations in the joining of austenitic stainless steels. This guide does not
address martensitic, ferritic, or duplex stainless steels.
1.2 Units of Measure. This standard uses both the International System of Units (SI) and U.S. Customary Units. The
latter are shown with brackets ([ ]) or in appropriate columns in tables and figures. The measurements may not be exact
equivalents; therefore, each system should be used independently.
1.3 Safety. Safety and health issues and concerns are beyond the scope of this standard; some safety and health infor-
mation is provided, but such issues are not fully addressed herein. Safety and health information is available from the
following sources:
American Welding Society:
(1) ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
(2) AWS Safety and Health Fact Sheets
(3) Other safety and health information on the AWS website
Material or Equipment Manufacturers:
(1) Material Safety Data Sheets supplied by materials manufacturers
(2) Operating Manuals supplied by equipment manufacturers
Applicable Regulatory Agencies
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Work performed in accordance with this standard may involve the use of materials that have been deemed hazardous,
and may involve operations or equipment that may cause injury or death. This standard does not purport to address all
safety and health risks that may be encountered. The user of this standard should establish an appropriate safety program
to address such risks as well as to meet applicable regulatory requirements. ANSI Z49.1 should be considered when
developing the safety program.
2. Normative References
The standards listed below contain provisions, which through reference in this text, constitute mandatory provisions of
this AWS standard. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced standard shall apply. For dated references,
subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of these publications do not apply.
1
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
American Welding Society (AWS) standards:1

AWS A3.0M/A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing,
Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying;
AWS A4.2M:2006 (ISO 8249:2000 MOD), Standard Procedures for Calibrating Magnetic Instruments to Measure
the Delta Ferrite Content of Austenitic and Duplex Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metal;
AWS A5.4/A5.4M, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding;
AWS A5.8M/A5.8, Specification for Filler Metals for Brazing and Braze Welding;
AWS A5.9/A5.9M, Specification for Bare Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes and Rods;
AWS A5.11/A5.11M, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding;
AWS A5.14/A5.14M, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods;
AWS A5.12/A5.12M, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding;
AWS A5.22/A5.22M, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored Welding Electrodes and Rods;
AWS A5.32/A5.32M-97, Specification for Welding Shielding Gas;
AWS A5.32/A5.32M:2011 (ISO 14175:2008 MOD), Welding Consumables—Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion
Welding and Allied Processes; and
AWS A5.34/A5.34M, Specification for Nickel-Alloy Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding.
ASTM International standard:2
ASTM A380, Standard Recommended Practice for Cleaning and Descaling and Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts,
Equipment and Systems.
3. Terms and Definitions

AWS A3.0M/A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering,
Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying, provides the basis for terms and definitions used herein. However, the
following terms and definitions are included below to accommodate usage specific to this document.
austenite. A solid solution phase with the face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure. The FCC crystal structure of
austenite is non-magnetic and remains ductile even at cryogenic temperatures. Austenite forms in stainless steels
when iron is alloyed with sufficient austenite-promoting elements including nickel, carbon, nitrogen, manganese, or
copper.
Charpy test. A pendulum-type single-blow impact test in which the specimen, usually notched, is supported at both
ends as simple beam and broken by a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed is a measure of impact strength and
notch toughness. Ductility is measured in terms of lateral expansion.
cleaning. Cleaning as discussed herein refers to the removal of surface contaminants (lubricants, soil, free iron, etc.)
using cleaning solutions that range from soapy water to organic solvents to acid-based liquids, or by mechanical
means.
creep. The time-dependent strain that occurs under load at elevated temperature.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ductility-dip cracking. A solid-state crack formed at elevated temperatures. Typically occurs in alloys with the austen-
itic face-centered cubic (FCC) microstructure and is associated with an abrupt drop in ductility. This form of cracking
typically occurs with high weld restraint, such as in the thick-section weldments, and when a large austenite grain size
is present.
1 AWS standards are published by the American Welding Society, 8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166.
2 ASTM International standards are published by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
2
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
ferrite. A solid solution phase with the body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure. The term “ferrite” as discussed in
this document is “delta ferrite.” The presence of ferrite during solidification increases resistance to weld metal solidi-
fication cracking but can also promote formation of brittle intermetallics such as sigma phase during subsequent high
temperature exposure. Delta ferrite forms during the solidification of molten stainless steels containing iron alloyed
with ferrite-promoting elements including chromium, molybdenum, silicon, niobium, titanium, aluminum, vanadium,
or tungsten.
free iron. Iron particles or iron deposits on the material’s surface not originating from the stainless steel base metal.
heat (of material). A finite quantity of material melted and produced at a mill at one time.
heat-affected zone (HAZ). The portion of base metal that has had its mechanical properties or microstructure altered by
the heat of welding, brazing, soldering, or thermal cutting.
heat tint. Also called discoloration. Any change in surface color from that of the unaffected base metal; usually associ-
ated with oxidation. Heat tint may occur on the weld, weld heat-affected zone (HAZ), or base metal as a result of
heating from welding or other thermal processes. Heat tint colors may range from pale bluish-gray to deep blue, and
from a pale straw color to a black crusty coating.
hot crack. A crack formed at temperatures near the completion of solidification in weld metal or the partially meted
zone. See also liquation cracking and weld metal solidification cracking.
knifeline attack (KLA). Corrosion that occurs in a very narrow region directly adjacent to the weld fusion line. Stable
carbides (niobium or titanium carbides) in that region are dissolved (put into solution) from the heat of welding, but
do not reprecipitate with carbon during welding or cooling. Instead, chromium carbides form in that region during
high-temperature exposure or when cooling rates after welding are too slow. The precipitation of chromium carbide
sensitizes the region making it susceptible to KLA unless a stabilization anneal is performed. The stabilization anneal
temperature is sufficient to reprecipitate the niobium or titanium carbides, thus removing the sensitization effect (see
Figure 5.4b).
liquation cracking. A form of hot cracking that occurs in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of single pass welds, or in
reheated weld metal in multipass welds due to formation of liquid films along grain boundaries in the partially melted
zone adjacent to the fusion line. Liquation results from the segregation of impurities to grain boundaries or by consti-
tutional liquation e.g., partial melting of NbC or TiC. Can be difficult to detect and typically appear as small cracks in
the HAZ or “micro fissures” in prior weld passes.
magnetic. As used in this document, the ability of a magnet to be attracted to the material being tested.
passivation. The chemical treatment of a stainless steel with a mild oxidant so as to remove free iron from the surface
and speed up the process of forming a protective/passive layer. However, passivation is not effective for the removal
of heat tint or oxide scale on stainless steel.
phase. A portion of a material that has roughly the same composition, structure and atomic arrangement throughout, and
having a distinct boundary between it and any surrounding or adjoining phases.
pickling. The removal of highly adherent oxides using aggressive acid-based solutions. These oxides include heat tint
formed adjacent to welds as well as thicker oxide layers formed during longer term, high-temperature exposure (e.g.,
furnace heat treatments performed without protective atmospheres, mill scales from rolling and forging operations,
and high-temperature service exposure). Pickling is also effective for removing free iron.
precipitate \pri-'si-pԥ-'tƗt\ vb. The process of forming small, discrete particles (phases) (usually formed at elevated
temperatures) within a material’s structure.
precipitate \pri-'si-pԥ-tԥt\ n. Small, discrete particles (phases) usually formed at elevated temperatures within a
material’s structure. Depending on the alloy, their presence can either be intentional and beneficial, or, undesired and
potentially detrimental.
reheat cracking. Weld or heat-affected zone cracking that occurs due to rupture resulting from grain boundary sliding
during the heating sequence of postweld heat treatment (PWHT) or heating of previous passes in multipass
weldments.
3
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
sensitization. The formation of chromium-depleted regions adjacent to chromium-rich carbides that nucleate and grow
on austenite grain boundaries during exposure to temperatures of about 480°C to 850°C [900°F to 1560°F]. With
short-duration exposure in this temperature range, the back-diffusion of chromium from surrounding regions to the
depleted regions is insufficient to restore the depletion. Regions depleted of chromium are susceptible to preferential
attack by a corroding medium.
sigma phase. A hard, brittle, non-magnetic phase with a tetragonal crystal structure containing large amounts of chro-
mium and iron. It can form after extended time in the temperature range of about 600°C to 925°C [1100°F to 1700°F]
and can significantly reduce corrosion resistance and produces a marked reduction in room temperature ductility. It
forms most readily from weld-metal delta ferrite.
solid solution. A solid solution alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements. The type and proportions of
alloying elements are such that the final alloy mixture is designed to be homogenous without separating into multiple
different structure types or chemical compounds.
solution annealing. Heating austenitic stainless steels and holding at a temperature (typically 1040°C [1900°F] mini-
mum) long enough to redissolve constituents to enter into solid solution. Cooling should be sufficiently rapid to hold
constituents into solution.
stress-relief anneal. A heat treatment performed to reduce residual stresses and performed typically in the range of
425°C to 925°C [800°F to 1700°F]. To avoid reducing corrosion resistance resulting from carbide precipitation, only
stabilized grades (e.g., 321, 347, or 348) or the low carbon grades (e.g., 304L, 316L, etc.) should receive this treatment.
super austenitic stainless steel. A series of solution strengthened austenitic stainless steels typically containing high
alloying levels of chromium, nickel, nitrogen, and molybdenum. These alloying additions provide superior resistance
to pitting corrosion and stress corrosion cracking relative to standard austenitic stainless steel grades.
synergic. Terminology used to describe GMAW welding equipment that has the capability to simultaneously adjust various
electrical parameters such as voltage, wave shape, and/or pulsing frequency when the operator adjusts wire feed speed.
weld metal solidification cracking. Usually occurs in the presence of excessive levels of low melting eutectics in the
form of sulfides or phosphides and too low a ferrite content. Typically appears as a centerline crack or crater crack.
whiskers. Short pieces of unmelted GMAW electrode attached to the material being welded. Whiskers are occasionally
found on the interior surface of pipe welds when the GMAW electrode passes through the root opening then shorts
out and welds itself to the weld joint root face.
worm tracks. A linear depression in the surface of a weld as a result of insufficient outgassing of the weld puddle.
4. General Information
4.1 History. Austenitic stainless steels were first researched by Leon Guillet in France in 1904. In 1906, Guillet pub-
lished a detailed study of the iron-nickel-chromium alloys; this study established the basic metallurgical characteristics
of austenitic steels. Between 1908 and 1912, E. Maurer of the research department at Germany’s F. Krupp steel plant
developed the first commercial austenitic stainless steel.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
From the late 1920s, different forms of austenitic stainless steels were produced. The most notable is the use of Type 302
on the roof of the Chrysler Building in New York.
Until 1968, stainless steels were produced by melting the charge in an electric furnace and refining it by certain slag
practices. Carbon contents were lowered by blowing the melt with oxygen; however, they were limited to about 0.05%.
To produce very low levels of carbon (under 0.03% is ideal for welding), special charges were required and the resultant
alloys were designated with the letter “L.” After 1968, the use of argon-oxygen decarburization refining practices began
in conjunction with the electric melt furnace, producing very low levels of carbon as a matter of course. Today’s alloys
may be dual certified to both standard and low carbon compositions and mechanical properties.
4.1.1 Alloy Description. Austenitic stainless steels are iron-based alloys with primary alloying elements of chro-
mium and nickel (see Table 4.1). Chromium contributes to the well known corrosion resistance of the alloys, while
nickel is one of the primary elements that contribute to its austenitic microstructure. Alloying variations of common
alloys are shown in Figure 4.1.
4
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 4.1
The Chemical Composition Limits of Common
Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materials
Base Metal UNS
Type Numbera C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si N Other
201 S20100 0.15 16.0–18.0 3.5–5.5 — 5.5–7.5 1.0 0.25 —
202 S20200 0.15 17.0–19.0 4.0–6.0 — 7.5–10.0 1.0 0.25 —
205 S20500 0.12–0.25 16.0–18.0 1.0–1.75 — 14.0–15.5 1.0 0.32–0.40 —
Nb 0.10–0.30,
209 S20910 0.06 20.5–23.5 11.5–13.5 1.5–3.0 4.0–6.0 1.0 0.20–0.40
V 0.10–0.30
216 S21600 0.08 17.5–22.0 5.0–7.0 2.0–3.0 7.5–9.0 1.0 0.25–0.50 —
218 S21800 0.10 16.0–18.0 8.0–9.0 — 7.0–9.0 3.5–4.5 0.08–0.18 —
219 S21904 0.04 19.0–21.5 5.5–7.5 — 8.0–10.0 1.0 0.15–0.40 —
240 S24000 0.08 17.0–19.0 2.5–3.75 — 11.5–14.5 1.0 0.20–0.40 —
241 S24100 0.15 16.5–19.5 0.5–2.5 — 11.0–14.0 1.0 0.20–0.45 —
301 S30100 0.15 16.0–18.0 6.0–8.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
302 S30200 0.15 17.0–19.0 8.0–10.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
302B S30215 0.15 17.0–19.0 8.0–10.0 — 2.0 2.0–3.0 — —
303 S30300 0.15 17.0–19.0 8.0–10.0 — 2.0 1.0 — S 0.15 min.
304 S30400 0.08 18.0–20.0 8.0–10.5 — 2.0 1.0 — —
304L S30403 0.03 18.0–20.0 8.0–12.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
304LN S30453 0.03 18.0–20.0 8.0–12.0 — 2.0 1.0 0.10–0.16 —
304H S30409 0.04–0.10 18.0–20.0 8.0–11.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
304HN S30452 0.08 18.0–20.0 8.0–10.5 — 2.0 1.0 0.10–0.16 —
305 S30500 0.12 17.0–19.0 10.0–13.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
309 S30900 0.20 22.0–24.0 12.0–15.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
309Cb S30940 0.08 22.0–24.0 12.0–15.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Nb 10 × C min. –1.0
309H S30909 0.04–0.10 22.0–24.0 12.0–16.0 — 2.0 0.75 — —
309S S30908 0.08 22.0–24.0 12.0–15.0 — 2.0 1.0 — —
310 S31000 0.25 24.0–26.0 19.0–22.0 — 2.0 1.5 — —
310H S31009 0.04–0.10 24.0–26.0 19.0–22.0 — 2.0 0.75 — —
310S S31008 0.08 24.0–26.0 19.0–22.0 — 2.0 1.5 — —
310MoLN S31050 0.03 24.0–26.0 20.5–23.5 1.6–3.0 2.0 0.4 0.09–0.16 —
314 S31400 0.25 23.0–26.0 19.0–22.0 — 2.0 1.5–3.0 — —
316 S31600 0.08 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 — —
316H S31609 0.04–0.10 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 — —
316L S31603 0.03 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 — —
316LN S31653 0.03 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 0.10–0.16 —
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
316N S31651 0.08 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 0.10–0.16 —

316Ti S31635 0.08 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 0.10 Ti 5 × (C+N) min. –0.7
317 S31700 0.08 18.0–20.0 11.0–15.0 3.0–4.0 2.0 1.0 — —
317L S31703 0.03 18.0–20.0 11.0–15.0 3.0–4.0 2.0 1.0 — —
317LM S31725 0.03 18.0–20.0 13.0–17.0 4.0–5.0 2.0 0.75 0.10 —
317LMN S31726 0.03 17.0–20.0 13.5–17.5 4.0–5.0 2.0 0.75 0.10–0.20 Cu 0.75
(Continued)
5
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 4.1 (Continued)

The Chemical Composition Limits of Common
Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materials
Base Metal UNS
Type Numbera C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si N Other
317LN S31753 0.03 18.0 -20.0 11.0–15.0 3.0–4.0 2.0 1.0 0.10–0.22 —
321 S32100 0.08 17.0–19.0 9.0–12.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Ti 5 × C min.
321H S32109 0.04–0.10 17.0–20.0 9.0–12.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Ti 4 × C min. –0.60
347 S34700 0.08 17.0–19.0 9.0–13.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Nb 10 × C min.
347H S34709 0.04–0.10 17.0–20.0 9.0–13.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Nb 8 × C min. –1.0
Nb 10 × C min.
348 S34800 0.08 17.0–19.0 9.0–13.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Ta 0.10
Co 0.20
Nb 8 × C min. –1.0
348H S34809 0.04–0.10 17.0–20.0 9.0–13.0 — 2.0 1.0 — Ta 0.10
Co 0.20
28 N08028 0.03 26.0–28.0 30.0–34.0 3.0–4.0 2.5 1.0 — —
1925 hMo¥, f
N08925 0.02 19.0–21.0 24.0–26.0 6.0–7.0 1.0 0.5 0.10–0.20 —
(926)
Cu 3.0–4.0
20Cb3 N08020 0.07 19.0–21.0 32.0–38.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 —
Nb 8 × C min. –1.0
Cu 0.5–1.5
20Mo-4¥, b N08024 0.03 22.5–25.0 35.0–40.0 3.5–5.0 1.0 0.5 —
Nb 0.15–0.35
20Mo-6¥, b N08026 0.03 22.0–26.0 33.0–37.2 5.0–6.7 1.0 0.5 0.10–0.16 Cu 2.0–4.0
25-6MO¥, e N08926 0.02 19.0–21.0 24.0–26.0 6.0–7.0 2.0 0.5 0.15–0.25 Cu 0.5–1.5
27-7MO¥, e S31277 0.02 20.5–23.0 26.0–28.0 6.5–8.0 3.0 0.5 0.30–0.40 Cu 0.5–1.5
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
253 MA¥, c S30815 0.10 20.0–22.0 10.0–12.0 — 0.8 1.4–2.0 0.14–0.20 Ce 0.03–0.08
254 SMO¥, g S31254 0.02 19.5–20.5 17.5–18.5 6.0–6.5 1.0 0.8 0.18–0.22 Cu 0.5–1.0
654 SMO¥, g S32654 0.02 24.0–25.0 21.0–23.0 7.0–8.0 2.0–4.0 0.5 0.45–0.55 Cu 0.30–0.60
31 N08031 0.015 26.0–28.0 30.0–32.0 6.0–7.0 2.0 0.3 0.15–0.25 Cu 1.0–1.4
Cu 1.0
RA-330¥, c N08330 0.08 17.0–20.0 34.0–37.0 — 2.0 0.75–1.5 — Pb 0.005
Sn 0.025
AL-6XN¥, d N08367 0.03 20.0–22.0 23.5–25.5 6.0–7.0 2.0 1.0 0.18–0.25 —
Al 0.15–0.60
800 N08800 0.10 19.0–23.0 30.0–35.0 — 1.5 1.0 —
Ti 0.15–0.60
Al 0.2
825 N08825 0.05 19.5–23.5 38.0–46.0 2.5–3.5 1.0 0.5 —
Ti 0.60–1.2
904L N08904 0.02 19.0–23.0 23.0–28.0 4.0–5.0 2.0 1.0 — Cu 1.0–2.0
a SAE HS-1086, Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
b 20Mo-4 and 20Mo-6 are registered trademarks of Carpenter Technology Corporation.
c RA-330, 253 MA are registered trademarks of Rolled Alloys, Inc.
d AL-6XN is a registered trademark of Alleghany Ludlum Corporation.
e 25-6MO and 27-7MO are registered trademarks of Special Metals.
f 1925 hMO is a registered trademark of ThyssenKrupp VDM GmbH.
g 254 SMO and 654 SMO are registered trademarks of Outokumpu.
Notes:
1. Composition limits are shown in wt %. Specific product material standards should be referred to for the exact composition limits. A single value
denotes a maximum limit except where “min.” (minimum) is indicated. Composition maximum limits for the impurities phosphorous and sulfur are
not listed in this table.
2. Columbium (Cb) = Niobium (Nb).
6
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from the Specialty Steel Industry of North America, “Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of
Stainless Steel,” Austenitic Figure, page 3.
Figure 4.1—Alloying Variations of Common Austenitic Stainless Steels
Steel alloys are termed “stainless” when the chromium content exceeds 10.5% to 12%. The presence of at least 10.5%
chromium provides for the development of a “passive” chromium-enriched film on the surface that resists further oxida-
tion and corrosion. This film is just a few angstroms thick and will regenerate instantly, if disrupted, as long as oxygen is
present.
The austenitic alloys derive their name because of their predominantly “austenitic” microstructure. The term “stainless”
was adopted because the alloy could not be etched using the common etchants that were used for carbon steels. In early
years, etching was termed “staining”; hence, the new alloys were then termed “austenitic stainless steels.”
7
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
The different alloys in the solid solution austenitic family have different compositions and properties, but many common
characteristics. They can be hardened by cold working, but not by heat treatment. In the annealed condition, wrought
base materials are essentially non-magnetic, although some might exhibit a slight magnetic attraction because of varia-
tions in chemical composition and/or the extent of cold working after annealing. Cast alloys, depending on the alloy type
and the specific composition of the casting, can range from non-magnetic to strongly magnetic, depending on the cast-
ing’s ferrite content. Weld metals can also exhibit varying levels of magnetic attraction depending on weld metal ferrite
content. The austenitics are readily formed, fabricated, and welded. They generally have a good combination of corro-
sion resistance, toughness even at cryogenic temperatures, and strength. Some stainless alloys such as Types 304H,
316H, 321, and 347 are used in high-temperature applications because of their improved creep strength.
Wrought alloys were identified in the old American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) system as Type 300 series. Today the
Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) is widely used, and stainless steel is identified by a letter fol-
lowed by a 5 digit number (e.g., Type 304 is S30400). Alloys containing over 2% manganese as a minimum requirement,
along with deliberate nitrogen addition, are often identified as 200 series alloys.
Type 304 (UNS S30400), sometimes referred to as 18-8 stainless, is the most widely used alloy of the austenitic group. It
has a nominal composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Type 304 has excellent corrosion resistance in general
environments and good mechanical properties. Molybdenum is added to various alloys, including Types 316 and 317, for
improved pitting and crevice corrosion resistance compared to Type 304. Type 317 has improved resistance in increasing
chloride environments. Table 4.1 lists the chemical composition limits of some commonly used wrought austenitic
grades.
Cast alloy designations were originally established by the Alloy Casting Institute and have since been adopted by ASTM
International. Alloy designations beginning with the letter “C” are most commonly used for their corrosion-resistant
characteristics in aqueous environments, and in vapors below 650°C [1200°F]. Alloy designations beginning with the
letter “H” are most commonly used above 650°C [1200°F]. The higher carbon content of the H-alloys makes them stronger
at elevated temperatures than the corrosion resistant types. Table 4.2 lists the chemical composition limits of some com-
monly used cast austenitic grades.
4.2 Properties. Since different grades of austenitic stainless steels have different allowable chemical compositions, they
can exhibit a wide range of mechanical properties. The alloys can be strengthened by cold working, and at room temper-
ature, they exhibit yield strengths between 210 MPa to 1380 MPa [30 ksi to 200 ksi], depending on composition and
amount of cold work. Note: The heat of welding removes the effect of cold working in the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with the result that strength will be reduced in the HAZ.
At room temperature in the annealed condition, the wrought austenitic stainless steels typically exhibit Charpy V-notch
energy absorption values in excess of 135 J [100 ft·lbf]. Fatigue or endurance limits (in bending) of austenitic stainless
steels in the annealed condition are about one half the tensile strength. These alloys also exhibit good ductility and
toughness even at high strengths and at cryogenic temperatures.
The mechanical properties of wrought, annealed austenitic stainless steels are listed in Table 4.3. The mechanical properties
of annealed, cast austenitic stainless steels are listed in Table 4.4.
4.3 Product Forms. Wrought austenitic stainless steels are produced under a wide variety of industry standards includ-
ing the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Aerospace Materials Specifications (AMS), the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), ASTM International, Military Standards (MIL), and SAE International standards.
International standards include AS (Australia), CSA (Canada), GB (China), EN (Europe), AFNOR (France), DIN EN
(Germany), MSZ (Hungary), IS (India), ISO (International), UNI (Italy), JIS (Japan), PNH (Poland), STAS (Romania),
GOST (Russia), UNE (Spain), SIS (Sweden), BS (UK), as well as others.
Various references for finding information on materials produced according to international standards can be found in
Annex B.
4.4 Specifications. For a list of common ASTM International standards applicable to wrought and cast austenitic stainless
steels, refer to Annex C.
8
Provided by IHS
Table 4.2
The Chemical Composition Limits of Common Cast Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materials
Typical ASTM Reference
UNS Microstructure Designation Wrought
Gradea Numberb & Otherc Referenced Grade C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si Other
A351
CE20N J92802 — — 0.20 23.0–26.0 8.0–11.0 0.50 1.50 1.50 N: 0.08–0.20
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

A451
A351
CF3 A451
J92500 4 304L 0.03 17.0–21.0 8.0–12.0 0.50 1.50 2.00 —
CF3A A743
A744
A351
CF3M A451
J92800 4 316L 0.03 17.0–21.0 9.0–13.0 2.0–3.0 1.50 1.50 —
CF3MA A743
A744
A351
CF8 A451
J92600 4 304 0.08 18.0–21.0 8.0–11.0 0.50 1.50 2.00 —
CF8A A743
A744
9
A351
A451
CF8C J92710 4 347 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 0.50 1.50 2.00 Nb: 8 × C min. –1.0
A743
A744
A351
A451
CF8M J92900 4 316 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 1.50 1.50 —
A743
A744
Not for Resale, 08/18/2014 09:29:33 MDT

CF10 J92590 4 A351 304H 0.04–0.10 18.0–21.0 8.0–11.0 0.50 1.50 2.00 —
CF10M J92901 4 A351 316H 0.04–0.10 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 1.50 1.50 —
CF10MC J92971 A351 — 0.10 15.0–18.0 13.0–16.0 1.75–2.25 1.50 1.50 Nb: 10 × C min. –1.20
Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

CF20 J92602 4 A743 302 0.20 18.0–21.0 8.0–11.0 — 1.50 2.00 —
A351
CF10SMnN J92972 4 Nitronic 60 0.10 16.0–18.0 8.0–9.0 — 7.0–9.0 3.5–4.5 N: 0.08–0.18
A743
N: 0.20–0.40
A351
CG6MMN J93790 Nitronic 50 0.06 20.5–23.5 11.5–13.5 1.5–3.0 4.0–6.0 1.0 Nb: 0.10–0.30
A743
V: 0.10–0.30
(Continued)
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Provided by IHS
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
A351

CG8M J93000 4 A743 317 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–13.0 3.0–4.0 1.5 1.5 —
A744
CG12 J93001 — A743 309 0.12 20.0–23.0 10.0–13.0 — 1.50 2.00 —
A351
CH8 J93400 — — 0.08 22.0–26.0 12.0–15.0 0.50 1.50 1.50 —
A451
A351
CH10 J93401 8 A451 309 0.04–0.10 22.0–26.0 12.0–15.0 0.50 1.50 2.00 —
A743
A351
CH20 J93402 8 A451 309 0.04–0.20 22.0–26.0 12.0–15.0 0.50 1.50 2.00 —
A743
A351
10
CK20 J94202 5 A451 310 0.04–0.20 23.0–27.0 19.0–22.0 0.50 1.50 1.75 —
A743
A351
N: 0.18–0.24
CK3MCuN J93254 6 A743 254 SMO 0.025 19.5–20.5 17.5–19.5 6.0–7.0 1.20 1.00
Cu: 0.50–1.0
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A744
A351
CN3M J94652 6 — 0.03 20.0–22.0 23.0–27.0 4.5–5.5 2.00 1.00 —
A743

A743 N: 0.18–0.26
CN3MN J94651 6 AL6XNTM, e 0.03 20.0–22.0 23.5–25.5 6.0–7.0 2.00 1.00
A744 Cu: 0.75
A744
CN3MCu J80020 20Cb-3 0.03 19.0–22.00 27.5–30.5 2.0–3.0 1.50 1.00 Cu: 3.0–3.5
A990

A351
CN7M N08007 6 A743 20Cb-3 0.07 19.0–22.0 27.5–30.5 2.0–3.0 1.5 1.5 Cu: 3.0–4.0
A744
CT15C N08151 7 A351 — 0.05–0.15 19.0–21.0 31.0–34.0 — 0.15–1.50 0.50–1.50 Nb 0.50–1.50
Cu: 1.50–3.50
CU5MCuC N08826 6 A494 Inconel 825 0.05 19.5–23.5 38.0–44.0 2.5–3.5 1.0 1.0
Nb 0.10–0.30
HE J93403 4, 3 A297 312/CE30 0.20–0.50 26.0–30.0 8.0–11.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —
(Continued)
Provided by IHS
HF J92603 7, 3 A297 302 0.20–0.40 18.0–23 8.0–12.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —

HH J93503 7, 8, 3 A297 309/CH20 0.20–0.50 24.0–28.0 11.0–14.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —
HK J94224 7 A297 310/CK20 0.20–0.60 24.0–28.0 18.0–22.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —
A351
HK30 J94203 7 — 0.25–0.35 23.0–27.0 19.0–22.0 0.50 1.50 1.75 —
A608
A351
HK40 J94204 7 — 0.35–0.45 23.0–27.0 19.0–22.0 0.50 1.50 1.75 —
A608
HL J94604 7, 3 A297 — 0.20–0.60 28.0–32.0 18.0–22.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —
HN J94213 6, 3 A297 — 0.20–0.50 19.0–23.0 23.0–27.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
HP J95705 6 A297 — 0.35–0.75 24–28 33–37 0.50 2.00 2.50 —
HT J94605 6, 3 A297 330 (15–35) 0.35–0.75 15.0–19.0 33.0–37.0 0.50 2.00 2.50 —
11
HU J95405 6 A297 (19–39) 0.35–0.75 17.0–21.0 37.0–41.0 0.50 2.00 2.50 —
a For brevity, grades listed under ASTM A451 do not show the “P” after the “C.” For example, ASTM A451 grade CPF3 is listed in this table simply as CF3.
b SAE HS-1086, Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
c Ferrite content of stainless steel cast alloys can be estimated using the Schoefer diagram (see Annex D).
d ASTM A297/A297M, Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Iron-Chromium and Iron-Chromium-Nickel, Heat Resistant for General Application.
ASTM A351/A351M, Standard Specification for Castings, Austenitic, for Pressure-Containing Parts.
ASTM A451/A451M, Standard Specification for Centrifugally Cast Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service.
ASTM A608/A608M, Standard Specification for Centrifugally Cast Iron-Chromium-Nickel High-Alloy Tubing for Pressure Application at High Temperatures.
ASTM A743/A743M, Standard Specification for Castings, Iron-Chromium, Iron-Chromium-Nickel, Corrosion Resistant for General Application.

ASTM A744/A744M, Standard Specification for Castings, Iron-Chromium-Nickel, Corrosion Resistant for Severe Service.
e AL-6XN is a registered trademark of Alleghany Ludlum Corporation.
Notes:
1. Composition limits were excerpted from the referenced ASTM Specifications. Limits are shown in wt %. Specific product material standards should be referred to for the exact composition limits. A
single value denotes a maximum limit except where “min.” (minimum) is indicated. Composition limits for P and S are not listed in this table. P and S limits typically do not exceed 0.040 wt % with

some exceptions.
2. Columbium (Cb) = Niobium (Nb).
3. Similar alloys are listed in ASTM A608. HE35, HF30, HH33, HL30, HL40, HN40, HT50.
4. Depending on the chemical composition of the casting, the structure may range from fully austenitic-to-austenite with up to 40% ferrite. Most commonly the grades contain from 5% to 40% ferrite.
5. Predominately austenitic microstructure (with minor amounts of ferrite).
6. Completely austenitic.
7. Carbides in an austenitic matrix.
8. Carbides in an austenitic matrix with minor amounts of ferrite.
9. Ferrite content of stainless steel cast alloys can be estimated using the Schoefer diagram (see Annex D).
10. HN, HT, and HU alloys do not form sigma phase under any conditions. A ratio of 2 silicon to 1 part carbon in matching type filler metal provides the best weld properties for these grades.
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 4.3
Mechanical Properties of Wrought Annealed Stainless Steel Alloys
Tensile Strength, min. Yield Strength, min. Elongation in Hardness, Maximum
50 mm [2 in]
Type UNS No. MPa ksi MPa ksi Min. % Brinell Rockwell B
201-1 S20100 515 75 260 38 40 217 95
201-2 S20100 655 95 310 45 40 241 100
202 S20200 620 90 260 38 40 241 —
209 S20910 725 105 415 60 30 241 100
216 S21600 690 100 415 60 40 241 100
218 S21800 655 95 345 50 35 241 100
219 (XM-11) sheet S21904 690 100 415 60 40 — —
240 S24000 690 100 415 60 40 241 100
301 S30100 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
302 S30200 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
304 S30400 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
304L S30403 485 70 170 25 40 201 92
304LN S30453 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
304H S30409 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
304N S30451 550 80 240 35 30 217 95
304HN S30452 620 90 345 50 30 241 100
305 S30500 485 70 170 25 40 183 88
309H S30909 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
309S S30908 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
310Cb S31040 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
310H S31009 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
310HCb S31041 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
310S S31008 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
310MoLN sheet S31050 580 84 270 39 25 217 95
254SMo S31254 690 100 310 45 35 223 96
316 S31600 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
316H S31609 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
316L S31603 485 70 170 25 40 217 95
316LN S31653 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
316N S31651 550 80 240 35 35 217 95
(Continued)
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
12
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

Mechanical Properties of Wrought Annealed Stainless Steel Alloys
Tensile Strength, min. Yield Strength, min. Elongation in Hardness, Maximum
50 mm [2 in]
Type UNS No. MPa ksi MPa ksi Min. % Brinell Rockwell B
316Ti S31635 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
317 S31700 515 75 205 30 35 217 95
317L S31703 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
317LM S31725 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
317LMN S31726 550 80 240 35 40 223 96
317LN S31753 550 80 240 35 40 217 95
321 S32100 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
321H S32109 515 75 205 30 40 217 95
347 S34700 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
347H S34709 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
348 S34800 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
348H S34809 515 75 205 30 40 201 92
28 N08028 500 73 214 31 40 — 70–90
1925 hMo N08925 600 87 295 43 40 — —
20Cb3 N08020 550 80 240 35 30 217 95
20Mo-4 N08024 550 80 240 35 30 — —
20Mo-6 N08026 550 80 240 35 30 — —
25-6MO N08926 650 94 295 43 35 — —
27-7MO S31277 770 112 360 52 40 — —
253 MA S30815 600 87 310 45 40 217 95
254 SMO S31254 690 100 310 45 35 223 96
654 SMO S32654 750 109 430 62 40 250 —
31 N08031 650 94 276 40 40 — —
RA 330 N08330 483 70 207 30 — — 70–90
AL-6XN N08367 690 100 310 45 30 — 100

--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
800 N08800 520 75 205 30 30 — —
825 N08825 586 85 241 35 30 — —
904L N08904 490 71 220 31 35 — 90
18-18-2 S38100 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

Source: Extracted from various applicable ASTM specifications for sheet and plate product forms in the solution annealed condition. Minimum specified
mechanical properties may vary slightly—depending on the product specification.
13
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 4.4
Minimum Mechanical Properties of Common Cast Austenitic Stainless Steel Base Materialsa
UTS, min. YS, min.
% Elong. min. in
Grade UNS Numberb MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm [2 in]
CE20N J92802 485 70 195 28 35
CF3 J92500 485 70 205 30 35
CF3A J92500 530 77 240 35 35
CF3M J92800 485 70 205 30 30
CF3MA J92800 559 80 255 37 30
CF8 J92600 485 70 205 30 35
CF8A J92600 530 77 240 35 35
CF8C J92710 485 70 205 30 30
CF8M J92900 485 70 205 30 30
CF10 J92590 485 70 205 30 35
CF10M J92901 485 70 205 30 30
CF10MC J92971 485 70 205 30 20
CF20 J92602 485 70 205 30 30
CF10SMnN J92972 585 85 290 42 30
CG6MMN J93790 585 85 290 42 30
CG8M J93000 520 75 240 35 25
CG12 J93001 485 70 195 28 35
CH8 J93400 450 65 195 28 30
CH10 J93401 485 70 205 30 30
CH20 J93402 485 70 205 30 30
CK20 J94202 450 65 195 28 30
CK3MCuN J93254 550 80 260 38 35
CN3M J94652 435 63 170 25 30
CN3MN J94651 550 80 260 38 35
CN7M N08007 425 62 170 25 35
CT15C N08151 435 63 170 25 20
CU5MCuC N08826 520 75 240 35 20
HE J93403 585 85 275 40 9
HF J92603 485 70 240 35 25
HH J93503 515 75 240 35 10
J94224 450 65 240 35 10
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
HK
HK30 J94203 450 65 240 35 10
HK40 J94204 425 62 240 35 10
HL J94604 450 65 240 35 10
HN J94213 435 63 — — 8
HP J95705 430 62.5 235 34 4.5
HT J94605 450 65 — — 4
HU J95405 450 65 — — 4
b Source: Mechanical properties were adapted from ASTM specifications listed in Table 4.2 for the annealed condition.
Note: Grades produced under some ASTM standards require tensile testing only when specified in a purchase order.
14
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
5. Metallurgy
5.1 Ferrite Discussion
5.1.1 Austenite- and Ferrite-Forming Elements. In addition to the primarily austenitic (face-centered cubic) crystal
structure, many of the austenitic alloys (base and weld metals) also contain a small amount of ferrite.
Elements that have been considered to promote the formation of ferrite include chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), sili-
con (Si), niobium (Nb), titanium (Ti), aluminum (Al), vanadium (V), and tungsten (W).
Elements that have been considered to promote the formation of austenite include nickel (Ni), carbon (C), nitrogen (N),
manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu).
Base materials and filler metals are produced to provide the desired chemical composition, microstructure, properties,
and corrosion resistance. Changing the quantity and ratio of one or more specific elements in austenitic alloys can signif-
icantly alter the alloy’s microstructure and properties. Base and filler metal producers can alter the proportions of auste-
nite and ferrite by altering the amounts and the ratio of ferrite-forming elements to austenite-forming elements.
Cast “austenitic” alloys, depending on the alloy type and the specific composition of the casting, can range from fully
austenitic to containing up to 40% ferrite. Table 4.2 provides information on the typical microstructures found in cast
alloys. The presence of ferrite in castings generally increases strength and decreases toughness, and improves the mate-
rial’s weldability. Depending on the service environment, the presence of ferrite can either improve or decrease the
alloy’s relative corrosion resistance characteristics. The estimation of the ferrite content of cast base materials using the
Schoefer diagram is discussed in Annex D.
5.1.2 Ferrite (Constitution) Diagrams. The amount of weld metal ferrite can be estimated by using the actual filler
metal chemical composition and a ferrite diagram (also known as a constitution diagram). Ferrite diagrams can also be
used to predict whether a wrought base material has the potential to contain ferrite, even though in wrought products,
ferrite can be eliminated by hot-working (rolling and forging) and also by heat treatment.
A ferrite diagram plots the austenite-promoting elements (called Ni-equivalents) and the ferrite-promoting elements
(called Cr-equivalents); both equivalents are computed from the composition of the material. The most recently devel-
oped, widely used ferrite diagram is the WRC-1992 Diagram.
Of the numerous ferrite diagrams that have been developed, the Schaeffler diagram, developed in the 1940s, is still
widely used. Shown as Figure 5.1, the Schaeffler diagram is reasonably accurate for conventional 300 series stainless
steel weld deposits using the SMAW process, but is less accurate when less conventional compositions are used and when
a high level of nitrogen (a powerful austenite former) is present. The diagram predicts ferrite as a percentage (e.g., % ferrite).
The ferrite diagrams developed since the Schaeffler diagram use Ferrite Number (FN) values instead of % ferrite. Origi-
nally, the ferrite content of weld metal was expressed as a percentage, which presented a problem in reproducibility among
testing sources. This problem was reduced by using the FN system, which relied on a set of magnetic standards that could
be used as universally accepted values. The FN values below 10 are believed to be very close to the % ferrite values pre-
viously used, but they are not necessarily the true absolute ferrite percentage of the weld. FNs above 10 exceed the true
volume percent of ferrite in the weld, but the FNs established for the higher ferrite content welds have been developed by
extensive magnetic testing and comparisons and have been universally accepted as standard values.
Each specific ferrite-forming or austenite-forming element has its own relative “potency” that contributes to the forma-
tion of ferrite or austenite. For example, both carbon and nitrogen are “strong” austenite formers. Very small changes in
the amounts of carbon and nitrogen can result in significant changes to the proportions of austenite and ferrite. Nickel is
the principal element added to the austenitic alloys that ensures the alloy will be primarily austenitic, but nickel does not
have the same “potency” as carbon or nitrogen. For example, changes as small as 0.05 wt % of nitrogen and/or carbon
content have as great of an effect as a 1% change in nickel in determining the final austenite and ferrite content of the
base material or weld metal.
To use any of the ferrite/constitution diagrams, the actual chemical composition of the alloy heat analysis is used to
determine both the chromium-equivalent (Creq) number and the nickel-equivalent (Nieq) number. The Creq number is cal-
culated using a simple mathematical formula with the actual wt % of all ferrite-promoting elements. Since chromium is
the principal ferrite-promoting element added to austenitic alloys, the formula used to determine the total effect of the
ferrite-promoting elements is termed as a “chromium-equivalent.” Similarly, all austenite-promoting elements are used
to calculate the “nickel-equivalent.”
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
15
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Note: Composition ranges for materials are shown for illustration and are not part of the original diagram.
Source: Reproduced from AWS The Professional's Advisor on Welding of Stainless Steels, 1999, Figure 8-7, Miami: American Welding
Society.
Figure 5.1—The Schaeffler Diagram
The Nieq is plotted on the vertical axis of the diagram, and the Creq is plotted on the horizontal axis. The FN may be esti-
mated by drawing a horizontal line across the diagram from the Nieq and a vertical line from the Creq. The FN is indicated
by the diagonal line that passes through the intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines.
Not all filler metal manufacturers analyze consumables for nitrogen content since nitrogen is not an element required to
be controlled or reported for most filler metals. Nitrogen content is essential, however, for accurately predicting weld
metal ferrite. Consequently, filler metal purchase specifications should state that nitrogen must be reported. This require-
ment, however, has the potential of reducing the availability of consumables.
In addition to heat-to-heat variations of nitrogen in welding consumables, the nitrogen content of weld deposits also
depends on the welding process and process variables such as electrical stickout, voltage, and shielding gas effective-
ness. The typical nitrogen content of weld deposits for a specific welding process can be established by analysis, and
these typical nitrogen values may be used to help estimate ferrite contents in other instances when nitrogen content is
unknown.
The DeLong Diagram, Figure 5.2, was developed in the 1970s. It includes the effects of nitrogen, provides estimates for
nitrogen when actual values are unknown, and provides better correlation with GTAW and GMAW weld deposits than
the Schaeffler Diagram because it includes nitrogen analysis to predict ferrite. It uses FN instead of % ferrite.
This diagram allows the use of typical nitrogen levels to be used if the actual nitrogen content is unknown, albeit with the
risk that the estimated nitrogen content may not closely reflect the actual content.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
16
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Note: Calculate the nickel and chromium equivalents from the weld metal analysis. If nitrogen analysis of the weld metal is not available,
assume 0.06% for GTA and covered electrode, or 0.08% for GMA weld metals. If the chemistry is accurate, the diagram predicts the
WRC Ferrite Number within ±3 in approximately 90% of the tests for the 308, 309, 316, and 317 families.
Source: Reproduced from AWS The Professional’s Advisor on Welding of Stainless Steels, 1999, Figure 8-6, Miami: American Welding Society.
Figure 5.2—The DeLong Diagram
The WRC Diagram uses an FN scale instead of defining ferrite as a volume percent as in the Schaeffler Diagram. Using
volume percent to characterize ferrite turned out to be relatively nonreproducible, while defining ferrite content based on
the FN scale is much more reproducible.3 The FN scale is defined by a set of National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology (NIST, formerly the National Bureau of Standards) coating thickness standards. Each standard specimen in a set
has a unique thickness of non-magnetic plating over a magnetic substrate. Each specimen is assigned an FN value, and a
series of these standards is used to develop a calibration procedure. The basic test instrument used for the WRC FN sys-
tem is a Magne-Gage.4, 5, 6 Other instruments can also be calibrated according to this system using secondary standards
also available from NIST. The calibration system is completely defined in AWS A4.2M:2006 (ISO 8249:2000 MOD),
Standard Procedures for Calibrating Magnetic Instruments to Measure the Delta Ferrite Content of Austenitic and
Duplex Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metal. A further refinement of the WRC-1992 Diagram incorporating the
effects of 1%, 4%, and10% manganese on martensite formation, has also been published.7
Table 5.1 offers a comparison of the aforementioned ferrite diagrams:
3 Kotecki, D., 2000, Stainless Q & A, Welding Journal 79(12): 64–65.

4 Magne-Gage is a registered trademark of Magne-Gage Sales & Service Co., Inc.
5 McKay Welding Technical Bulletin SS-300-F, Welding Stainless Steels.
6 Kotecki, D., 1997, Ferrite Determination in Stainless Steel Welds—Advances Since 1974, Welding Journal 76(1): 24-s.
7 Kotecki, D., 2000, A Martensite Boundary on the WRC-1992 Diagram—Part 2: The Effect of Manganese, Welding Journal 79(12):
346-s–354-s.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
17
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 5.1
Ferrite Diagram Comparisons of Chrome and Nickel Equivalencies
Ferrite Predictor Creq Nieq Comments
— Original method of calculating Ferrite in 300 series

%Cr + %Mo %Ni + (30 × %C)
Stainless Steels
Schaeffler
+ (1.5 × %Si) + (0.5 × %Mn) — Range of Ferrite 0%–100%
+ (0.5 × %Nb)
%Cr + %Mo %Ni + (30 × %C) — Modification of the Schaeffler Diagram
— Improved correlation between predicted and measured

+ (1.5 × %Si) + (30 × %N)
ferrite
DeLong
— Allows standard Nitrogen values for various welding
+ (0.5 × %Nb) + (0.5 × %Mn)
processes
— Range of Ferrite 0 FN–18 FN
— Method with the closest agreement between predicted
%Cr + %Mo %Ni + (35 × %C)
and measured ferrite
WRC-1992
+ (0.7 × %Nb) + (20 × %N) — Range of Ferrite 0 FN–100 FN
+ (0.25 × %Cu) — Suitable for Duplex Stainless Steel

Note: Manganese and silicon are not used to calculate the Nieq and Creq equivalents for the WRC-1992 Diagram because their effects were found to be
statistically insignificant at levels up to at least 10% Mn and 1% Si.
In the late 1980s, the Welding Research Council (WRC) funded the development of an improved ferrite diagram termed
the WRC-1988 Diagram (not shown). It covers a broader range of compositions than the DeLong Diagram and is consid-
ered to be more accurate for predicting ferrite content of the 300 series stainless steel weld metals. The WRC-1988 Diagram
was revised and improved several years later, and the WRC-1992 Diagram took its place (see Figure 5.3).
5.1.3 Measuring Ferrite Number. The FN can be easily determined by measurements made directly on weld deposits.
Several instruments are available commercially to make this measurement, such as the Magne Gage, Severn Gage,
Foerster Meter, and Feritscope. All the instruments are portable except the Magne Gage which is used primarily in
laboratory conditions. Consequently, the test specimen size is limited when the Magne Gage is used. Manufacturer’s liter-
ature should be consulted for operating instructions.
Buyers of fabricated products frequently specify restrictions for deposited weld metal ferrite content. Fabricators should
be aware that the deposited ferrite content can vary from the predicted value and that purchasing welding consumables at
either the extreme upper or lower limit of the allowed range (defined in the buyer or designers purchase specification)
can carry some risk.
Many FN determinations are based on filler metals deposited on a welded pad.8 To determine FN in as-deposited weld
joints, dilution of the filler metal from the base metal should also be considered.
5.1.4 Welding Variables and Effect on Ferrite. Welding variables can cause a significant change in deposited ferrite
content compared to the predicted deposited ferrite content. For example, carbon pickup from contaminated weld joints
(e.g., inadequate cleaning of poorly arc-gouged surfaces or from residual oils and greases) and excessive nitrogen pickup
from the atmosphere can cause a dramatic decrease of deposited ferrite content. The use of nitrogen in the shielding gas
can also affect the resultant ferrite content. Any of the following factors may result in excessive nitrogen pickup.
8 Consult references: Annex A6 of AWS A5.4/A5.4M, Annex A7 of AWS A5.9/A5.9M, and Annex A6 of AWS A5.22/A5.22M.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
18
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Source: Kotecki, D. J, and T. A. Siewert, 1992, WRC-1992 Constitution Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metals: A Modification of the
WRC-1988 Diagram, Welding Journal 71(5): 171-s–178-s.
Figure 5.3—WRC-1992 Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal
(1) Maintaining an excessive arc length;

(2) Excessively low gas shielding flow rate (which is incapable of providing adequate shielding);
(3) Excessively high gas shielding flow rate (which results in aspiration of air); and
(4) Loss of shielding gas coverage, e.g., from drafts (fans, wind, fume exhaust systems), or when welding certain joint
configurations such as outside corner joints.9
Cooling rates during the solidification process can also influence the amount of ferrite.10
For these reasons, in the development of welding procedures, it is important to know the predicted ferrite content of the
filler metal as well as the influence of the welding process, techniques, and variables.
5.1.5 Hot Cracking and Ferrite. One of the problems that can occur when completely austenitic stainless steel weld-
ing consumables are used is that welds and heat-affected zones may be hot crack sensitive. Hot cracking of many filler
metal types can be prevented or minimized by using a filler metal that produces a small amount of ferrite in the solidified
weld. The ferrite provides ferrite-austenite boundaries that are able to tolerate low melting temperature compounds of
sulfur and phosphorous so that they reduce hot cracking susceptibility.
9 Kotecki,D., 2000, Stainless Q & A, Welding Journal 79(1): 94.

10 Vitek,
J. M., S. A. David, and C. R. Hinman, 2003, Improved Ferrite Number Prediction Model that Accounts for Cooling Rate
Effects—Part 1: Model Development, Welding Journal 82(1): 10-s.
19
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
In some filler metal types such as types 310, 320, 330, 383, and 385, adjusting the composition to provide a small
amount of ferrite is not possible, however, because of the relatively high percentage of austenite formers (such as nickel).
Crack susceptibility in these grades are minimized by control of other variables as described below.
Other methods for reducing hot cracking include reducing the restraint on the weld joint (e.g., relocating the weld joint
to areas of lower stress or utilizing thinner base materials if the design permits), keeping the heat input as low as practi-
cal, and maintaining a 175°C [350°F] maximum interpass temperature. Using filler metals with extremely low sulfur and
phosphorous contents may also help reduce the tendency for solidification cracking. Convex weld beads are more resis-
tant to cracking than concave weld beads. Backfilling weld craters before terminating the welding arc is also a good
practice. High manganese content in some fully austenitic type weld deposits is used as an alternative means to minimize
hot cracking tendencies. European and some other electrode standards recognize the benefit of relatively high manga-
nese additions to consumables as a means for minimizing hot cracking tendencies. As a comparison, for welding type
310 stainless steel, the European Standard BS EN 1600:1997 manganese range for alloy type 25 20 SMAW electrodes is
1.0% to 5.0% while the AWS A5.4/A5.4M manganese range for type E320 is 0.5%–2.5%. AWS A5.4/A5.4M, E320LR
has a specified Mn range of 1.5%–2.5%. Both electrodes 25 20 and E320LR have lower specified residual limits for P
and S compared to E320 electrodes.
Many of the 300 series stainless steel weld deposits at the point of solidification are fully ferritic, and transform to auste-
nite upon cooling. What is observed at room temperature is known as retained ferrite and is actually the amount of ferrite
that has not transformed. It should be noted, however, that some design conditions require fully austenitic microstruc-
tures where ferrite in the final weld deposit is not permitted. These types of alloys at the point of solidification are fully
austenitic and thus do not transform.
In addition to estimating the ferrite number of a weld deposit, the WRC-1992 Diagram can be used to predict the solidi-
fication mode and final structure of the weld deposit. After calculating and plotting the Cr- and Ni-equivalents on the
WRC-1992 Diagram, the resulting plotted FN point will fall within a specific region of the diagram identified as “A,”
“AF,” “FA,” or “F.” These regions define both the grain structure immediately after solidification and the final structure
after cooling and transformations (if any) are complete. In all instances defined below, the WRC Diagram can be used to
estimate the final amount of retained ferrite.
Type “A” solidification regions define compositions that solidify directly to an austenitic microstructure. The austenite
does not transform during cooling. When weld specimens are suitably prepared, etched, and viewed under a microscope,
the microstructure will be fully austenitic.
Type “AF” regions define compositions that solidify directly to an austenitic microstructure, except that some of the very
last liquid to solidify will do so directly to ferrite. The microstructure remains relatively unchanged through cooling, and
at its final stage it will show austenitic dendrite (grains) branches with small amounts of retained ferrite located between
them.
Type “FA” regions define compositions that solidify directly to a ferritic microstructure, except that some of the very last
liquid to solidify will do so directly as austenite. Upon cooling, the austenite remains unchanged, and most of the ferrite
is transformed into austenite. The final microstructure typically shows continuous austenite along original ferrite solidi-
fication grain boundaries. The structure of the ferrite/austenite can take on several forms depending on the Creq/Nieq ratio
including skeletal ferrite along the dendrite cores and lathy ferrite.
Type “F” regions define compositions that solidify directly to a completely ferritic microstructure. Upon cooling in the
solid state, austenite nucleates on the ferrite solidification grain boundaries and grows inward toward the dendrite cores.
The final microstructure may show parallel plates of ferrite and austenite; it is often called Widmanstätten austenite. This
microstructure is very unusual in austenitic stainless steels.
Type “FA” solidification is very effective in minimizing or preventing hot cracking—normally a ferrite of 4 FN mini-
mum is sufficient to ensure that Type FA solidification has occurred. If the weldment is intended for high-temperature
service or very low-temperature service, the amount of ferrite normally should not be greater than necessary to prevent
hot cracking. At levels of 12 FN to 15 FN, the ferrite phase starts to be interconnected.
Refer to 7.3 for additional information on controlling the solidification mode.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
20
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
5.1.6 Possible Detrimental Effects of Ferrite. Weld metal ferrite can adversely affect weld metal corrosion resis-
tance in a few environments, for example, in the production of uric acid. Examples of fully austenitic grades used in
extremely corrosive environments such as fertilizer production or acidic service are grades 310, 383, and 385.
In cryogenic applications, ferrite reduces toughness and is consequently kept as low as possible to optimize low-temperature
ductility as reflected in Charpy V-notch testing. A desirable limit for the processes using wire flux combination is about
2 FN maximum.11 However, at least one electrode manufacturer tests and certifies their electrodes for cryogenic service
with higher ferrite limits and good impact properties.
For high temperature applications, excessive ferrite may result in reduced creep resistance. Thomas12 observed in
type 316 deposits that resistance to creep deteriorates at high ferrite levels (i.e., in the presence of continuous ferrite
networks).
For these reasons, ferrite ranges are often specified by the fabricator or end user.
5.2 The Ferrite-Sigma Phase Relationship. Although a small amount of weld metal ferrite is very beneficial in pre-
venting hot cracking too much ferrite may be detrimental. If the fabricated part is subject to long term service in the tem-
perature range of 400°C to 540°C [750°F to 1000°F] alpha-prime forms causing 475°C [885°F] embrittlement. If the
metal is heated within 600°C to 925°C [1100°F to 1700°F] sigma phase may form. The material’s room temperature
ductility can be significantly reduced by the formation of alpha-prime or sigma formation.
Sigma phase contains large amounts of chromium and iron and can form quite rapidly at about 600°C to 925°C [1100°F
to 1700°F] with the most rapid transformation around 750°C [1380°F]. At temperatures lower than 600°C [1100°F],
longer times are necessary for sigma formation. Iron will accommodate large amounts of Cr, and because of micro-seg-
regation, the ferrite present in austenitic weldments will usually contain enough Cr to transform to sigma with a mini-
mum amount of diffusion. Once formed, it can only be eliminated by heating to about 1010°C [1850°F] or higher
(depending on alloy composition) to re-dissolve the sigma.
Sigma phase is non-magnetic, while ferrite is magnetic. The amount of ferrite that converts to sigma during stress relief
can be readily determined if the as-welded ferrite content is known and compared with the amount present following
stress relief or high temperature exposure during service. Because of this transformation to sigma, the ferrite content of
welds is usually limited to about a 10 FN maximum for welded components that require a high-temperature stress relief
or that will be exposed to high temperature service.
Variations in weld metal composition will change the rate and temperature at which the sigma phase reaction first
begins. Mo and Nb speed the sigma reaction, while Ni raises the maximum temperature at which sigma is still present. In
fact, the rate of sigma phase formation in the 6% Mo superaustenitic stainless steels is rapid enough that restricted
welding heat input may be required to ensure rapid cooling rates and minimum time exposure in the critical temperature
zone.
5.3 Corrosion Resistance Related to Welding. One of the most significant consequences of welding many of the auste-
nitic stainless steels is sensitization. It is caused by the formation of chromium carbides (termed precipitates) at grain
boundaries in the HAZ when heated in about a 480°C to 850°C [900°F to 1560°F] temperature range with a peak forma-
tion rate occurring at 640°C [1200°F]. In order for the chromium-carbides to form, chromium migrates to combine with
carbon. Consequently, chromium depletion occurs in a localized zone adjacent to grain boundaries, thereby reducing the
corrosion resistance of these local areas. This problem can be minimized by using low carbon or a stabilized base mate-
rial and filler metal (e.g., 347 uses niobium as a stabilizer and 321 stainless steel uses titanium as a stabilizer) to reduce
the amount of carbon available to combine with chromium so that sensitization is not of any practical consideration dur-
ing welding (see Figures 5.4a and 5.4b). Both Nb and Ti are stronger carbide formers than chromium and therefore com-
bine with carbon quicker than chromium can, thus reducing the amount of chromium carbides that form. However, these
alloys can be susceptible to knifeline attack (KLA) and may require stabilization anneal after welding (as described in
10.3).
11 Avery, R. E., 1995, Welding Stainless and 9% Nickel Steel Cryogenic Vessels, Welding Journal 74(11): 45.
12 Thomas, R., 1978, The Effect of Delta Ferrite on the Creep Rupture Properties of Austenitic Weld Metals, Welding Journal 57(3):
81.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
21
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Note: Time-temperature-sensitization curves for Type 304 stainless steel in a mixture of CuSO4 and H2SO4 containing free copper.
Curves show the times required for carbide precipitation in steels with various carbon contents. Carbides precipitate in the areas to the
right of the various carbon content curves.
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from ASM International, ASM Handbook—Corrosion, Vol. 13, 1987, p. 551, Figure 1.
Figure 5.4a—Carbide Precipitation in Type 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel
Figure 5.4a shows the effect of carbon content and exposure temperature on the sensitization rate for Type 304 stainless
steel. Note that Type 304 has a maximum carbon level of 0.08%, but Type 304L has a maximum carbon level of 0.03%.
Seconds of elevated temperature exposure in Type 304 (with carbon at the upper limit of 0.08%) can result in sensitiza-
tion while hours of elevated exposure may be needed to produce sensitization in Type 304L. Sensitization can also be
minimized by using procedures and techniques that minimize time in the sensitization range (i.e., ensuring relatively fast
cooling rates). The following conditions may be considered as examples: welding with minimal preheat and a restricted
maximum interpass temperature, using welding heat input that is appropriate for the base material thickness, or provid-
ing forced cooling between weld passes.
Generally, as the alloy content of the austenitic stainless steels increases, the effect of sensitization decreases somewhat
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
because of the increased corrosion resistance of the bulk alloy. For example, 310 SS, with 25% Cr is less susceptible to
sensitization than 304 SS, which has about 18% Cr. The effects and control of HAZ sensitization in various austenitic
stainless steel alloys is discussed in depth in Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 319, Sensitization of Austenitic
Stainless Steels: Effect of Welding Variables on HAZ Sensitization of AISI 304 and HAZ Behavior of BWR Alternative
Alloys 316NG and 347.
5.3.1 Segregation Effects. During weld metal solidification of austenitic stainless steels, alloying elements such as
Mo, Cr, and N can segregate; this is particularly problematic for high molybdenum-containing stainless steel alloys. Seg-
regated weld metal is nonhomogenous; i.e., there are compositional variations from location to location in the weld
microstructure. These compositional variations can result in a weld with diminished corrosion resistance.
One of the methods used to compensate for this segregation is to use an overmatching filler metal. For example, molyb-
denum is known to segregate in the 6% Mo containing superaustenitics, and a nickel-based filler metal with a greater
percentage of Mo is commonly chosen to compensate for the segregation that will occur.
22
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from ASM International, 1994, Metals Engineering Institute course, Eight Forms of Corrosion: Erosion-
Corrosion, Intergranular Corrosion, and Dealloying, Course 14, p. 22, Figure 36.
Figure 5.4b—Carbide Reaction Temperature Ranges
Consequently, even when segregation occurs, the regions with the lowest Mo concentration will contain more than the
minimum requirement. One of the problems with using overmatching filler metals is that the strength level of the weld
zone may well exceed that of the base material. This fact should be considered in the weld design process.
A full solution anneal following welding can substantially reduce segregation in weld deposits.
5.4 Heat Tint. Heat tint (Gold to Blue discoloration) that forms alongside welds during welding or heat treatment of
stainless steel, is a mixture of chromium, iron, nickel, and other oxides. These oxides can reduce the material’s corrosion
resistance depending on the amount of heat tint present and the service environment. The mechanism for this reduced
corrosion resistance is a chromium-reduced layer just beneath the heat tint scale.
Heat tint colors are an indication of the amount (thickness and degree of severity) of heat tint. In increasing order of
severity, colors can range from very light golden, dark golden, light blue, to dark blue, purple or even black with a signif-
icantly thick oxide layer. The acceptable amount of heat tint or discoloration varies with different service environments,
and the end user is in the best position to specify the acceptable level for the intended application. In many corrosive
environments, light, golden heat tint is considered acceptable while only darker heat tint colors may need to be removed.
AWS D18.1/D18.1M, Specification for Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel Tube and Pipe Systems in Sanitary
(Hygienic) Applications, provides a color photograph of various degrees of heat tint and can be a useful guide in indicat-
ing acceptable heat tint levels.
If it has been determined that heat tint would be detrimental, there are several techniques for minimizing its formation. If
the heat tint occurs on the side of a plate opposite to that being welded, these techniques include shielding the service
side of the plate from oxidation during welding or water spray cooling the service side of the plate during welding.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
23
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
The removal of heat tint can be done by a variety of methods, including chemical, electro-chemical, and mechanical as
described in 9.5 through 9.8.
5.5 Elevated Temperature Performance
5.5.1 Oxidation Resistance. The stainless steels owe much of their oxidation resistance to chromium, which com-
bines with oxygen to form a chromium-containing protective oxide on the surface. Oxidation resistance increases as
chromium levels increase. Stainless steels have been widely used for elevated-temperature service. When they are
exposed to high temperatures, changes can occur to the nature of the surface oxide. At mildly elevated temperatures in an
oxidizing atmosphere, for example, a protective oxide is formed. In more aggressive environments, with temperatures
above 870°C [1600°F], the surface oxide may break down with a sudden increase in scaling. Depending on alloy content
and environment, the oxide may be self-healing for a period of time, followed by another breakdown. Under extreme
conditions of high temperature and corrosion, the surface oxide may not be protective at all.
In nonfluctuating temperature service, the oxidation resistance (or scaling resistance) of stainless steels depends on chro-
mium content. Steels with less than 18% chromium (the ferritic grades primarily) are limited to temperatures below
815°C [1500°F]. Those containing 18% to 20% chromium are useful to temperatures of 980°C [1800°F], while adequate
resistance to scaling at temperatures up to 1095°C [2000°F] requires a chromium content of at least 24%, such as Type
310.
In many processes, isothermal (constant temperature) conditions are not maintained and process temperatures vary.
Expansion and contraction differences between the base metal and the protective oxide (or scale) during heating and
cooling cause cracking and spalling of the protective scale. This allows the oxidizing media to attack the exposed metal
surface.
The spalling resistance of the austenitic stainless steels is greatly improved by increasing the level of nickel in the alloy.
Nickel reduces the thermal expansion differential between alloy and oxide and thereby reduces stresses at the alloy-
oxide interface during cooling.
Figure 5.5 shows how weight gain, caused by the absorption of oxygen from the environment to form oxide scale, is
related to increasing temperature for a variety of steels, including stainless steels. Note the large improvement in oxida-
tion resistance by adding 1.5% silicon to the 5Cr-0.5Mo steel. This improvement in oxidation resistance as a result of
increased silicon also occurs in the austenitic stainless steels. However, the amount of silicon that can be added to
wrought stainless steel is limited because of problems with hot formability and weld cracking if the silicon level exceeds
about 2%. Also note that the addition of 8% nickel provides a considerable increase in oxidation resistance.
When stainless steels have chromium levels of 18% or more, the alloys form a protective chromia (Cr2O3) scale and are
capable of rehealing if spallation or cracking of the oxide occurs.
The rare earth elements, such as hafnium and lanthanum, when added in very small quantities, (such as 0.01%) improve
the adherence of the oxide scale under thermal cyclic conditions. When stainless steels contain molybdenum they can
undergo accelerated oxidation at high temperatures, especially under stagnant conditions, such as under insulation.
5.5.2 Mechanical Properties—Creep and Stress Rupture. Stainless steels are used at temperatures up to about
1095°C [2000°F] because they have good strength at elevated temperature and good resistance to corrosion and oxida-
tion. While tensile and yield strength values are important for determining whether an alloy is suitable for service at low
temperatures, they are not much help as guidelines for elevated temperature service. For temperatures above about
480°C [900°F], lower allowable design stresses are used to ensure that the material does not fail by creep or stress rup-
ture. Examples of these design conditions can be found in Section II, Part D of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code.
In addition, ASME Codes Section I and VIII do not allow the use of carbon contents less than 0.04% in austenitic stain-
less steels for design temperatures over 538°C [1000°F]. This is an application where dual-certified base materials or
filler metals are not permitted. Materials that are dual-certified meet all the specified requirements (e.g., mechanical and
chemical composition) of two alloy types (e.g., ASTM A240 type 304/304L, AWS A5.9/A5.9M, ER308/308L), but the
carbon content is less than 0.03%.
When creep occurs, it may lead to excessive deformation and even fracture at stresses that are considerably below the
room temperature and elevated temperature, short-time tensile tests. When the rate or degree of deformation is the limit-
ing factor in a component’s life, the design stress is based on the minimum creep rate of an alloy or a specified amount of
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
24
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from Association for Iron & Steel, The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 1964, 8th ed., p. 1136,
Figure 46-6, United States Steel Corporation.
Figure 5.5—The Effects of Chromium, Nickel, and Other Elements

on the Oxidation Resistance of Steels and Stainless Steels
creep deformation in a given time (e.g., 1% total creep in 10 000 hours) and is referred to as the limiting creep strength
or limiting stress. Of the various types of stainless steels, the austenitic types provide the highest limiting creep strength.
When fracture is the limiting factor, stress-to-rupture values can be used to design a component. This value predicts
when a component will fail when exposed to a particular stress.
Long-term creep and stress-rupture values, such as 100 000 hours, are often extrapolated or projected from shorter-term
tests that are conducted at higher stresses.
While creep strength and rupture strength are important design parameters, rupture ductility is an important mechanical
property when stress concentrations and localized discontinuities, such as notches, are present. Rupture ductility, which
decreases as creep and rupture strengths increase, influences the growth of cracks or discontinuities, and thus affects
notch sensitivity. This influence of notches on service life is particularly important with weldments, where there are
numerous opportunities for a notch to occur (i.e., in welds with incomplete penetration and undercut).
5.5.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion. The thermal expansion characteristics of a material are important because
the heat that is applied to weld joints causes localized expansion/contraction during heating/cooling. A material with a
greater thermal expansion value will expand and contract more during the welding operation, thus creating a greater
amount of stress on the weld joint. This is particularly important when the weld deposit is crack sensitive or when joint
restraint is high.
The austenitic stainless steels all have relatively low thermal conductivity but a high coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE) (see Table 5.2). As a result, these steels may present some distortion problems unless the usual design and weld-
ing practices for controlling distortion are observed. Copper chill bars can be placed under weld areas to draw off the
heat more quickly. The use of welding fixtures can prevent movement of base plates that would result in angular
misalignment. Minimizing the number of weld passes, short bead lengths, or skip welding will reduce the amount of
distortion.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
25
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 5.2
Typical Physical Property Comparisons of Austenitic Stainless Steels versus Carbon Steels
Property/Alloy Austenitic Stainless Steels Carbon Steels
7.8 g/cm3–8.0 g/cm3 7.8 g/cm3

Density
[0.28 lb/in3–0.29 lb/in3] [0.28 lb/in3]
193 GPa–200 GPa 200 GPa
Elastic Modulus
[28 Msi–29 Msi] [29 Msi]
Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 17.0 µm/m·°C–19.2 µm/m·°C 11.7 µm/m·°C

0°C–540°C [32°F–1000°F] [9.4 µin/in·°F–10.7 µin/in·°F] [6.5 µin/in·°F]
18.7 W/m·°C–22.8 W/m·°C 60 W/m·°C
Thermal Conductivity at 100°C [212°F]
10.8 Btu/h·ft·°F–12.8 Btu/h·ft·°F] [34.7 Btu/h·ft·°F]
Electrical Resistivity 690 nΩ·m–1020 nΩ·m 120 nΩ·m

1400°C–1450°C 1538°C
Melting Range °C [°F]
[2550°F–2650°F] [2800°F]
Source: Adapted from the AWS Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 4, Table 5.2.
The CTE is an important factor when considering warpage. The difference in the coefficients of expansion between
materials becomes especially important when two different materials are welded together. The added stress placed upon
the weld joint area can be substantial if there is a considerable difference in CTE values. The problem is amplified when
joint restraint increases because the structure is less able to effectively disperse the increase in stress.
6. Welding and Fabrication Considerations

6.1 Weld Joint Design. Weld joint designs for stainless steels are similar to those used for carbon steels. Square groove
butt joints are commonly used for materials <6.4 mm [1/4 in] as well as for thicker materials when they are welded with
specialized welding processes such as plasma key hole or electron beam welding or other specialized welding tech-
niques.
Acceptable butt joint groove designs for thicker materials include single and double bevels, J-groove, U-groove, and V-
groove designs. Compound bevels are recommended for thicknesses exceeding 25 mm [1 in]. The joint design should be
optimized to minimize the amount of distortion and the amount of deposited weld metal. The bevel and grooves should
be large enough to allow good electrode accessibility, which will help ensure good fusion.
Various joint designs can be found in the following documents:
ASME B16.25, Buttwelding Ends
AWS D1.6/D1.6M, Structural Welding Code—Stainless Steel
PFI Standard ES-21, Internal Machining and Fit-up of GTAW Root Pass Circumferential Butt Welds, Pipe Fabrication
Institute13
PFI Standard ES-35, Nonsymmetrical Bevels and Joint Configurations for Butt Welds, Pipe Fabrication Institute14
13 PFI standards are published by the Pipe Fabrication Institute, 511 Avenue of the Americas, Suite 601, New York, NY 10011.
14 See footnote 13.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
26
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
6.1.1 Weld Joint Preparation. Austenitic stainless steels may be cut by a variety of means, e.g., by shearing, sawing,
plasma, laser, abrasive water jet, grinding, thermal arc gouging, and machining. Oxy-fuel cutting torches are not suitable
for cutting stainless steels. Plate, sheet, and bar edges that need further weld joint preparation after first cutting to size
(with appropriate stock allowance) can be machined, ground, and/or thermally cut with plasma or laser. Nitrogen-
containing plasma gases should be used with caution as formation of chromium nitrides can reduce corrosion resistance
and actually appear as “rust” on the edges of the joint preparations.
Certain thermal processes, such as mechanized laser and plasma cutting, can leave weld joint edges suitable for many
weld joint designs and welding operations without having to final machine the weld joints. Examples are Tee joints and
corner joints in plate. Frequently, however, the joint edges must be machined for proper fit-up prior to welding, as in pipe
joints and other critical weld applications such as electron beam welding. For example, proper weld joint design and fit-
up are usually needed in pipe and circumferential joints to ensure that complete joint penetration (CJP) will be consis-
tently achieved with a given welding process.
The choice of a weld joint preparation method frequently depends on how the weld joint will be welded. The selection of
a welding process (or processes) for a weld joint, however, can depend on a variety of factors such as corrosion concerns,
base material thickness, weld joint designs, available welding equipment, productivity requirements, available electrodes
and filler metals for a particular alloy, distortion control, accessibility limitations, and quality requirements, among pos-
sible other factors. Optimally, weld designers and manufacturers work together prior to finalizing weld designs to ensure
ease of fabrication, quality, and lowest manufacturing costs.
Austenitic stainless steels are normally selected for fabrication because of their corrosion resistance, appearance, or
toughness and/or strength at temperature. Weld joints are frequently required by designers to have CJP for any of several
different reasons:
(1) CJP ensures that process chemicals will not be trapped in unfused crevice areas.
(2) The use of CJP designs reduces stress concentrations that are detrimental to fatigue performance.
(3) Equivalent cross-sectional strength to the base material is ensured.
Unfortunately, welds cannot be assumed to have equal fatigue performance as the base materials being joined; conse-
quently, welds in critical applications should be located in areas of low stress (e.g., away from corners, etc.) whenever
possible.
6.2 Cleaning Prior to Welding
6.2.1 Grinding and Scale Removal. Weld joint grooves and the immediate surrounding area should be clean prior to
welding. The degree of cleaning necessary depends on the weld quality requirements for the application and the welding
process employed. For example, greater levels of cleanliness are typically required with gas-shielded welding processes
because of the absence of fluxing agents.
Contaminants such as sulfur, lead, copper, zinc, phosphorous, carbon, oils, dirt, oxide scales, sulfide scales, sand, etc.
may cause weld metal cracking or porosity, or may result in incomplete fusion type discontinuities. Contaminants should
be removed from the weld joint area prior to welding on both new and service-exposed equipment.
It is not considered necessary to remove the bright surface layer (passive film) found on mill-supplied stainless steel
products. However, thick, dark oxides (scales that are the result of high-temperature exposure) should be removed from
the weld area before welding. Chromium-containing oxides melt at a much higher temperature than the weld metal.
These unmelted oxides inhibit weld fusion, and the oxides may not have time to float to the surface before solidification
occurs, potentially causing inclusions or lack of fusion during welding. Scale removal is usually done by grinding or by
use of a sanding disk to remove the scale within about 12 mm [1/2 in] of both sides of the edge of the weld joint.
Wire brushes are normally required to be made of stainless steel and reserved only for use on stainless steel to prevent
contamination of the stainless steel base material by carbon steel. Direct contact by carbon steel tools and metals should
be avoided because of the possibility of contamination by iron particles. Grinding wheels and sanding discs are normally
required to be reserved only for use on stainless steel. Grinding wheels should be identified by the wheel manufacturer as
to be suitable for use on stainless steels. These properly identified wheels are typically manufactured only with highly
refined ingredients that do not contain iron, sulfur, or chlorine which would otherwise contaminate stainless steels.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
27
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
For fabrications that will be bead or media blasted, chemically cleaned, or pickled after welding (see 9.8), the use of spe-
cially-reserved grinding wheels and stainless steel wire brushes is normally not as critical. Beads and grit, however,
should not be contaminated by prior use on carbon steels. Steel beads and steel grit should not be used because of the
risk of iron contamination. The final surface condition of the material should always be considered when selecting a
cleaning or surface preparation method since coarse surface profiles can degrade the material’s corrosion resistance in
some environments.
When grinding on nearby carbon steels, suitable precautions should be taken to protect stainless steels from contamina-
tion by grinding debris. Contamination of stainless steel base materials by carbon steel can cause rust spots and may ini-
tiate corrosion of the stainless steel in some environments.
See 6.3 for cleaning recommendations for weld grooves prepared by carbon arcgouging.
6.2.2 Solvent Cleaning. Areas to be welded should be free of contaminants such as cutting fluids, grease, oil, waxes,
soil, etc. Otherwise, carbon pickup, porosity, or weld cracking may result. Solvent cleaning of the weld joint area prior to
welding is normally adequate if oxide scales are not present. Suitable solvents are those which remove the majority of
the possible contaminants and do not leave their own residues after drying.
The use of chloride-containing solvents has been traced to chloride stress corrosion failures of stainless steel heat
exchangers.15 Chloride-containing solvents should be used with caution because of the potential for chloride stress cor-
rosion cracking. Chloride-containing solvents should only be used on smooth, crevice-free components where complete
removal of the cleaning solvent can be assured before welding.
6.2.3 Production High Cleanliness Example. The degree of preweld and postweld cleaning should be commensu-
rate with the fabrication type. For example, medical grade tubing and tubing in the semiconductor or pharmaceutical
industry should be absolutely clean prior to, during, and after welding. For these types of critical applications, the clean-
ing method should employ solvent wiping/cleaning prior to welding. Preferably, welding should be performed in a clean
room whenever possible. Base materials and filler materials for critical applications should be purchased as specially
cleaned and packaged to ensure absolute cleanliness during fabrication. For purging, the internal oxygen content should
be less than 50 ppm (parts per million) for both tacking and welding for most applications.
6.3 Thermal Arc Gouging and/or Grinding. Thermal arc gouging is commonly used to prepare the second side of a
double-welded (welded on both sides) joint after welding the first side. When used in this manner, the process is called
“backgouging.” A skilled operator can simultaneously remove weld discontinuities to sound metal and prepare the joint
with groove dimensions and a profile that is suitable for subsequent welding operations. The process is also commonly
used to remove weld discontinuities discovered by inspection.
When properly performed, thermal arc gouging and thermal cutting produces a clean weld preparation with little or min-
imal slag, copper, or carbon deposits. Stainless steel wire brushing is frequently an adequate cleaning method after arc
gouging, provided the gouging has been properly performed. A properly performed gouging operation will not exhibit
adhering dross, copper or carbon deposits, or remelted/fused material. The groove should be relatively smooth—without
deep ripples to ensure good fusion during subsequent welding operations. Areas of visible deposits of copper, carbon,
slag, and/or oxidized material from thermal cutting or gouging operations should be removed from the weld joint area
prior to welding. In critical situations, fabricators may decide to grind the arc-gouged groove preparation to clean, shiny
metal prior to welding. Entrapment of contaminants can cause weld discontinuities such as porosity, lack of fusion, and
solidification cracking, or can adversely affect the weld joint’s corrosion resistance.
Prior to arc gouging, surrounding areas should be protected (e.g., anti-spatter, blankets, etc.) as needed from sparks and
dross created by arc-gouging operations since they can tightly fuse to the base material making subsequent cleanup
difficult.
The HAZ (and sensitized region) of a properly performed thermally cut or gouged surface will be minimal, and the sub-
sequent welding operation will normally totally consume the HAZ of the thermally cut surface. For highly corrosive ser-
vice environments and for poor-quality thermally cut surfaces, consideration should be given to grinding all thermally
15 TheNickel Institute Reference Book Series 11007, Guidelines for the Welded Fabrication of Nickel Containing Stainless Steels for
Corrosion Resisting Services, p. 9, The Nickel Institute Inc., 55 University Avenue, Suite 1801, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5J 2H7.
28 --`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
cut surfaces and groove areas, especially if the selected base material is marginally corrosion-resistant for the particular
service environment. The amount of material removal should be commensurate with the thermal cut quality. Approxi-
mate material removal of 0.25 mm [0.010 in] should be adequate for a high-quality thermally cut surface for corrosive
service; however, as much as 1 mm to 3 mm [0.04 in to 0.12 in] may be required for poor-quality thermally cut surfaces.
In all instances, non-contaminated grinding wheels and stainless steel brushes (tools that are new or that have been pre-
viously used only on stainless steels) or carbide burrs should be used.
Grinding wheels should be identified by the wheel manufacturer to be suitable for use on stainless steels. These properly
identified wheels are typically manufactured only with highly refined ingredients that do not contain iron, sulfur, or chlo-
rine which would otherwise contaminate stainless steels.
A close visual inspection of arc-gouged areas should be performed to ensure that obvious cracks, porosity, and lack of
fusion-type discontinuities have been removed before welding. Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) may be used to reveal
surface discontinuities that a visual inspection may fail to detect. Since surface roughness from grinding may mask some
indications, LPI may be considered to supplement visual inspection.
6.4 Distortion Control. Compared to steels, austenitic stainless steels experience greater distortion during welding
because of their comparatively high rate of thermal expansion, but a comparatively low rate of thermal conductivity.
Austenitics, for example, expand at a rate approximately 30% to 65% greater than steels with increasing temperature,
while dissipating their heat much more slowly (nearly 300% more slowly) from the weld zone than steels (refer to 5.5.3).
This means that, in the weld and HAZ regions, more expansion is occurring during welding and more contraction after
welding when compared to steels. The result of the localized expansion and contraction is distortion.
Controlling distortion can be accomplished by one or more fabricating and welding techniques. Clamps, jigs, and fix-
tures should be used whenever possible; they help to ensure proper positioning and fit-up for welding, as well as help to
minimize movement of the parts during welding. Joints can sometimes be preset to compensate for angular distortion,
and the use of strongbacks and stiffeners may also be considered.
Proper weld joint designs help ensure that weld joints are not overwelded and that complete joint penetration (CJP),
when required, can be achieved with minimal backgouging. Tacking for fit-up and welding should be appropriate for the
base metal thicknesses. Sheet metals may have to be tacked at intervals closer than 25 mm [1 in] to control distortion, or
continuous seam fixturing may be required. Tacking of plate materials requires larger but fewer tacks. Skip welding
and/or backstep welding sequences are also frequently used to help minimize distortion. Welding process selection can
also have a significant influence on the amount of distortion. Distortion in thin sheet metals, for example, is controlled
by specifying welding processes such as short circuiting GMAW, GTAW using low heat inputs, or LBW, in combination
with the appropriate clamping, fixturing, tacking, or welding sequence procedure.
Another method used to minimize welding distortion is to specify the use of a high energy welding process such as laser,
plasma, or electron beam welding, which results in narrow weld zones. Joint designs for these processes are frequently
square groove with no root opening. Filler metal additions can frequently be eliminated since there is no V-groove to fill.
Those processes can be specified when the appropriate welding equipment is available or needed to meet product quality
requirements.
One of the primary disadvantages of the processes, however, is the initial cost of the welding equipment.
6.5 Welding Preheat and Maximum Interpass Temperature. Preheat is not normally performed or desired for weld-
ing austenitic stainless steels although preheat of complex shapes and heavy sections is used by some manufacturers to
improve weldability when welding H-grade cast alloys. Preheat should normally only be performed to dry off wet base
materials, or if the base material temperature is below the dew point and there is moisture condensation around the weld
joint area.
Low interpass temperatures are generally desirable to ensure that cooling rates are rapid enough to prevent or minimize
sensitization (formation of chromium carbides) in the weld and HAZ. Sensitization can adversely affect the corrosion
resistance of the weld and HAZ.
The generally recognized maximum interpass temperature (IP) specified in industry for welding austenitic stainless
steels is 175°C [350°F].
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
29
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Accelerated cooling between weld passes is generally acceptable with precautions. Clean water or clean forced air
should be used. Backside cooling is generally acceptable after the first weld pass is completed (even while the welding is
in process on subsequent passes), as long as moisture or air drafts do not interfere with the welding process. The joint
should be dry and clean before resuming welding. Cooling should be uniform to minimize distortion.16
6.6 Welding Position. Whenever possible, the work should be positioned to gain the advantages of speed and economy
provided by flat position welding. Weld positioners, rolls, etc., are frequently used for this purpose.
6.7 Root Pass Welding. Root passes on single-welded, complete joint penetration (CJP) weld joints are commonly spec-
ified to be made using either the GTAW or the GMAW short circuiting process (GMAW-S) with inert backing gas
(termed “purging”). High quality root surface profiles are obtainable using these processes.
Root passes made without inert gas backing are prone to excessive oxidation, termed sugaring. Highly oxidized welds
are characterized by a dull gray color appearance and/or a “sugared” surface (cauliflower-appearing texture commonly
seen on the root surface of improperly shielded welds).
The GMAW process may be restricted from use in certain applications, however, because of the potential for unmelted
electrode “whiskers” and spatter on the process side that can potentially damage downstream equipment.
Slag left on a service-exposed root surface is frequently a corrosion concern with other welding processes since unre-
moved slag can promote the corrosion of weld joint areas or can also cause damage to downstream equipment. For that
reason, processes with slag systems such as SMAW, FCAW, and SAW may need to be avoided for the root pass in sin-
gle-welded CJP weld joints especially if the root side of the joint is not accessible for cleaning and/or backwelding.
Options for root pass welding (without backing material) using the GTAW process with inert gas backing include:
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(1) Open root joints with filler metal added;
(2) Pre-placed consumable inserts for pipe joints fit with a tight fitup. Standard shapes and available classifications
for consumable inserts can be found in AWS A5.30/A5.30M, Specification for Consumable Inserts; and
(3) Some fabricators perform autogenous root passes in pipe fit-up with no root opening and a minimal root face on
alloys such as 304/304L and 316/316L.
Autogenous root passes in some alloys may be prone to hot cracking, especially if the predicted ferrite based on base
material composition is very low and joint restraint is high. Another word of caution is that autogenous root passes
should be avoided if the alloy is being used near the limits of its corrosion resistance unless corrosion testing has proven
otherwise.17, 18
For the fitup conditions without a root opening, taping off portions of the joint to contain the purge while other portions
of the joint are being welded is not necessary. When properly welded with inert gas backing, CJP can be achieved with
uniform melt-through.
Options for root pass welding (without backing material) using the GTAW process without inert gas backing include:
(1) The use of specialized fluxes applied to the base material root areas.
(2) The use of flux cored GTAW filler rods with an open root joint and a keyhole welding technique. Available classi-
fications for these rods are found in AWS A5.22/A5.22M, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored
Welding Electrodes and Rods. Flux and slag residue left on the root side from either of these two options may not be suit-
able in high purity or high-temperature service environments.
CJP one sided joints can also be completed using open root joints with metallic backing (when permitted by design),
copper chill bars, or ceramic backup tapes.
16 Kotecki, D., 2004, Stainless Q & A, Welding Journal 83(5): 14.

17 Garner, A., 1983, Pitting Corrosion of High Alloy Stainless Steel Weldments in Oxidizing Environments, Welding Journal 62(1):
27–34.
18 Heuser H. and Hamm/Wesphalia (Germany), No. 2, 2003, Arc Welding of Stainless Steels—Selection of Filler Metals, Welding and
Cutting 55: 68–71.
30
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Options for root pass welding using the GMAW-S process include:
(1) Open root with inert gas purge,
(2) Open root without gas purge. Success has been reported in completing CJP, open root, single-welded piping joints
without the use of inert backing gas using a modified GMAW-S process. Higher than normal shielding gas flow rates
were utilized, as well as “silicon” enhanced electrodes, e.g., ER316LSi. For critical weldments built according to code
requirements, production CJP single-welded joints made without gas backing must be qualified without gas backing, and
the procedure qualification test coupon may be required to be tested for its corrosion resistance.19 It should be recog-
nized that the internal heat affected zone will have a varying amount of heat tint oxide that may affect the corrosion resis-
tance in some service environments. The procedure should not be used for applications where little or no heat tint is a
requirement.
CJP single-welded joints can also be completed using open root joints with metallic backing (when permitted by design),
copper chill bars, backing fluxes, or ceramic backup tapes.
Root passes on double-welded CJP weld joints can be made using any welding process, including those with slag sys-
tems such as the SMAW, FCAW, and SAW processes. For double welded joints, the backside of the weld joints are com-
monly thermally arc gouged and/or ground to sound metal prior to welding the back side of the weld joint.
6.7.1 Purging Recommendations. Detailed instructions on purging prior to and during welding are given in AWS
D10.11M/D10.11, Recommended Practices for Root Pass Welding of Pipe Without Backing, and in AWS D10.4, Recom-
mended Practices for Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Piping and Tubing. The documents discuss
the use of dams, venting, and purge flow rates and volumes necessary to lower oxygen levels to acceptable levels prior to
welding and the flow rates during welding. Additional information is presented in the Welding Journal.20, 21 A purge is
generally maintained for two to three layers minimum to ensure that the root pass is not oxidized during welding the first
and subsequent passes. When proper shielding is achieved, the as-deposited weld metal should have a bright, shiny
appearance. AWS D18.2, Guide to Weld Discoloration Levels on Inside of Austenitic Stainless Steel Tube, depicts the
dependence of the weld discoloration level on the gas impurity level. The standard provides a visual comparison guide
that can be used to specify surface discoloration (heat tint) criteria for welds in an austenitic stainless steel pipe and tube.
Highly oxidized welds may experience reduced corrosion resistance or possibly reduced mechanical properties such as
ductility, toughness, and strength. Purging guidelines are provided in Table 6.1.
The use of a purge gas or backing gas on double-welded joints is generally considered optional since the backside of the
root can be ground to sound metal prior to welding the second side. Welding over oxidized weld metal without prior
grinding is not recommended because of a greater chance of porosity, inclusions, and reduced mechanical properties.
Even though purging may be considered optional for double-welded joints, it may still be advantageous in certain situa-
tions; however, since purging enhances the backside weld fluidity and weld contour, its use may prevent an extra goug-
ing and grinding step.
Depending on the application, the purging of single-welded joints may not always be required. However, eliminating
purging (when full penetration is desired) may affect the root side of the joint as follows:
(1) Corrosion resistance will be degraded in some environments,
(2) Weld penetration will not be consistent,
(3) Weld puddle fluidity will be reduced and may increase the welding time,
(4) Root-side weld profile and appearance will be degraded,
(5) Some oxide scaling and flaking may occur, and
(6) The mechanical properties may be reduced.
The designer/engineer should weigh all factors before deciding if purging should be eliminated as a potential cost savings.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
19 Messer, B., et al., 2002, Welding Stainless Steel Piping with no Backing Gas, Welding Journal 81(12): 32–34.
20 Young, B., 1995, Shielding and Purging Gases: Making the Right Selection, Welding Journal 74(1): 47.
21 Irving, B., 1994, Trying to Make Some Sense Out of Shielding Gases, Welding Journal 73(5): 65–70.
31
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 6.1
Purging Guidelines for Piping
Purge-gas flow time per unit of length versus nominal pipe size (NPS)b with six volume changesa at a gas flow rate of 25 L/min
[50 ft3/hr]c
NPS Purge Time

mm [in] min/m [min/ft]
<25 [<1] 0.3 [0.1]
25–50 [1–2] 0.7 [0.2]
50–75 [2–3] 1.6 [0.5]
75–125 [3–5] 3.3 [1]
150 [6] 5 [1.5]
200 [8] 8 [2.5]
250 [10] 13 [4]
300 [12] 18 [5.5]
350 [14] 25 [7.5]

--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
400 [16] 33 [10]
450 [18] 40 [12]
500 [20] 50 [16]
600 [24] 75 [23]
750 [30] 115 [35]

a Six volume changes will typically provide less than 1/2% (5000 ppm) oxygen, the recommended maximum for general corrosive service. Signifi-
cantly less volume changes are required if turbulence and mixing can be decreased. As an alternative, measuring oxygen content of the purge using an
oxygen analyzer should be considered.
b To calculate the total purge time (using the flow rate specified in Table 8.9), multiply the actual length of pipe with the corresponding Purge Time.
Example: 7 m length of DN 150 purged at 25 L/min:

[23 ft length of NPS 6 purged at 50 ft3/hr]:
7 m × 5 min/m = 35 minutes
[23 ft × 1.5 min/ft = 35 minutes]
c Lower or higher flow rates may be used. Higher flow rates may be used on larger pipe diameters to reduce purge time. Lower flow rates reduce turbu-
lence and are recommended on smaller pipe diameters and to achieve a high quality purge. If other flow rates are used then to find the time required
multiply:
The pipe length × purge time from table × (flow rate from table ÷ desired flow rate)
Example: 6 m length of DN 75 with a desired flow rate of 9 L/min
[20 ft length of NPS 3 with a desired flow rate of 20 CFH]
Calculated flow rate = 6 m × 1.6 min/m × (25/9) = 25 min
[20 ft × 0.5 min/ft × (50/20) = 25 min]
Example: 7 m length of DN 450 with a desired flow rate of 40 L/min
[23 ft length of NPS 18 with a desired flow rate of 80 CFH]
Calculated flow rate = 7 m × 40 min/m × (25/40) = 175 min (3 hrs)*
[23 ft × 12 min/ft × (50/80) = 175 min (3 hrs)*]
*Use of purge dams recommended.
Notes:
1. Purge dams may be used to reduce the amount of purge gas and time.
2. The purge inlet-hole at one end of pipe should be placed lower than the exit hole at other end of pipe. Since argon is heavier than air, the argon
entering the assembly at the bottom will force the air out the top with minimal mixing of the two gases.
3. Once the purge has been established, the flow rate should be reduced while welding. 3 L/min–5 L/min [5 CFH–10 CFH] is recommended.
32
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
It should be noted that many fabrication codes and standards require that production welds be made with an inert gas
backing if the procedure qualification test was welded with gas backing.
Consequently, purging cannot always be eliminated as a potential cost savings if the welding procedure was qualified
with a gas purge. Fabrication codes typically do not require inert gas backing in production if the procedure qualification
was made without gas backing; however, inert gas backing is commonly used in production even if the procedure is qual-
ified without gas backing. Inert gas backing in production is used to ensure that optimum corrosion resistance, weld pen-
etration, weld puddle fluidity, profile, and appearance can be maintained.
6.8 Shielding Gas and Cleanliness. With all the welding processes for the austenitic stainless steels, proper weld pool
shielding is a necessity. Numerous corrosion failures have been traced to improperly shielded and oxidized welds.
6.9 Fixtures and Fitting Devices. For critical service environments, temporary fitting devices and fixtures that are
tacked to stainless steel fabrications should be of the same alloy type unless overmatched filler metals appropriate for the
corrosive conditions are used for tacking. Welds made between dissimilar base materials, such as carbon steel fitting
devices tacked to a stainless steel fabrication, can result in a significantly different deposit chemical composition with
reduced corrosion resistance. Accelerated corrosion can occur in the weld area in corrosive environments even if the fit-
ting device has been removed and the weld ground is flush with the base material.
7. Weldability Considerations
7.1 Solidification Cracking. Many of the austenitic stainless steel alloys are considered to be easily weldable; however,
a type of weld metal cracking that occurs during the final stages of solidification, termed “weld metal solidification
cracking,” may be encountered in the following situations:
(1) When welding austenitic alloys with fully (or nearly fully) austenitic filler metals,
(2) When welding free-machining grades of base materials with high levels of sulfur or phosphorous,
(3) When welding fabrications with a high degree of restraint, and
(4) When welding on service exposed equipment over corrosion deposits that have not been removed before welding.
The chance for solidification cracking increases if two or more of the above situations exist simultaneously.
Weld metal solidification cracking results when solidification shrinkage-induced tensile stresses accumulate at grain
boundaries coated with liquid films. The liquid films have a limited strain capacity and separate resulting in crack
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
formation.
Fully austenitic and low ferrite-containing weld deposits are more prone to solidification cracking than weld deposits
that have controlled amounts of ferrite. The tendency for solidification cracking also increases with increasing joint
restraint. Weld solidification cracking may pose a problem when fully (or nearly fully) austenitic weld deposits are
required for certain corrosive service environments or in applications where non-magnetic materials and weld deposits
are required or for cryogenic service. Examples of non-magnetic material uses include magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) and other medical equipment, mine sweepers, and electrical generation equipment.
For “H-grade cast alloys,” carbon content tends to decrease the microfissuring of austenitic welds, and alloys with car-
bon content at the higher end of the composition range are somewhat easier to weld; however, they are more difficult to
repair weld after being exposed to high temperature service.
7.2 Mitigation of Solidification Cracking with Ferrite Control. Many of the austenitic-type filler metals are formu-
lated to produce weld deposits with a sufficient ferrite level that helps prevent solidification cracking. The ferrite level of
the weld deposit is primarily dependent upon the deposit chemical composition, and hence, can vary significantly from
one AWS classification to another and from one electrode production heat/lot to another. For example, improper shield-
ing gas coverage can lead to increased amounts of nitrogen in the weld metal. This added nitrogen can reduce the
amount of ferrite values significantly since nitrogen is a strong austenite former. Some critical applications prevent any
ferrite in the weld metal deposit. In such cases solidification cracking must be prevented by selection of materials with
low impurity levels (sulfur, phosphorus, and boron) or by application of proper welding technique. These are discussed
in the following sections.
33
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
7.3 Various Effects of Sulfur. Weld metal solidification cracking can also occur when welding “free machining” grades
of stainless steels that have relatively high levels of sulfur or phosphorous.22 Welding of the free machining grades of
stainless steels, such as Types 303 and 303Se, can be difficult because of the pickup of sulfur, phosphorous, or selenium
that can cause cracking in the weld metal or HAZ. If welding is absolutely required, E/ER312 type filler metals with low
heat input procedures are generally recommended. The same pickup of detrimental elements can occur when welding on
service exposed equipment without having first properly cleaned the base metal to clean, shiny metal.
Sulfur has also been found to play a role in the formation of cracks and voids in autogenous GTA welds on Type 316-SS.
One fabricator eliminated the discontinuities by reducing the base material sulfur content to below 0.03%. Reducing the
phosphorous content also helped eliminate cracks but had little effect on reducing porosity levels. Using base metals and
filler metals with a Creq/Nieq > 1.5 will reduce the cracking susceptibility by helping ensure that the first liquid to solidify
is ferrite. Consequently, the presence of impurities is not as critical. On the other hand, if the composition of the weld
metal is such that it solidifies primarily as austenite (Creq/Nieq < 1.5), the impurity content should be very low, for exam-
ple, the total phosphorous and sulfur level should be less than 0.03% and the sulfur content below 0.003%.
The solidification mode can be controlled only in certain types of welds, e.g., welds in Types 308, 316, 317, and 309
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stainless steel. With other types, a reduction in the impurity content may be necessary in order to minimize crack formation.
7.4 Reheat Cracking in Type 347-SS. Weld metal and HAZ cracking can occur during postweld heat treatment or high-
temperature service in some austenitic stainless steels like Type 347, especially with increasing joint thickness and
restraint. Fast heating rates during postweld heat treatment can be used to minimize this “reheat cracking” phenomenon
as well as to restrict the ferrite content of the welding consumables. Type 316/316H and 16-8-2 filler metals may also be
considered to minimize this problem. The use of Type 316/316H filler metals, however, may result in lower high-temper-
ature creep-rupture strength and corrosion-resistance differences compared to Type 347 filler metals.
7.5 Other Forms of Weld Cracking and Prevention Strategies. There are other weldability issues in addition to those
discussed in the previous sections. Several other important forms of weld cracking include liquation cracking, ductility-
dip cracking, and copper contamination cracking.
Liquation cracking can take two slightly different forms. The first type, HAZ liquation cracking, occurs as cracking is
induced by grain boundary liquation in the partially melted zone during welding. The partially melted zone is weakened
by intergranular liquid films and cracking occurs as the solidifying weld metal contracts and pulls against this region.
Liquid films forms at high temperature due to impurity segregation along grain boundaries or by the constitutional liqua-
tion, i.e., partial melting of precipitates such as TiC (in Type 321) and NbC (in Type 347). HAZ liquation cracking can
be controlled by several methods. In fully austenitic alloys, limiting impurity levels (such as sulfur and phosphorus) and
controlling the grain size can be effective. Reducing the weld heat input can be effective in limiting the grain growth in
the HAZ and also induces steep temperature gradients that minimize the size of the zone susceptible to liquation. Selec-
tion of alloys that have some tendency to form ferrite in the partially melted zone is also an effective control method. The
second type of cracking, weld metal liquation cracking, occurs in multipass welds and is prone to occur in fully austen-
itic weld deposits as prior weld passes are reheated. Impurity control is necessary in fully austenitic multipass weldments,
and guidelines for minimum ferrite content have been proposed for a number of other weld deposits (including Types
308, 316, 309, and 347).23 The presence of a small amount of ferrite promotes resistance to weld metal liquation crack-
ing since the interface of ferrite and austenite is not easily wet by liquid films.
Ductility-dip cracking can occur in austenitic stainless steel alloys and is associated with a decrease in ductility above
approximately one-half the melting temperature and below the solidus temperature.24 This form of cracking typically
occurs when the austenite grain size is quite large and when the weldment is under a high restraint condition (e.g., multi-
pass, thick-section joint). The cracking mechanism is not completely understood; however, cracks develop along the
crystallographic grain boundaries in the HAZ or weld metal at temperatures below those where solidification and liqua-
tion cracking occur. The grain boundaries most susceptible to ductility-dip cracking are those that are especially straight
where grain boundary sliding can occur. The presence of some ferrite in austenitic weld deposits promotes resistance to
22 Lee, C. H., R. Menon, and C. D. Lundin, 1988, Ductility and Weldability of Free Machining Austenitic Stainless Steel, Welding
Journal 67(6): 119.
23 Lundin, C. D. and C. P. D. Chou, 1985, Fissuring in the “Hazard HAZ” region of austenitic stainless steel welds, Welding Journal
58(4): 113-s–118-s.
24 Lippold, J. C. and D. J. Kotecki, 2005, Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ.
34
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
this form of cracking since this tends to promote a very tortuous grain boundary path where ductility-dip cracks cannot
as easily initiate and propagate. Use of low weld heat input can also be an effective method to reduce susceptibility by
reducing residual stresses in thick-section weldments.
Copper contamination cracking is a form of cracking that occurs in the HAZ of austenitic stainless steels. Contamination
by copper can occur from worn, chipped, or abused copper fixturing and tooling used to hold and fixture stainless steel
while welding. Melted copper can penetrate grain boundaries by a liquid metal embrittlement mechanism, and can result
in cracking at the grain boundaries. Cracks due to copper contamination are characterized by intergranular cracks that
are perpendicular to the principal stress direction.
7.6 Welding Techniques to Minimize Weld Cracking. To prevent weld metal cracking on thick, highly restrained
joints, and when using fully austenitic filler metals, the weld beads should preferably be convex and stacked, side-to-
side, building up the weld deposit from the bottom to the top of the joint by depositing the final weld beads for each layer
along the joint faces. The use of deep narrow weld beads should be avoided. Weld craters should be filled prior to termi-
nating the arc to minimize the formation of crater cracks. Weld stops can also be terminated on the joint faces instead of
deep in the groove. This technique will minimize shrinkage stresses on the weld stop. Welders should be instructed to
visually inspect the weld stops for cracks prior to starting the next bead. This is especially important when using fully
austenitic filler metals and on highly restrained weld joints. All cracks should be removed prior to beginning the next
weld bead.
8. Welding Processes
The austenitic stainless steels are most commonly joined by the welding processes of shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), flux core arc welding (FCAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), and sub-
merged arc welding (SAW). Other joining processes that are described in less detail in this guide are plasma arc welding
(PAW), laser beam welding (LBW), electron beam welding (EBW), resistance welding, and brazing.
8.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). The SMAW process, commonly referred to as “stick” welding, is a versa-
tile, manual welding process frequently chosen because of the wide selection of electrode types, the availability of inex-
pensive welding equipment, and the ease in which welding cables can be routed to areas where other types of equipment
cannot easily be used.
Electrodes are produced in standard lengths ranging from 230 mm to 460 mm [9 in to 18 in] and standard electrode core-
wire diameters ranging from 1.6 mm to 6.4 mm [0.062 in to 0.25 in]. The selection of the electrode diameter to use for a
particular application is normally based on the welding position and base material thickness to be welded. Generally, the
SMAW process can be used for joining base materials 1.5 mm [0.06 in] and thicker.
Welding power sources for the SMAW process are normally manufactured as “constant current” power supplies as
opposed to “constant voltage” power supplies. Because the process is manual and the arc length may vary slightly, the
use of “constant current” power sources ensures that welding amperage remains constant even though the arc length and
the resulting voltage can vary somewhat.
AWS A5.4/A5.4M, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, prescribes requirements
for the classification of covered stainless steel electrodes for SMAW. The document classifies SMAW electrodes accord-
ing to (1) Chemical composition of the undiluted weld metal (see Table 8.1) and by (2) Current type, suitable welding
positions, and arc characteristics (see Table 8.3). Table 8.2 lists the minimum mechanical properties specified by AWS
A5.4/A5.4M for SMAW electrodes. The annex of AWS A5.4/A5.4M is a useful guide to the application and use of the
various electrode types.
Tables 8.10 and 8.11of this document provides chemical composition and mechanical property requirements for nickel-
based welding consumables indicated herein for welding austenitic stainless steels.
While composition of the flux is not specified by AWS, the usability of an electrode is determined by the composition of
the flux covering. The flux composition ultimately determines how the electrode operates (e.g., electrode arc characteris-
tics) the optimum electrical welding current, and the optimum welding position(s) and amperages for the electrode.
35 --`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Provided by IHS
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,
Table 8.1
Chemical Analysis of Stainless Steel SMAW Electrodesa
AWS UNS
Classificatione Numberb C Cr Ni Mo Nb (Cb) plus Ta Mn Si P S N Cu V
E209-XX W32210 0.06 20.5–24.0 9.5–12.0 1.5–3.0 — 4.0–7.0 1.00 0.04 0.03 0.10–0.30 0.75 0.10–0.30
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

E219-XX W32310 0.06 19.0–21.5 5.5–7.0 0.75 — 8.0–10.0 1.00 0.04 0.03 0.10–0.30 0.75 —
E240-XX W32410 0.06 17.0–19.0 4.0–6.0 0.75 — 10.5–13.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 0.10–0.30 0.75 —
E307-XX W30710 0.04–0.14 18.0–21.5 9.0–10.7 0.5–1.5 — 3.30–4.75 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E308-XX W30810 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E308H-XX W30810 0.04–0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E308L-XX W30813 0.04 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E308Mo-XX W30820 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E308LMo-XX W30823 0.04 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E309-XX W30910 0.15 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
36
E309H-XX W30910 0.04–0.15 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E309L-XX W30913 0.04 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E309Nb-XXd W30917 0.12 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 0.70–1.00 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E309Mo-XX W30920 0.12 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E309LMo-XX W30923 0.04 22.0–25.0 12.0 –14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —

E310-XX W31010 0.08–0.20 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.5 0.75 — 1.0–2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 —
E310H-XX W31015 0.35–0.45 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.5 0.75 — 1.0–2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 —

E310Nb-XXd W31017 0.12 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.0 0.75 0.70–1.00 1.0–2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 —
E310Mo-XX W31020 0.12 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.0 2.0–3.0 — 1.0–2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 —
E312-XX W31310 0.15 28.0–32.0 8.0–10.5 0.75 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E316-XX W31610 0.08 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E316H-XX W31610 0.04–0.08 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
(Continued)
Provided by IHS
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Chemical Analysis of Stainless Steel SMAW Electrodesa
AWS UNS
Classificatione Numberb C Cr Ni Mo Nb (Cb) plus Ta Mn Si P S N Cu V

E316L-XX W31613 0.04 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E316LMn-XX W31622 0.04 18.0–21.0 15.0–18.0 2.5–3.5 — 5.0–8.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 0.10–0.25 0.75 —
E317-XX W31710 0.08 18.0–21.0 12.0–14.0 3.0–4.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E317L-XX W31713 0.04 18.0–21.0 12.0–14.0 3.0–4.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
6 × C min. to
E318-XX W31910 0.08 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
1.00 max.
8 × C min. to
E320-XX W88021 0.07 19.0–21.0 32.0–36.0 2.0–3.0 0.5–2.5 0.60 0.04 0.03 — 3.0–4.0 —
1.00 max.
8 × C min. to
E320LR-XX W88022 0.03 19.0–21.0 32.0–36.0 2.0–3.0 1.5–2.5 0.30 0.020 0.015 — 3.0–4.0 —
0.40 max.
37
E330-XX W88331 0.18–0.25 14.0–17.0 33.0–37.0 0.75 — 1.0–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
E330H-XX W88335 0.35–0.45 14.0–17.0 33.0–37.0 0.75 — 1.0–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
8 × C min. to
E347-XX W34710 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —
1.00 max.
E349-XXc W34910 0.13 18.0–21.0 8.0–10.0 0.35–0.65 0.75–1.20 0.5–2.5 1.00 0.04 0.03 — 0.75 —

E383-XX W88028 0.03 26.5–29.0 30.0–33.0 3.2–4.2 — 0.5–2.5 0.90 0.02 0.02 — 0.6–1.5 —
E385-XX W88904 0.03 19.5–21.5 24.0–26.0 4.2–5.2 — 1.0–2.5 0.90 0.03 0.02 — 1.2–2.0 —
E16-8-2-XX W36810 0.10 14.5–16.5 7.5–9.5 1.0–2.0 — 0.5–2.5 0.60 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 —

E2209-XX W39209 0.04 21.5–23.5 8.5–10.5 2.5–3.5 — 0.5–2.0 1.00 0.04 0.03 0.08–0.20 0.75 —
a Single values are maximum percentages.
b SAE HS-1086, Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
c 0.10% to 0.30% vanadium, 0.15% titanium, 1.25% to 1.75% tungsten.
d E309Nb and E310Nb were formerly named E309Cb and E310Cb. The change was made to conform to the worldwide uniform designation of the element niobium.
e The AWS Classification suffix (-XX) may be -15, -16, -17, or -26 (see Table 8.3).
Source: Adapted from AWS A5.4/A5.4M:2006, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Table 1, American Welding Society.
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.2
SMAW Electrodes (AWS A5.4/A5.4M) (specified tensile properties)
Tensile Strength, Min.
Classification MPa ksi Elongation Min. %

E209-XX 690 100 15
E219-XX 620 90 15
E240-XX 690 100 15
E307-XX 590 85 30
E308-XX 550 80 35
E308H-XX 550 80 35
E308L-XX 520 75 35
E308Mo-XX 550 80 35
E308LMo-XX 520 75 35
E309-XX 550 80 30
E309H-XX 550 80 30
E309L-XX 520 75 30
E309Nb-XX 550 80 30
E309Mo-XX 550 80 30
E309LMo-XX 520 75 30
E310-XX 550 80 30
E310H-XX 620 90 10
E310Nb-XX 550 80 25
E310Mo-XX 550 80 30
E312-XX 660 95 22
E316-XX 520 75 30
E316H-XX 520 75 30
E316L-XX 490 70 30
E316LMn-XX 550 80 20
E317-XX 550 80 30
E317L-XX 520 75 30
E318-XX 550 80 25
E320-XX 550 80 30
E320LR-XX 520 75 30
E330-XX 520 75 25
E330H-XX 620 90 10
E347-XX 520 75 30
E349-XX 690 100 25
E383-XX 520 75 30
E385-XX 520 75 30
E16-8-2-XX 550 80 35
E2209-XX 690 100 20
Note: Minimum mechanical properties specified by AWS A5.4/A5.4M:2006 for SMAW electrodes.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
38
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.3
SMAW Electrodes: Welding Current, Position of Welding, and Operating Characteristics
AWS Classification
AWS A5.4/A5.4Ma Welding Currentb Welding Positionb Notes
EXXX(X)-15 DCEP All a1, c

EXXX(X)-16 DCEP or AC All a2, c
EXXX(X)-17 DCEP or AC All a3, c
EXXX(X)-26 DCEP or AC H, F (fillet welding) a4
a AWS SMAW electrode classifications include one of four different usability designations (e.g., -15, -16, -17, or -26) to define the electrode's general
operability characteristics.
1. A -15 designation describes electrodes generally produced with a “basic” flux coating type consisting of lime and fluorspar. This type of coating
generally produces a convex bead shape, and consequently helps minimize weld metal solidification cracking when there is insufficient ferrite. -15
coatings are generally considered to produce higher Charpy impact “toughness” of all the flux coating types. The -15 electrodes have the easiest
out of position welding characteristics of the different coating types.
2. A -16 designation describes electrodes that tend to produce a slightly convex fillet weld bead shape, with slightly improved surface appearance,
spatter level, and slag removal than -15 coatings.
3. A -17 designation describes electrodes that tend to produce more of a spray arc and a finer rippled weld-bead surface than -16 coated electrodes.
The -17 electrodes tend to produce a flat to slightly concave fillet weld bead shape. The slower freezing slag of -17 electrodes compared to -16
electrodes permits improved handling when employing a drag technique. Vertical position welding requires a slight weave technique to produce
the proper bead shape.
4. A -26 designation describes electrodes with heavier flux coatings that tend to produce fillet welds that are flat to concave. The -26 electrodes are
recommended for flat and horizontal fillet positions only.
b Abbreviations: DCEP = direct current electrode positive; AC = alternating current; H = horizontal; F = flat.
c Electrode sizes 4.8 mm [3/16 in] and larger are not recommended for vertical or overhead welding.
Source: Adapted from A5.4/A5.4M:2006, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Table 2, American Welding
Society.
Operating characteristics can vary significantly when comparing different brands of electrodes even with the same AWS
and usability classification. The optimum amperage range can vary from brand to brand. Voltage, while not usually
adjustable for the SMAW process, can also vary from one brand to another and from one usability designation to
another. This can be an important consideration when the heat input must be controlled during production.
Operator appeal and electrode performance trials may be performed to compare brands or other various factors such as
arc starting characteristics, fume generation, out-of-position welding characteristics, the amount and adherence of spat-
ter, ease of slag removal, bead appearance, porosity, cracking tendencies, operator preference, etc.
Each electrode diameter and usability classification has an optimum amperage range that produces appropriate arc char-
acteristics when operated using the specified electrical polarity. Outside of the range, the arc can become unstable, or the
electrode may overheat, or both. Some approximate current settings for flat position welding are shown in Table 8.4.
Slight reductions in current from the values shown are necessary for overhead welding, while vertical welding typically
requires 10% to 15% less current compared to flat position welding. Note that not all usability classifications are suitable
for out of-position welding. Some manufacturers list the appropriate operating amperage range on their electrode con-
tainers, product catalogs, and internet web sites.
Selection of an electrode for a specific application is commonly based on “matching composition” criteria, where the
weld composition needs to closely approximate the base metal composition; Tables A.1, A.2, and A.3 in this document
list the recommended electrode for a specific base material type. The user should also verify that the desired electrode
can be operated on the available equipment. For example, electrodes with a “usability” designation of E3xx-15 are
designed to operate on direct current electrode positive (DCEP), but not alternating current (AC). If the available power
supply is strictly AC, an electrode classification ending with a -16, -17, or -26 should be selected.
Prior to use, electrodes should be left in their original sealed, moisture-proof containers in a dry storage area. A survey
of several electrode manufacturers recommended that electrodes from opened containers be stored in a rod oven at a
39 --`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.4
SMAW Electrodes, Suggested Amperage Ranges for E3xx-1, -16, and -17 Type Electrodesa
Electrode Diameter
mm [in] Operating Range
1.6 [1/16] 20–40
2 [5/64] 30–50
2.5 [3/32] 50–80
3.2 [1/8] 60–110

4 [5/32] 90–150
5 [3/16] 130–190
6.4 [1/4] 200–300

a Welding amperage may be significantly higher for electrodes with a usability designation of -26 listed in AWS A5.4/A5.4M.
Notes:
1. Listed ranges are approximate. Flat and horizontal fillets are typically operated at the high end of the range. Vertical (upward progression) welds
are typically operated at the low end of the range. Overhead welds are typically made at mid to the high end of the suggested range. When burn-
through is a concern on thin base materials, smaller diameter electrodes are preferred as well as maintaining the amperage at the low end of the
range for a given electrode size as well as maintaining a short arc length.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Optimum operating amperage can vary significantly for a given electrode size depending on the flux coating type and manufacturer's brand.
3. Voltage is not usually deliberately controlled or monitored when welding with the SMAW process except when fabrication codes require control of
heat input to ensure weld toughness. Voltage is determined by arc length. Short arc length practice is preferred.
minimum temperature of approximately 110°C [225°F] to prevent moisture pickup in the coating. A maximum holding
temperature of 120°C to 215°C [250°F to 420°F] was recommended depending on the manufacturer and the electrode
type. AWS D1.6/D1.6M, Structural Welding Code—Stainless Steel, specifies a holding temperature of 120°C to 150°C
[250°F to 300°F] for stainless steel SMAW electrodes from opened containers.
Hydrogen cracking due to excessive moisture is normally not a concern for austenitic stainless steel alloys; however,
moist electrodes may result in weld porosity and/or poor operating characteristics that may lead to other types of weld
discontinuities such as lack of fusion or excessive spatter. Electrodes that have absorbed moisture can be reclaimed by
baking in accordance with the electrode manufacturer’s recommendations.
8.1.1 General SMAW Recommendations. SMAW welding techniques are similar to that of the low-hydrogen type
carbon steel electrodes such as E7018, except that the E3XX electrodes operate with a slightly less fluid weld pool than
E7018. Use of a close arc is critical to help ensure adequate protective gas/fume coverage of the weld pool. A close arc
also helps to minimize spatter, arc wander, and electrode overheating. Increasing the amperage beyond the manufac-
turer’s recommended operating range for the particular size of electrode to increase penetration or to compensate for the
lack of fluidity should NOT be done. The E3XX electrodes can overheat more easily than an E7018 electrode because of
the fact that E3XX electrodes have an approximate 600% greater electrical resistivity than a carbon steel electrode.
Overheating of electrodes as a result of excessive amperage can result in an electrode stub loss of up to 33% because the
final one-third of each electrode may be unusable—resulting in significantly greater electrode costs and increases weld-
ing time.
Defect-free welds are best achieved by proper weld joint design, weld bead placement, and electrode manipulation. Weld
beads should be properly “stacked” to avoid tight crevices between weld beads and layers. Weave widths are commonly
restricted to a maximum of three times (3x) the electrode core wire diameter to minimize welding over solidified slag.
Weld deposits in grooves should be flat or slightly convex, with the end craters filled to help minimize weld cracking.
Slag should be chipped off between weld passes and layers before depositing another pass.
8.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). The GTAW process, commonly referred to as “TIG” welding (a nonstandard
term), is a versatile all-position welding process used for production and repair welding. It can be used manually or
40
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
adapted to automatic equipment and is applicable for joining both thin sheet and plate materials. In the hands of a skilled
welder, the process can provide excellent weld bead appearance and, in many instances, post-weld finishing operations are
not required. The welding process is frequently chosen because of the wide selection of filler metal types and the abil-
ity to produce clean, slag-free welds on materials 0.75 mm [0.030 in] thick and greater.
Materials thinner than 0.75 mm [0.030 in] can be welded using special equipment or techniques. Specific welding power
sources can provide very stable, low current levels required for welding thin sheet metals. Manual welding of thin sheet
metals generally requires greater skill than for welding thicker materials.
For manual welding operations, GTAW deposition rates are comparatively low when compared to other welding pro-
cesses. In many situations, however, GTAW is used for quality reasons. For example, root passes in critical pipe welds
are frequently made using the GTAW process because welds are slag, spatter, and “whisker” free; and, complete joint
penetration (CJP) can be easily achieved.
The GTAW process uses a nonconsumable tungsten-alloy electrode in a torch body. An arc is struck between the elec-
trode and the base material being welded. The tungsten electrode and the molten weld pool are shielded from the atmo-
sphere with a protective, inert shielding gas such as argon. AWS C5.5/C5.5M, Recommended Practices for Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding, is a highly recommended reference covering all aspects of the GTAW process.
Any of the tungsten alloy electrodes such as thoriated, lanthanated, ceriated, or zirconiated may be used for welding
stainless steels. Certain electrode manufacturers also produce proprietary grades of tungsten-alloy electrodes. AWS
A5.12/A5.12M, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding, governs the manufacture and
identification of the different types of tungsten welding electrodes. The specification also describes the operating charac-
teristics, benefits, limitations, and safety concerns of the various tungsten electrodes. Users of the electrodes have
observed operating characteristic differences when comparing different batches (heats) of the same electrode classifica-
tion, even if the different electrode batches were produced by the same manufacturer. One significant quality difference
is the ability of an electrode to remain sharp without forming whiskers. Noticeable quality differences between electrode
manufacturers are not uncommon. Brand comparisons are advisable. Tungsten-alloy electrodes are generally ground to
a conical shape with an included angle ranging from 30° for 2.4 mm [3/32 in] diameter electrodes to 60° for 3.2 mm
[1/8 in] diameter electrodes with a small flat 0.8 mm to 1.5 mm [0.03 in to 0.06 in] ground at the point.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A consistent, close arc length is important especially on thin sheet metals. Electrical current and polarity for welding
stainless steels is almost always direct current electrode negative (DCEN), except when occasionally welding very thin
sheet materials. In this case, direct current electrode positive (DCEP) or an alternating current (AC) is sometimes used to
reduce weld penetration. Pulsing electrical current is used in applications where greater control of melt-through charac-
teristics is desired or in orbital type welding applications for better control of the weld bead solidification characteristics
in and out of position welding. Typical welding parameters for manual GTAW welding applications are given in Table
8.5.
Weld penetration dependence upon electrode geometry, arc length, base metal sulfur content, welding speed, arc energy,
shielding gas composition, and welding position are summarized in the Welding Journal research supplement entitled
“The Effect of Welding Parameters on Penetration in GTA Welds.”25 Methods to ensure uniform weld penetration and
weld profiles (i.e., the use of optimized weld procedures) on varying heats and varying levels of residual elements of 300
series base materials are discussed in the Welding Journal.26
Welding grade argon shielding gas has a minimum purity of 99.99% with a maximum dew point temperature of –50°C
[–58°F] and a moisture content of 40 ppm max. moisture (volume) content.27 Flow rates vary with cup sizes but are nor-
mally in the 12 L/min [25 CFH] range for a number 8 cup size. See Table 8.6 for recommended shielding gas flow rates
versus gas cup size, with or without shielding lens and Table 8.7 for the recommended gas cup size versus welding
amperage. Shielding gas flow rates need to be controlled to ensure quality welds. Low flow rates will not properly shield
the molten weld pool, while excessively high flow rates can cause turbulence and aspirate air into the gas shield, causing
weld pool contamination.
25 Mills,
K. C. and A. A. Shirali, 1993, The Effect of Welding Parameters on Penetration in GTA Welds, Welding Journal 72(7): 347.
26 Lambert,J. A., 1991, Cast-to-Cast Variability in Stainless Steel Mechanized GTA Welds, Welding Journal 70(5): 41.
27 AWS A5.32M/A5.32:2011 (ISO 14175:2008 MOD), Welding Consumables—Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion Welding and Allied
Processes.
41
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.5
Suggested Welding Parameters, Manual GTAW
Tungsten Diameter
mm [in] Max. Amperage
0.30 [0.010] 15
0.50 [0.020] 20
1.00 [0.040] 75
1.60 [0.060 (1/16)] 150
2.40 [0.093 (3/32)] 250

3.2 [0.125 (1/8)] 330
Source: Adapted from AWS A5.12M/A5.12:2009, Specification for Tungsten and Oxide Dispersed Tungsten Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting,
American Welding Society.
Table 8.6
Suggested Argon Torch Flow Rates, Manual GTAW
Flow Rate L/min [ft3/hr]
Gas Nozzle Size With or without Gas Lens
I.D.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Number mm [in] Min. Max.
4 6 [1/4] 3 [5] 5 [10]

6 10 [3/8] 5 [10] 10 [20]
8 13 [1/2] 8 [15] 13 [25]
10 16 [5/8] 10 [20] 15 [30]

Source: Adapted from M. Shaw, 1997, Practical Guide to Gas Flow Rates for GTA Welding, Welding Journal 76(4): 75.
Table 8.7
Suggested Gas Cup Size versus Maximum Welding Amperage, Manual GTAW
Minimum Cup Size
Maximum Amperage mm [in]
100 6 [1/4]
150 10 [3/8]
200 13 [1/2]
300 16 [5/8]
42
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.8
GTAW (TIG) Shielding Gas Selection
Shielding Gas Comments
Argon Most common shielding gas used for GTAW. Can be used in manual or mechanized operations.
Also used for purge/backing gas.h
Argon + (2%–15%) Hydrogen Hydrogen additions are generally limited to 10% max. to minimize arc starting problems
although up to 35% has been used. H2 improves wetting and can provide cleaner welds and
allow increased welding speeds. For manual welding, an H2 content of 2%–5% is sometimes
used (especially 5%). 10 H2% is commonly used for mechanized welding of sheet metal &
tubing for increased weld speeds, reduced undercutting, and improved weld contour at low
current levels. 15% H2 has been used but arc starting problems occur with this composition.
Hydrogen additions increase penetration and depth-to-width ratio due to increased arc resistance.
There can be a positive influence on corrosion resistance when used as a backing gas. Hydrogen
additions do not lead to hydrogen induced cracking.a, c, d, e, h, j, k
(75%–80%) Helium + Primarily for mechanized welding for higher welding speeds and superior bead shape that
(20%–25%) Argon reduces the risk of undercutting. 75% He-25% Ar (SG-AHe-25) is used in mechanized hot wire
GTAW. Helium-rich gases can reduce the variation in weld bead penetration arising from
compositional differences in material casts or heats.f
Helium Primarily for mechanized welding when speed is important on “thicker” base materials because
of greater arc voltage and resultant increased heat input at equivalent amperage compared to
argon. Helium requires greater flow rates and is more expensive than argon.c, g
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Argon + (0.02%–1.0%) N2 addition can enhance arc starting ability and weld penetration during mechanized welding.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen Not used as primary shielding gas. Generally acceptable as a purge/backing gas for nonstabilized
grades. Some risk of reduction in weld metal ferrite for open-root joints. There is a positive influence
on improving pitting resistance when used as a backing gas.b, g, i, l
a Irving, B., January 1999, Shielding Gases are the Key to Innovations in Welding, Welding Journal 78(1): 40.
b Kotecki, D., 2000, Stainless Steel Q & A, Welding Journal 79(7): 101–105; Kotecki, D., 2001, Stainless Steel Q & A, Welding Journal 80(8): 102.
c O’Brien, R. L., ed., 1991, Welding Processes, AWS Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 2, p. 89.
d Lyttle, K., 1993, ASM Handbook, 10th ed., Shielding Gases, pp. 67–68.
e Larson, N., and W. Meredith, 1998, Linde’s Shielding Gas Selection Manual, p. 15.
f Lucas, W., June 1992, Shielding Gases for Arc Welding, Welding & Metal Fabrication: 220–221.
g Young, B., 1995, Shielding and Purging Gases: Making the Right Selection, Welding Journal 74(1): 47–49.
g O’Brien, R. L., ed., 1991, Welding Processes, Vol. 2 of AWS Welding Handbook, 8th ed., p. 89.
h Castner, H. R., 1993, What You Should Know About Austenitic Stainless Steels, Welding Journal 72(4): 56. “Additions of helium and/or hydrogen to
argon have been found to be effective in overcoming variable penetration. Ar +5%H2 is very effective.”
i Saggau, R., H. Pries, and K. Dilger, No. 1, 2005, Corrosion on Stainless-Steel Components as a Result of Temper Colors, Welding & Cutting 4.
j Onsoien, M., R. Peters, D. Olson, and S. Liu, 1995, Effect of Hydrogen in an Argon GTAW Shielding Gas: Arc Characteristics and Bead Morphology,
Welding Journal 74(1): 10.

k Louthan Jr., M., 2005, Impact of H in Shielding Gas for Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels, Welding Journal 84(4): 38–42.
2
l Shirwaikar, C. and G. P. Reddy, 1975, Purging with Nitrogen in the Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels, Welding Journal 54(1): 12.
Helium, argon-helium, or argon-hydrogen shielding gas mixtures are frequently used in automated high speed GTAW
welding operations or when trying to achieve greater penetration (see Table 8.8 for guidance in shielding gas selection).
When using helium, it should be noted that the arc voltage for a given arc length is approximately 40% greater and, as a
result, heat input is greater. Adding “hydrogen to argon or helium gives an arc a wider temperature distribution, a larger
heat input and a slightly reducing atmosphere, and that hydrogen additions to the argon shielding gas during GTA welding
can achieve increases in penetration over fifty percent.”28
Root pass welding and inert gas purging recommendations are discussed in 6.7 and 6.7.1 of this document.
28 Onsoein,
M., R. Peters, D. L. Olson, and S. Liu, 1995, Effect of Hydrogen in an Argon GTAW Shielding Gas: Arc Characteristics
and Bead Morphology, Welding Journal 74(1): 10-s.
43
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
GTAW power supplies are preferably equipped with high frequency or “lift-start” technology, pre- and post-purge
shielding gas controls, and upslope/downslope (or foot pedal) controls. Without high frequency or “lift-start” controls,
“scratch” starting is required, which can result in electrode and weld metal contamination. The GTAW welding torch
should be equipped with a gas cup size that is adequate to protect the size of the weld pool. A gas diffuser screen (gas
lens) may be used to reduce turbulence of the shielding gas coverage. The protective atmosphere provided by the gas can
be disrupted by drafts, fans, or generators, excessive tungsten electrode stickout, or excessive torch angles relative to the
workpiece. Lack of proper shielding can cause porosity, excessive oxide formation, electrode and weld metal contamina-
tion, shallow penetration, poor arc starting, or poor weld metal fluidity.
AWS A5.9/A5.9M, Specification for Bare Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes and Rods, prescribes requirements for the
classification of bare electrodes and rods that are used with the GTAW process and other processes. It classifies the filler
metals only according to chemical composition and includes filler metals used for joining various types of stainless
steels such as austenitics, martensitics, and duplex stainless steels. Annex A of AWS A5.9/A5.9M is a useful guide for
the purchase and intended use of the filler metals. The annex also discusses ferrite determination and controls for the dif-
ferent filler metal classifications. Tables A.1, A.2, and A.3 in this document show the recommended filler metal selec-
tions for welding austenitic base materials. See Table 8.9 for the chemical composition limits of the bare stainless steel
welding electrodes and rods.
Tables 8.10 and 8.11 of this document provide chemical composition and mechanical property requirements for nickel-
based welding consumables indicated herein for welding austenitic stainless steels.
AWS A5.22/A5.22M, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored Welding Electrodes and Rods, pre-
scribes in part, requirements for the classification of flux-cored filler rods that can be used with the GTAW process. It
classifies the GTAW filler rods according to welding position, shielding gas, and chemical composition. The flux-cored
filler rods are most often used in root pass applications where the use of a backing gas is not possible or when purging is
difficult. The use of the rods may be unacceptable in some corrosive environments or where damage to downstream
equipment is a concern if the slag cannot be completely removed from the root face. Also, when a backing purge is omit-
ted, the weld HAZ will develop a heat tint oxide that reduces corrosion resistance in some environments. Annex A of
AWS A5.22/A5.22M is a useful guide for the purchase and intended use of the filler rods. The annex also discusses fer-
rite determination and controls for the different filler metal classifications.
Stringer bead techniques or narrow weave techniques are recommended for manual operations. Stringer, weave, and/or arc
oscillation methods can be used in mechanized operations. Mechanized operations can be established with or without auto-
matic filler metal feed using spooled filler metal. Mechanization is most often used to increase production (e.g., deposition
rates) or to improve weld quality. Mechanized GTAW welding using unheated filler metal additions is termed as “cold-wire”
automatic GTAW. Filler metal additions for “cold-wire” automatic GTAW welding are typically at the front of the weld pool.
In order to increase deposition rates over “cold-wire” applications, the filler metal may be resistance heated (I2R) to near
its melting point using alternating current (AC) immediately before feeding the filler metal into the weld pool. Conse-
quently, most of the arc energy can be used to melt the weld zone base metal, and very little of the welding arc energy is
needed to melt the filler metal. Less total arc energy is needed resulting in a more efficient process. Very high deposition
rates (5 kg/h to 8 kg/h [10 lbs/h to 18 lbs/h]) are possible with hot-wire welding. Filler metal additions for “hot-wire”
automatic GTAW welding are typically at the rear of the weld pool. Automatic voltage-sensing equipment is needed to
control the welding operation.29 Welding equipment manufacturers should be contacted for more detailed information on
cold- or hot-wire applications.
To avoid the distortion of thin sheet metal when performing manual GTAW welding, minimal amperage and low heat
input is typically used, combined with weld bead sequencing techniques (e.g., backstepping and weld skipping), clamp-
ing, and fixturing whenever possible. Small diameter tungsten electrodes (2.4 mm [0.03 in] and less) are normally rec-
ommended. Small diameter filler metals (1.6 mm [0.06 in] diameter and less) are also recommended since less welding
amperage is needed for melting the filler metal. If large diameter filler metals are used, the amperage needed to melt the
filler metal is excessive for the base material and can easily result in excessive burn-through. The use of a short arc
length (2.4 mm [0.09 in] or less) is also critical. The close arc length concentrates the arc in the weld joint area instead of
allowing the arc to spread out if longer arc lengths are used. Weld bead sizes should also be kept to a minimum to mini-
mize distortion when welding sheet metals.
29 The Lincoln Electric Company, 1994, 13th ed., The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding: 7.5.3.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
44
Provided by IHS
Table 8.9
Chemical Compositions of Bare and Metal Cored Filler Metalsa (AWS A5.9/A5.9M)
Composition, wt %b, c, d
AWS UNS
Classificationd Numbere C Cr Ni Mo Mn Sif P S N Cu Element Amount
ER209 S20980 0.05 20.5–24.0 9.5–12.0 1.5–3.0 4.0–7.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.10–0.30 0.75 V 0.10–0.30

ER218 S21880 0.10 16.0–18.0 8.0–9.0 0.75 7.0–9.0 3.5–4.5 0.03 0.03 0.08–0.18 0.75 — —
ER219 S21980 0.05 19.0–21.5 5.5–7.0 0.75 8.0–10.0 1.00 0.03 0.03 0.10–0.30 0.75 — —
ER240 S24080 0.05 17.0–19.0 4.0–6.0 0.75 10.5–13.5 1.00 0.03 0.03 0.10–0.30 0.75 — —
ER307 S30780 0.04–0.14 19.5–22.0 8.0–10.7 0.5–1.5 3.30–4.75 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER308 S30880 0.08 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER308Si S30881 0.08 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER308H S30880 0.04–0.08 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.50 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER308L S30883 0.03 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER308LSi S30888 0.03 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER308Mo S30882 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
45
ER308LMo S30886 0.04 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER309 S30980 0.12 23.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER309Si S30981 0.12 23.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER309L S30983 0.03 23.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER309LSi S30988 0.03 23.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —

ER309Mo S30982 0.12 23.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER309LMo S30986 0.03 23.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER310 S31080 0.08–0.15 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.5 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —

ER312 S31380 0.15 28.0–32.0 8.0–10.5 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER316 S31680 0.08 18.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER316Si S31681 0.08 18.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER316H S31680 0.04–0.08 18.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER316L S31683 0.03 18.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER316LSi S31688 0.03 18.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
(Continued)
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Provided by IHS
Chemical Compositions of Bare and Metal Cored Filler Metalsa (AWS A5.9/A5.9M)
Composition, wt %b, c, d
AWS UNS
Classificationd Numbere C Cr Ni Mo Mn Sif P S N Cu Element Amount
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
ER316LMn S31682 0.03 19.0–22.0 15.0–18.0 2.5–3.5 5.0–9.0 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 0.10–0.20 0.75 — —

ER317 S31780 0.08 18.5–20.5 13.0–15.0 3.0–4.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER317L S31783 0.03 18.5–20.5 13.0–15.0 3.0–4.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER318 S31980 0.08 18.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 Nbg 8 × C min./1.0 max.
ER320 N08021 0.07 19.0–21.0 32.0–36.0 2.0–3.0 2.5 0.60 0.03 0.03 — 3.0–4.0 Nbg 8 × C min./1.0 max.
ER320LR N08022 0.025 19.0–21.0 32.0–36.0 2.0–3.0 1.5–2.0 0.15 0.015 0.02 — 3.0–4.0 Nbg 8 × C min./0.40 max.
ER321 S32180 0.08 18.5–20.5 9.0–10.5 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 Ti 9 × C min./1.0 max.
ER330 N08331 0.18–0.25 15.0–17.0 34.0–37.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —
ER347 S34780 0.08 19.0–21.5 9.0–11.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 Nbg 10 × C min./1.0 max.
ER347Si S34788 0.08 19.0–21.5 9.0–11.0 0.75 1.0–2.5 0.65–1.00 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 Nbg 10 × C min./1.0 max.
ER383 N08028 0.025 26.5–28.5 30.0–33.0 3.2–4.2 1.0–2.5 0.50 0.02 0.03 — 0.70–1.50 — —
46
ER385 N08904 0.025 19.5–21.5 24.0–26.0 4.2–5.2 1.0–2.5 0.50 0.02 0.03 — 1.2–2.0 — —
ER2209 S39209 0.03 21.5–23.5 7.5–9.5 2.5–3.5 0.50–2.00 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.08–0.20 0.75 — —
ER19–10H S30480 0.04–0.08 18.5–20.0 9.0–11.0 0.25 1.0–2.0 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 Nbg 0.05
Ti 0.05
ER16–8–2 S16880 0.10 14.5–16.5 7.5–9.5 1.0–2.0 1.0–2.0 0.30–0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75 — —

W 2.0–3.5
a Ferritic and martensitic grades are not included in this table. Only austenitic grades and occasionally duplex grades used for welding austenitics are reported herein.
b For classification of the electrode, AWS A5.9/A5.9M requires that if analysis is made by the electrode producer for elements not required by the table, then the total of those elements, excluding iron, must
not exceed 0.50%.

c Single values shown are maximum percentages.
d In the designator for composite, stranded, and strip electrodes, the “R” is deleted, and in its place the designator “C” is used for composite and stranded electrodes and the designator “Q” is used for strip
electrodes. For example, ERXXX designates a solid wire and EQXXX designates a strip electrode of the same general analysis, and the same UNS number. However, ECXXX designates a composite
metal-cored or stranded electrode and may not have the same UNS number. The requirements for metal cored electrodes were added to AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux
Cored and Metal Cored Welding Electrodes and Rods.
e SAE HS-1086, Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
f For special applications, electrodes and rods may be purchased with less than specified silicon content.
g Nb may be reported as Nb + Ta.
Source: Adapted from AWS A5.9/A5.9M:2006, Specification for Bare Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes and Rods, Table 1, American Welding Society.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Provided by IHS
Table 8.10
Nickel-Based Consumables, Chemical Composition Rangesa
AWS UNS Nb (Cb) plus
Classificationa Number C Ni Cr Mo Co W Ta Mn Si Fe Cu/Other P S
ENiCrFe-2b W86133 0.10 62.0 min. 13.0–17.0 0.5–2.5 — — 0.5–3.0 1.0–3.5 0.75 12.0 0.50 0.03 0.02
ENiCrFe-3b W86182 0.10 59.0 min. 13.0–17.0 — — — 1.0–2.5 5.0–9.5 1.0 10.0 0.50 0.03 0.015

0.50
ERNiCr-3b N06082 0.10 67.0 min. 18.0–22.0 — — — 2.0–3.0 2.5–3.5 0.50 3.0 0.03 0.015
Ti: 0.75
ENiCrMo-3 W86112 0.10 55.0 min. 20.0–23.0 8.0–10.0 — — 3.15–4.15 1.0 0.75 7.0 0.50 0.03 0.02
0.50
ERNiCrMo-3b N06625 0.10 58.0 min. 20.0–23.0 8.0–10.0 — — 3.15–4.15 0.50 0.50 5.0 Al 0.40 0.02 0.015
Ti: 0.40
0.50
ENiCrMo-4 W80276 0.02 Rem. 14.5–16.5 15.0–17.0 2.5 3.0–4.5 — 1.0 0.2 4.0–7.0 0.04 0.03
V:0.35
0.50
ERNiCrMo-4 N10276 0.02 Rem. 14.5–16.5 15.0–17.0 2.5 3.0–4.5 — 1.0 0.08 4.0–7.0 0.04 0.03
V:0.35
0.50
ENiCrMo-10b W86022 0.02 Rem. 20.0–22.5 12.5–14.5 2.5 2.5–3.5 — 1.0 0.2 2.0–6.0 0.03 0.015
47
V 0.35
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.50
ERNiCrMo-10 N06022 0.015 Rem. 20.0–22.5 12.5–14.5 2.5 2.5–3.5 — 0.50 0.08 2.0–6.0 0.02 0.010
V 0.35
ENiCrMo-13 W86059 0.02 Rem. 22.0–24.0 15.0–16.5 — — — 1.0 0.2 1.5 0.50 0.015 0.01
0.50
ERNiCrMo-13 N06059 0.01 Rem. 22.0–24.0 15.0–16.5 0.3 — — 0.5 0.10 1.5 0.015 0.010
Al 0.1–0.4

0.50
ENiCrMo-14 W86686 0.02 Rem. 19.0–23.0 15.0–17.0 — 3.0–4.4 — 1.0 0.25 5.0 0.02 0.01
Ti 0.25
0.50
ERNiCrMo-14 N06686 0.01 Rem. 19.0–23.0 15.0–17.0 — 3.0–4.4 — 1.0 0.08 5.0 Al 0.5 0.02 0.02

Ti: 0.25
ENiCrCoMo-1b W86117 0.05–0.15 Rem. 21.0–26.0 8.0–10.0 9.0–15.0 — 1.0 0.3–2.5 0.75 5.0 0.50 0.03 0.015
0.50
ERNiCrCoMo-1 N06117 0.05–0.15 Rem. 20.0–24.0 8.0–10.0 10.0–15.0 — — 1.0 1.0 3.0 Al 0.8–1.5 0.03 0.015
Ti: 0.60
Note: Single values indicate maximum permissible amount unless otherwise indicated.
a Compositions for SMAW electrodes are based on AWS Specification A5.11/A5.11M.
b A compositionally-equivalent version of the indicated consumable is available in an FCAW electrode (AWS A5.34/A5.34M).
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.11
Nickel-Based SMAW Electrodes, Specified Tensile Properties
Classification MPa ksi Elongation Min. %
ENiCrFe-2 550 80 30
ENiCrFe-3 550 80 30
ENiCrMo-3 760 110 30
ENiCrMo-4 690 100 25
ENiCrMo-10 690 100 25

ENiCrMo-13 690 100 25
ENiCrMo-14 690 100 30
ENiCrCoMo-1 620 90 25
Note: Minimum mechanical properties specified by AWS A5.11/A5.11M:2010 for SMAW electrodes.
8.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). The GMAW process, commonly referred to as “MIG” (a nonstandard term),
uses a spooled wire electrode that is continuously fed into an arc created between the electrode and the weld pool.
Shielding gas is required to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contaminants. The electrode is consumed continu-
ously as it is fed into the arc. Electrodes are produced as either a solid alloy wire or by adding powdered alloy elements
in the core of a tubular metal sheath. Cored electrodes used with the GMAW process do not have fluxing agents, in con-
trast to the flux-cored electrodes used with the FCAW process.
The use of constant voltage equipment allows the voltage and arc length to remain relatively constant for reasonable
adjustments to wire feed speed. The GMAW process is normally operated on direct current electrode positive (DCEP).
The GMAW process can be set up either as semiautomatic or fully automatic. Welding operations utilizing amperages in
excess of 400 amperes (A) may require the use of water cooled guns to avoid overheating. Welding guns in tandem are
used to increase deposition rates.
A wide variety of GMAW electrodes are available for welding the austenitic stainless steels. AWS A5.9/A5.9M classi-
fies the electrodes according to chemical composition only. Annex A of the specification is a useful guide for the pur-
chase and intended use of the filler metals. The annex also discusses ferrite determination and controls for the different
electrode types. See Table 8.9 for chemical composition limits of bare stainless steel welding electrodes and rods.
There are three possible types of arc transfer modes with the GMAW process: short circuiting transfer, spray transfer,
and globular transfer. Pulsed spray transfer is a variation of spray transfer.
8.3.1 Short Circuiting Transfer. Short circuiting transfer, also known as short arc, is a low heat input GMAW weld-
ing application that typically exhibits shallow penetration with relatively low deposition rates. The filler metal is trans-
ferred to the weld zone by direct contact when the electrode, with an attached molten droplet of filler metal, short circuits
against the material. Short circuiting transfer is frequently used for welding sheet metal from 0.60 mm to 3.60 mm
[0.025 in to 0.145 in] where shallow penetration is desirable to avoid excessive burn-through. Short circuiting transfer is
also frequently used for the welding of root passes in complete joint penetration (CJP), open root, and single- or double-
welded joints.
Because of the low heat input of the short circuiting transfer process, the process can be used in the vertical, horizontal,
and overhead positions. CJP welds made with the process may be restricted from being used in certain applications
because of the shallow penetration characteristics and the chance of unfused “whiskers” poking through on the backside
of single-welded joints. Whiskers may be the source of corrosion or cause downstream mechanical failure if they break
48 --`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
off in the process stream of specific process applications. Electrodes with a diameter of 1.1 mm [0.045 in] or less are
typically used in most short circuiting transfer applications. Electrodes 0.9 mm [0.035 in] in diameter and smaller are
preferable for welding thin sheet metals.
One of the most common shielding gases used for welding stainless steels in the short circuiting transfer mode is
90%He-7.5%Ar-2.5%CO2. A summary of the different gases typically used in short circuiting transfer applications is
provided in Table 8.12. Other possible short circuiting transfer gas mixtures and applications are described in AWS
A5.32/A5.32M-97. Shielding gas producers may also be consulted for proprietary blends that they have developed for
specific applications. Typical short circuiting transfer parameters are shown in Table 8.13. Short circuiting transfer weld-
ing equipment may employ the use of inductance controls to reduce the amount of spatter during the short circuiting
transfer weld cycle.
8.3.2 Spray Transfer. Spray transfer, also known as spray arc, is a transfer mode that is used for welding base mate-
rials typically 6 mm [0.25 in] and thicker and is used primarily only in the flat position because of the high fluidity of the
weld pool. This process can be characterized as a moderate to high heat input welding process with a relatively high dep-
osition rate. The weld penetration is typically deeper when compared to the short circuiting transfer process; conse-
quently, spray transfer is usually unsuitable for welding materials less than 6 mm [0.25 in] thick because of excessive
burn-through without using special techniques or backing materials. The welding equipment needs to be able to provide
a suitable spray transfer current level as the weld metal is transferred across the arc as extremely small droplets. Stainless
steels welded using the GMAW spray transfer mode are commonly welded using argon-oxygen (either 1% or 2% O2)
shielding gases although other gas blends are well proven to be effective. A summary of the different gases typically
used in spray transfer applications is provided in Table 8.12. Other possible gas mixtures suitable for spray transfer
welding of austenitic stainless steels are described in AWS A5.32/A5.32M-97. Typical parameters for spray transfer
welding the 300 series stainless steels are shown in Table 8.14.
8.3.3 Globular Transfer. Globular transfer, also known as globular arc, is less preferred than spray transfer or short
circuiting transfer because of an irregular arc and excessive spatter. Globular transfer occurs as a relatively large molten
droplet of filler metal propelled across the arc toward the base metal. The droplet size is typically larger than the diame-
ter of the electrode. Globular transfer is achieved by operating at amperage and voltage levels between short circuiting
transfer and spray transfer levels. Globular transfer, when used, is limited to a flat welding position.
8.3.4 Pulsed-Spray Gas Metal Arc Welding. The GMAW pulsed spray (GMAW-P) process may be selected for any
of the following situations or reasons:
(1) To reduce arc fume emissions30 and spatter.
(2) To weld on metals that are too thin for the GMAW spray transfer process.
(3) To offer greater out-of-position capabilities than with the spray transfer process.
(4) To weld materials that are thicker than what would be suitable for the short circuiting transfer process.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(5) To reduce heat input compared to the spray transfer process, which results in reduced distortion and dilution and
enhanced HAZ properties.
(6) Ease of use when using “synergic” equipment (preprogrammed welding schedules).
(7) To possibly improve deposition rates.
In the GMAW-P variation, the power source provides two output current levels at regular intervals: (1) A “background
current” too low in magnitude to produce metal transfer but sufficiently high to maintain the arc; and (2) A pulsed, high-
output, “peak” current that causes melting of droplets from the electrode, which are then transferred across the arc to the
weld zone. The process operates in the spray transfer mode only on the peak current portion of the pulse cycle. Ideally,
one droplet is transferred during each pulse. As mentioned previously, controlling the background current helps maintain
the arc and lowers the average heat input. The current can be cycled between a high and low value at up to several hun-
dred cycles per second. Setting and adjusting parameters can be difficult in older GMAW pulsing equipment that does not
have programmed (synergic) capabilities because of the comparatively large number of pulsing parameter variables.
30 Castner, H. R., 1996, Fume Generation Rates for Stainless Steel, Nickel, and Aluminum Alloys, Welding Journal 75(12): 393-s–
401-s.
49
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.12
GMAW (MIG) Shielding Gas Selection
Shielding Gas Commentsa, h
Transfer Mode: Short Circuiting Transfer
Commonly used for short circuiting transfer welding of austenitic stainless

steels. Helium improves wetting. No effect on corrosion resistance, small HAZ,
90%He + 7.5%Ar + 2.5%CO2
no undercutting, minimum distortion, minimal carbon pickup. Has been used for
GMA welding of piping without backing gas.k
Less commonly used shielding gas than He-Ar-CO2 blends. Especially useful
Ar + (1%–3%)O2 for thin (<1 mm [0.040 in] sheet, gaps, etc. due to low sustainable arc voltage,
low arc energy, low weld penetration (useful to prevent burn-through).a, c
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Beneficial for reduced distortion, burn-through, and weld oxidation. CO2
97%Ar + (2%–5%) CO2
exceeding 5% will increase carbon content of weld deposit.a, e
90%Ar + 7.5%He + 2.5%CO2 Popular European mix.f
Transfer Mode: Pulsed Spray Transfer or Spray Transfer
Better wetting, weld profile, and less surface oxide than argon oxygen mixes.
Up to 5%CO2 can be used on L-grade stainless and still maintain L-grade com-
Ar +(2%–5%)CO2
position. 25% travel speed increase achievable with 5%CO2 compared to Ar +
1%O2a, l
Good arc stability with a fluid and controllable weld pool. Good coalescence
99%Ar + 1%O2 and reasonable bead contour. Some surface oxide. Minimal undercutting on
heavier stainless steels.
Better arc stability, coalescence, and welding speed than 1% oxygen mixture.
98%Ar + 2%O2
Some surface oxide.
55%He + 43%Ar + 2%CO2 Good operability.c
90%Ar + 7.5%He + 2.5%CO2 See table footnotes f, j.
Ar + 30%–40%He + 1%–3%CO2, and Ar + 3%–5%CO2 + 1%–2%H2 blends are
considered “premium” blends for joining SS with pulsed or spray transfer. The
Ar + He + CO2 latter blend is used where bead surface appearance is particularly critical. The
Ar + CO2 + H2 reducing atmosphere generated by the hydrogen addition is a benefit. Ar + 25%–
35%He + 1%–2%CO2 can provide a 20% or more increase in travel speed com-
pared to most two-part blends.i, j, l
Transfer Mode: Pulsed Spray Transfer or Spray Transfer
Ar + (10%–40%He) + (1%–15%) CO2 Used most often on heavy sections in positions other than flat. Good mechanical
properties and weld pool control are characteristic of these mixtures.g
Ar + CO2 + N2 blends These specialized blends can be used for the higher alloy austenitics as well as
duplex stainless steels where increased corrosion resistance is important.
a Craig, E., September 1994, GMAW Shielding Gases: Simplifying Selection, Welding Design & Fabrication; 97%Ar–3%CO2 is discussed as a universal
gas mix.
b Irving, B., 1994, Trying to Make Some Sense Out of Shielding Gases, Welding Journal 73(5): 65–70; Cost comparisons of shielding gases are discussed
in the feature article.

c Irving, B., 1999, Shielding Gases are the Key to Innovations in Welding, Welding Journal 78(1): 37; Cost and quality comparisons of shielding gases
are discussed in the feature article.

d AWS Welding Handbook, 7th ed., Vol. 2, Table 4.5.
e Lucas, W., July 1992, Choosing a Shielding Gas, Welding & Metal Fabrication: 275–“High CO levels can cause excessive carbon pickup in the weld
2
pool; typically, between 0.010% and 0.020% will be added to the weld metal carbon content when welding with Ar+2%CO2 shielding gas.” This will
contribute to weld metal sensitization problems. CO2 concentrations exceeding 3% should normally be avoided; however, up to 25%CO2 additions in
argon have been used in noncritical, noncorrosive applications.
f Nickel Institute Reference Book, Series No. 11007, “Guidelines for the Welded Fabrication of Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels for Corrosion
Resistant Services,” p. 19.

(Continued)
50
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

GMAW (MIG) Shielding Gas Selection
g AWS A5.32/A5.32M-97, Specification for Welding Shielding Gases, 7.3.2.1 and 7.3.2.2.
h Chemical abbreviations: Argon (Ar), Helium (He), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Oxygen (O2), Hydrogen (H2).
i Lyttle, K. A., and W. F. G. Stapon, 1990, Select the Best Shielding Gas Blend for the Application. “Stainless steels are frequently welded with three-
part mixes containing helium to improve weld quality through better bead appearance, improved weld pool fluidity and higher potential travel speeds.”
Welding Journal 69(11): 24.
j AWS Welding Handbook, 7th ed., Vol. 2, p. 136: Mixtures of Ar, He, & CO are favored for pulsed arc welding and with Short Arc and pulse arc weld-
ing of stainless steels. “Mixtures in which argon is the primary constituent are used for pulse arc. When helium is the primary constituent it is for short
arc welding.”
k Messer, B., et al., 2002, Welding Stainless Steel Piping with no Backing Gas, Welding Journal 81(12): 32-34. Cost savings are described by eliminating
backing gas when GMA welding 300 series piping materials using high silicon filler metals, inverter power sources, and tri-mix shielding gases.
l Lyttle, K. and G. Stapon, June 2004, Selecting a Shielding Gas for Joining Stainless Steel, The Fabricator: 36.
mAWS C5.10/C5.10M:2003, Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Welding and Cutting, Table 6.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 8.13
GMAW Parameters (Short Circuit, DCEP He + 7.5%Ar + 2.5%CO2 Shielding Gas)a
Base Material Thickness Electrode Diameter Wire Feed Speed
mm [in] mm [in] m/min [ipm] Amperage Voltageb
1.6–3.2 [1/16–1/8] 0.8 [0.030] 4.7–7.1 [185–280] 85–125 21–24
1.2 [0.047] [18 gage] 0.9 [0.035] 3.0–3.8 [120–150] 55–75 19–20
1.5 [0.059] [16 gage] 0.9 [0.035] 4.6–5.2 [180–205] 85–95 19–20
1.9 [0.075] [14 gage] 0.9 [0.035] 5.8–7.0 [230–275] 105–110 20–21
2.7–3.5 [0.106–0.138] [12-10 gage] 0.9 [0.035] 7.6–8.3 [300–325] 125–130 20–21
4.8 [3/16] 0.9 [0.035] 8.9–9.5 [350–375] 140–150 21–22
2.7 [0.106] [12 gage] 1.1 [0.045] 2.5–3.2 [100–125] 100–120 19–20
3.5 [0.138] [10 gage] 1.1 [0.045] 3.8–4.4 [150–175] 135–150 21
4.8 [3/16] 1.1 [0.045] 5.6–6.4 [220–250] 170–175 22
6.4 [1/4] 1.1 [0.045] 6.4–7.0 [250–275] 175–185 22–23
a Short circuit welding parameters using other shielding gas types may vary.
b For Argon + 2%O2, reduce voltage approximately 6 V. Welding parameters using other shielding gas types may vary.
Note: Electrode extension range is from 9 mm to 18 mm [3/8 in to 3/4 in] with an optimum range of 9 mm to 15 mm [3/8 in to 5/8 in].
Source: Adapted from AWS Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 2, p. 140 and Lincoln Electric Gas Metal Arc Welding Guide, GS-100, pp. 32 and 33,
Tables 16 and 17.
Table 8.14
GMAW Parameters (Spray Transfer, DCEP, 98%Ar + 2%O2 Shielding Gas)a
Base Material Thickness Electrode Diameter Wire Feed Speed
mm [in] mm [in] m/min [ipm] Amperage Voltageb Commentsb
Up to 3.2 [1/8] 0.9 [0.035] 3.3–8.1 [125–320] 125–150 15–21 —
3.2 [1/8] and over 0.9 [0.035] 10.2–12.1 [400–475] 180–210 23–25 Note c
3.2 [1/8] and over 1.1 [0.045] 6.1–9.1 [240–360] 195–260 24–26 Note c
3.2–6.4 [1/8–1/4] 1.6 [1/16] 3.3–6.1 [130–240] 225–300 24–28 Note d
6.4 [1/4] and over 1.6 [1/16] 5.1–7.6 [200–300] 300–390 29–32 Note c
a Spray arc welding parameters using other shielding gas types may vary.
b For flat position or horizontal fillets. Listed ranges are approximate. Welding parameters for thin base materials are usually operated at the low end of
the range.
c Parameters adapted from Lincoln Electric Gas Metal Arc Welding Guide, GS-100, p. 31, Table 15.
d AWS Welding Handbook, Welding Processes, 8th ed., Vol. 2, Parameters adapted from Table 4.10, p. 139.
51
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
The net result of operating in pulsed spray transfer mode is to produce a spray transfer with average current levels much
below the typical transition current required for a particular electrode diameter and type. For example, using a 1.1 mm
[0.045 in] diameter stainless electrode with 99%Ar+1%O2 shielding gas, the minimum spray transfer current is 225 A
compared to 104 A (average) when pulsing.31 This allows the joining of thinner base metals than is normally possible
with standard spray transfer. Pulsed spray welding may be used in all positions. Welding fume levels are the lowest
obtainable with solid wire GMAW.32
Most modern synergic welding machines allow for the development and storage of pulsing parameters that are different
from the factory installed programs. This option may be needed for specific welding applications where the factory
installed programs are not optimum for the situation.
Pulsing occurs at regular intervals. The pulsing rate can be varied, depending on the base material, thickness, wire diam-
eter, shielding gas, and welding position. Pulsing parameters include: pulse frequency, peak time, peak current, back-
ground time, background current, and voltage, as depicted in Figure 8.1. Because of the large number of pulsing
parameters/variables, specific operating parameters for pulse GMAW welding are not provided in this document. It is
recommended that the preprogrammed parameters be used, or, that new programs be developed within the welding
equipment manufacturer’s recommendations.
Selection of a shielding gas for pulsed spray welding is typically based on the following factors:
(1) The shielding gas needs to be able to support spray transfer.
(2) The shielding gas needs to protect the weld pool from absorbing deleterious elements that may cause porosity,
excessive oxidation, or cracking.
(3) The shielding gas should be compatible with the particular synergic program selected for the application.
For example, a welding equipment manufacturer may have preestablished welding parameters for stainless steels that are
based on only a few shielding gas choices. The end user would select the preferred gas from one of the pre-established
options. Other shielding gases could potentially be used with the corresponding parameters for a specific shielding
gas/parameter program; however, the parameters for these new gases may need to be modified for optimum operability.
The common shielding gases that are used for welding the austenitic stainless steels in the GMAW pulsed spray transfer
mode are shown in Table 8.13.
8.4 Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW). The FCAW process is a variation of the GMAW process. The FCAW process,
commonly referred to as “flux core,” uses a spooled tubular (i.e., flux-cored) electrode that is continuously fed into the
arc created between the electrode and the weld pool. The tubular electrodes are produced by adding powdered fluxing
agents in the core of a tubular metal sheath. Depending on the manufacturer, the electrode core may also contain princi-
pal alloying elements in powdered form.
The FCAW process is commonly used in production because the process is capable of providing high deposition rates.
The process has the potential for increased productivity compared to the GTAW and SMAW processes. The FCAW pro-
cess is ideally suited for welding plate and sheet metal over 3 mm [0.12 in] thick, although thinner materials can also be
welded.
The FCAW process can be further defined by the electrode type and whether or not external gas shielding is utilized.
Gas-shielded FCAW (FCAW-G) is a variation of the FCAW process that requires supplementary gas shielding. Self-
shielded FCAW (FCAW-S) is a variation that uses electrodes specifically produced to operate without the need for sup-
plementary gas shielding.
A wide variety of FCAW electrodes are available for welding austenitic stainless steels. AWS A5.22/A5.22M prescribes
requirements for the classification of the electrodes. It classifies the electrodes according to chemical composition, the
position of welding, shielding medium, and the type of welding current used. It also indicates the minimum mechanical
property requirements for weld deposits for the various alloys. Annex A of AWS A5.22/A5.22M provides useful infor-
mation on the intended use of the various filler metals, as well as a discussion of ferrite in weld deposits.
Classification schemes for AWS A5.22/A5.22M are summarized in Table 8.15.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
31 Miller Electric, GMAW-P, Pulsed Spray Transfer, p. 5, Figure 5.

32 Praxair, Shielding Gases Selection Manual: 32.
52
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
CHANGES TO ARC COMMENTS

A Electrode extension (stickout)
B Arc length
C Contact tube-to-work distance should be 3/8 in to
3/4 in [9 mm to 19 mm]. Recommended gun
angle is 10° to 20° from vertical.
Increasing peak amperage only:

Increases burn-off rate, which directly affects arc
length
Increases average amperage slightly
Increases heat input slightly
Note: A good fine tuning parameter for arc length.
Assuming a constant pulse width (peak time), peak
amperage should be high enough to achieve a spray
transfer. Too low of a peak current often results in a
globular transfer.
High peak amperages result in smaller droplets, and a
more forceful or driving arc.
Increasing background amperage only:

Increases arc length
Increases average amperage
Increases heat input and penetration
Increases puddle fluidity
Note: This current level is largely responsible for arc

--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stabilization, and must be high enough to maintain the

arc between peak current pulses.
Increasing pulse width (time) only:
Increases heat input and penetration
Increases arc cone width
Increasing pulses per second only:

Increases heat input
Note: A good fine tuning parameter for arc length.

Typically, this variable is adjusted to control the burn-off
rate of the wire as it is fed into the arc.
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from the Miller Electric Manufacturing Company, “MIG GMAW-P, Pulsed Spray Transfer,” page 14,
Figure 9.
Figure 8.1—Waveform Components and Arc and Burn-Off Rate
53
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.15
FCAW Electrodes Classification Scheme AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010
AWS Classificationa External Shielding Mediumb Welding Polarity
EXXXTX-1 CO2 DCEP
EXXXTX-3 None (self-shielded) DCEP
EXXXTX-4 75%–80%Ar/remainder CO2 DCEP
EXXXTX-Gc Not Specified Not Specified
a The letter “E” indicates electrode. The letters “XXX” indicate the chemical composition. The letter “T” indicates the electrode is a tubular product
form (e.g., flux-cored). The “X” after the “T” indicates the intended welding position (“0” = flat or horizontal, “1” = all position operation).
b External shielding the manufacturer uses during classification tests to classify the electrode. This shall not be construed to restrict the use of any other
medium for which the electrodes are found suitable for any application other than the classification tests.
c The “G” indicates a general classification scheme to allow production and classification of a electrode varying in one or more respects (e.g., in
regards to chemical composition, polarity, external and/or shielding medium).

Source: Adapted from AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored Welding Electrodes and Rods, Table 2,
Tables A.1, A.2, and A.3 in this document provides filler metal recommendations for welding the most common austen-
itic base materials. The chemical composition limits of stainless steel flux-cored electrodes are listed in Table 8.16. Table
8.17 lists the minimum mechanical properties specified by AWS A5.22/A5.22M for FCAW electrodes and rods. Base
material composition and mechanical property limits are provided in Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4. The most common
shielding gases are provided in Table 8.18.
Generally, welds made using self-shielded FCAW electrodes produce more fumes than their externally-shielded counter-
parts, have somewhat lower deposition rates, and typically involve more postweld cleanup. As a result, FCAW-G welds
generally have a better appearance than welds made with the self-shielded types and may be of higher quality.
Self-shielded electrodes are less sensitive to wind and drafts than their gas shielded counterparts and are sometimes
selected for field construction for that reason. Utilizing self-shielded electrodes also eliminates the need and cost of gas.
Because the operability of self-shielded electrodes is generally considered less desirable than the gas shielded counter-
parts, the gas shielded versions are commonly used in shop environments.
Depending on the electrode classification, welding parameters, base material thickness, and operator’s skill, the FCAW
process can be operated out-of-position (i.e., vertical and overhead). Electrodes classified for flat or horizontal welding
may not be suitable for vertical or overhead welding because of their higher weld pool fluidity characteristics. Position-
ing fabrications during welding so that welds can be performed in the flat (down-hand position) can increase production
rates and provide welds with optimum appearance and quality. All-position electrodes should be considered if out-of-
position welding will be performed, or if a mix of flat, horizontal, and out-of-position welding will be performed.
Many FCAW electrode manufacturers produce electrodes that have exceptional operating characteristics. Some elec-
trode brands produce weld deposits with a smooth weld bead appearance with little or no surface ripple. Prior to produc-
tion welding, weldability comparisons between electrodes of different manufacturers are recommended to compare
operating characteristics such as: electrode feedability, weld appearance and profile, smoke and fume generation, spatter,
out-of-position welding characteristics, slag removal, operability, and weld deposit mechanical properties. Brand differ-
ences can be significant. Because labor costs typically account for more than three-fourths of welding costs, consider-
ation should be given when purchasing electrodes that have potential for increasing productivity (i.e., electrodes with
optimum operability), maintaining or increasing weld quality, and reducing postweld cleaning operations.
Transfer modes for the FCAW process are normally either spray transfer or globular transfer. Short circuiting transfer is
not appropriate for FCAW because of the insufficient heat for melting the flux. Some companies are investigating the use
of pulsing power supplies for FCAW.
Due to variations in the makeup of different flux-cored electrode brands, parameter ranges can vary from one manufac-
turer or electrode brand to the next. For optimum parameter ranges, consult the electrode manufacturer.
54
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Provided by IHS
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,
Table 8.16
FCAW Electrodes: Chemical Composition Requirements
Weight Percenta
UNS
AWS Classificationb Numberc C Cr Ni Mo Nb + Ta Mn Si P S N Cu
E307TX-X W30731 013 18.0–20.5 9.0–10.5 0.5–1.5 — 3.30–4.75 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5

E308TX-X W30831 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308LTX-X W30835 0.04 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308HTX-X W30831 0.04–0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308MoTX-X W30832 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308LMoTX-X W30838 0.04 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309TX-X W30931 0.10 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309LNbTX-X W30932 0.04 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.5 0.70–1.00 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309LTX-X W30935 0.04 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309MoTX-X W30939 0.12 21.0–25.0 12.0–16.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
55
E309LMoTX-X W30938 0.04 21.0–25.0 12.0–16.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309LNiMoTX-X W30936 0.04 20.5–23.5 15.0–17.0 2.0–3.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E310TX-X W31031 0.20 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.5 0.5 — 1.0–2.5 1.0 0.03 0.03 — 0.5
E312TX-X W31331 0.15 28.0–32.0 8.0–10.5 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E316TX-X W31631 0.08 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E316LTX-X W31635 0.04 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5

E317LTX-X W31735 0.04 18.0–21.0 12.0–14.0 3.0–4.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
8 × C min.
E347TX-X W34731 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
1.0 max.

E307T0-3 W30733 0.13 19.5–22.0 9.0–10.5 0.5–1.5 — 3.30–4.75 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308T0-3 W30833 0.08 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308LT0-3 W30837 0.03 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308HT0-3 W30833 0.04–0.08 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E308MoT0-3 W30839 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
(Continued)
Provided by IHS
FCAW Electrodes: Chemical Composition Requirements
Weight Percenta
UNS
AWS Classificationb Numberc C Cr Ni Mo Nb + Ta Mn Si P S N Cu
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
E308LMoT0-3 W30838 0.03 18.0–21.0 9.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5

E308HMoT0-3 W30830 0.07–0.12 19.0–21.5 9.0–10.7 1.8–2.4 — 1.25–2.25 0.25–0.80 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309T0-3 W30933 0.10 23.0–25.5 12.0–14.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309LT0-3 W30937 0.03 23.0–25.5 12.0–14.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309LNbT0-3 W30934 0.03 23.0–25.5 12.0–14.0 0.5 0.70–1.00 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309MoT0-3 W30939 0.12 21.0–25.0 12.0–16.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E309LMoT0-3 W30938 0.04 21.0–25.0 12.0–16.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E310T0-3 W31031 0.20 25.0–28.0 20.0–22.5 0.5 — 1.0–2.5 1.0 0.03 0.03 — 0.5
E312T0-3 W31231 0.15 28.0–32.0 8.0–10.5 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E316T0-3 W31633 0.08 18.0–20.5 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
56
E316LT0-3 W31637 0.03 18.0–20.5 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E316LKT0-3d W31630 0.04 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
E317LT0-3 W31737 0.03 18.5–21.0 13.0–15.0 3.0–4.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
8 × C min.
E347T0-3 W34733 0.08 19.0–21.5 9.0–11.0 0.5 0.5–2.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
1.0 max.
E2209T0-X W39239 0.04 21.0–24.0 7.5–10.0 2.5–4.0 — 0.5–2.0 1.0 0.04 0.03 0.08–0.20 0.5

R308LT1-5 W30835 0.03 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.2 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
R309LT1-5 W30935 0.03 22.0–25.0 12.0–14.0 0.5 — 0.5–2.5 1.2 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
R316LT1-5 W31635 0.03 17.0–20.0 11.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 — 0.5–2.5 1.2 0.04 0.03 — 0.5

8 × C min.
R347T1-5 W34731 0.08 18.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 0.5 0.5–2.5 1.2 0.04 0.03 — 0.5
1.0 max.
a Single values are shown as maximum.
b The “X” following the “T” in the electrode AWS classification refers to the position of welding (-1, -4, or -5). In A5.22-80, the position of welding was not included in the classification. Accordingly, elec-
trodes classified herein as either EXXXT0-1 or EXXXT1-1 would both have been classified EXXXT-1 and so forth.
c SAE HS-1086, Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
d This alloy is designed for cryogenic applications.
Source: Adapted from AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored Welding Electrodes and Rods, Table 1FC, American Welding Society.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table 8.17
AWS A5.22/A5.22M FCAW Electrodesa and Rods (specified tensile properties)
AWS Classification MPa ksi Elongation, Min. %
E307TX-X 590 85 30
E308TX-X 550 80 35
E308LTX-X 520 75 35
E308HTX-X 550 80 35
E308MoTX-X 550 80 35
E308LMoTX-X 520 75 35
E308HMoT0-3 550 80 30
E309TX-X 550 80 30
E309LNbTX-X 520 75 30
E309LTX-X 520 75 30
E309MoTX-X 550 80 25
E309LMoTX-X 520 75 25
E309LNiMoTX-X 520 75 25
E310TX-X 550 80 30
E312TX-X 660 95 22
E316TX-X 520 75 30
E316LTX-X 485 70 30
E316LKT0-3 485 70 30
E317LTX-X 520 75 20
E347TX-X 520 75 30
E2209TX-X 690 100 20
R308LT1-5 520 75 35
R309LT1-5 520 75 30
R316L5 1-5 485 70 30
R347T1-5 520 75 30
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a Minimum mechanical properties as-specified in AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010, Table 6.
Table 8.18
Shielding Gas Selection for Flux Core Arc Welding
Shielding Gas Comments
Shielding coverage is provided by vaporization of fluxing agents and by molten slag coverage of
N/A Self-shielded
weld pool.
CO2 is typically less expensive than Ar/CO2 mixes. CO2 provides better cooling of the contact tip
CO2
and nozzle compared to Ar/CO2.
Commonly used shielding gas mix. Depending on electrode brand, generally provides lower
Ar+(25%–30%)CO2
spatter than CO2 gas. Good arc stability.
57
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
8.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

8.5.1 SAW Process Description. The SAW process, commonly referred to as “sub arc,” uses one or more bare elec-
trodes continuously fed into the arc created between the electrode and the weld pool. Because the electrode is consumed,
it also serves as the filler metal for the joint. Electrodes can be solid or tubular (also referred to as “composite” or “metal-
cored”) and are provided in spools, coils, or drums.
Both the weld pool and the arc are shielded by granular or powdered flux that is automatically fed on top of the weld
joint as welding progresses. Flux in immediate contact with the molten weld pool melts and solidifies to form a protec-
tive slag layer while the remaining unmelted/unfused flux is typically vacuumed and recycled into the flux hopper. The
slag is then chipped from the solidified weld. Slag can be self-peeling with proper welding parameter selection, joint
design, bead-stacking sequence, and proper selection of flux type/brand. When properly performed, the process can pro-
vide a high quality weld with excellent weld bead appearance and, in many instances postweld finishing operations are
not required.
While deposition rates can vary significantly depending on operating parameters (electrode size, forms such as solid ver-
sus metal-cored, extension, amperage, and voltage), the SAW process is commonly selected because of its high deposi-
tion rate compared to other welding processes. While the SAW process has the potential to provide high quality weld
deposits with an exceptional weld profile, the process also has the potential to trap slag for the entire weld length when
the process is not properly monitored for each pass and weld layer, and when weld beads are not optimally located.
8.5.2 SAW Process Considerations. While deposition rates (kgs or lbs/hr) for the SAW process can vary signifi-
cantly depending on the operating parameters, the process is capable of much higher deposition rates compared to other
common welding processes.
Commonly used electrode sizes are 1.2 mm [0.045 in], 1.6 mm [1/16 in], 2.0 mm [5/64 in], 2.4 mm [3/32 in], 3.2 mm
[1/8 in], and 4.8 mm [3/16 in] diameter; however, stocking and using one or two diameters may be sufficient for most
welding applications.
Because the process has the potential to be operated at high heat input rates, welding parameters should be controlled
when necessary to ensure that weld zone cooling rates are fast enough to minimize the potential for sensitization. Slow
cooling rates can promote the sensitization and formation of heat tint on austenitic stainless steels. When sensitization
needs to be avoided because of possible corrosion concerns, the need to avoid slow cooling rates increases as the carbon
content of the material increases (see Figure 5.4a). Generally, weld zone cooling rates are faster for thicker materials
because of the increased heat sink. Cooling rates can be increased by decreasing the welding heat input (e.g., by decreas-
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing amperage and voltage and by increasing travel speed), by using lower preheats, and by ensuring that the interpass
temperature is not excessive.
Besides flux for a backing material, nonconsumable backing materials (e.g., copper or ceramic) may also be used where
appropriate for controlling burn-through.
8.5.3 SAW Flux. Various flux manufacturers produce fluxes manufactured specifically for welding stainless steels.
Flux manufacturers and the literature they distribute should be consulted prior to selecting a flux for a particular applica-
tion. There is no specific AWS document for submerged arc flux to aid in flux selection. Weld metal composition is
highly dependent upon flux type, electrode composition, and welding parameters (primarily voltage). Weld metal ferrite
levels, for example, can change dramatically depending upon any of the previously mentioned factors. Because of this,
fluxes used in production should be restricted to those previously qualified by testing. Various flux brands may be evalu-
ated to compare their different characteristics and their effects on final weld metal properties prior to weld procedure
qualification testing. Since welding parameters, such as welding voltage, can affect the amount of flux consumption and
final weld chemical composition, production parameters in critical applications should be maintained within reasonable
limits to that qualified or tested.
Active fluxes designed for the single-pass welding of carbon steels can increase the manganese content of the stainless
weld deposits, while neutral fluxes may not compensate for the chromium losses that can occur during welding. A
reduction of the chromium content may reduce the corrosion resistance and ferrite content of the weld deposit. Some
fluxes used for welding carbon steels can significantly increase the carbon content of the weld deposit, even to the extent
of changing an L-grade weld wire to an H-grade weld deposit. If fluxes designed for welding carbon steel are used with
stainless steel welding consumables, then complete mechanical testing including Charpy toughness testing, chemical
58
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
analysis, and ferrite checks should be considered during procedure qualification testing. Chemical analysis test results of
the undiluted weld deposit should be compared to the bare filler composition.
Submerged arc fluxes are made as either agglomerated (bonded) or fused. In general, the as-deposited oxygen content of
weld metal made with agglomerated fluxes will be lower than that of the corresponding fused flux. Higher oxygen con-
tents in the weld metal could have an adverse effect on the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties because of
increased levels of oxide inclusions in the deposited weld metal. Complete blending of the component ingredients by the
flux manufacturer is important during the production of agglomerated fluxes. Improper blending could result in varia-
tions in deposit composition that could adversely affect the properties.
The flux layer depth should be controlled within the limits specified by the flux manufacturer. Too shallow of flux depth
offers inadequate weld pool protection, while excessive flux depth adversely affects the weld bead shape and prevents
gases from escaping from the weld pool; it can also result in porosity or in weld surface “worm tracks.”
Specific flux brands can alter the as-deposited Ferrite Number compared to what is predicted from using the bare filler
metal chemical composition and the WRC diagram or other method. Besides consulting with the flux manufacturer, in-
house testing can be used to establish whether a specific flux brand increases, decreases, or doesn’t change the deposited
FN compared to the predicted FN,
8.5.4 SAW Electrodes. Electrodes can be purchased as solid or metal cored (composite). Composite electrodes are
produced by adding the principal alloying elements in powdered form in the core of a tubular metal sheath. The sheath
can be manufactured from an alloy similar in composition to the desired weld deposit or from a plain carbon steel mate-
rial. Composite electrodes have the advantage of higher deposition rates compared to solid electrodes.
A wide variety of SAW electrodes are available for welding the austenitic stainless steels. AWS A5.9/A5.9M prescribes
requirements for the classification of the electrodes. It classifies the electrodes according to chemical composition only.
Annex A of the specification is a useful guide for the purchase and intended use of the filler metals, discussing ferrite
determination and controls for the different electrode types. See Table 8.9 for chemical composition limits of bare stain-
less steel welding electrodes and rods.
Tables A.1, A.2, and A3 in this document are a useful resource for selecting filler metals for welding specific austenitic
alloys in specific operating environments. Typical electrode diameters range from 1.6 mm to 4.0 mm [1/16 in to 5/32 in]
diameter. Larger diameter electrodes are best suited for welding on thicker base materials (e.g., 25 mm [1 in] and
greater) because of the greater heat input and deposition rates associated with the larger diameter electrodes.
8.5.5 SAW Parameters. Typical SAW parameters are shown in Table 8.19. The process can be operated with single
arc or multiple arcs. The SAW process is normally operated using direct current electrode positive (DCEP) for single arc
welding; and DCEP and AC for multiple arcs to prevent arc blow.
Table 8.19
Typical Submerged Arc Welding Parameters, DCEP
Diameter Travel Speed
mm [in] Current (A) Voltage (V) cm/min [in/min]
1.2 [0.045] 100–250 22–28 30–50 [12–20]

1.6 [1/16] 150–300 24–30 40–50 [16–20]
2.0 [5/64] 180–350 21–32 40–50 [16–20]
2.4 [3/32] 250–400 25–32 40–55 [16–22]

3.2 [1/8] 300–550 28–32 40–55 [16–22]
4.0 [5/32] 400–600 28–32 40–55 [16–22]
59
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
8.6 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW). During plasma arc welding, arc transfer from the torch body to the work piece is
through a column/stream of high-temperature ionized gas particles called “plasma.” A nonconsumable, alloyed tungsten
electrode is recessed within a copper nozzle that is positioned within the torch body. Plasma is produced and forced
through a relatively small diameter nozzle orifice when an electrical arc is initiated and gas (commonly argon) is simul-
taneously introduced into the copper nozzle. Supplementary shielding gases such as argon, argon-2%–5%H2, and helium
are also required to shield the weld pool from atmospheric contamination during solidification similar to the shielding
requirements necessary for the GTAW process.
The process can be operated autogenously or with filler metal additions. Equipment and operating parameters variations
allow for the welding of materials that range from very thin sheet metal and spot welding of small-diameter wires, to the
autogenous welding of single-pass, complete joint penetration square-groove joints in material up to 13 mm [0.5 in]
thickness.
Welding of the latter joint design is typically performed using the keyhole method utilizing inert gas backing. This
method pierces and maintains a hole through the joint via the plasma stream. Molten metal flows from the sides and
leading edge to the trailing edge of the keyhole as the welding progresses. The molten metal fills the joint at the trailing
edge and then resolidifies. This technique can significantly reduce welding costs and distortion and still produce high
quality weld joints.
Some of the variations of plasma welding include: micro-plasma (<20 A) for welding materials down to 0.5 mm [0.02 in]
in thickness, fusion welding, and keyhole welding, as mentioned previously. Plasma has excellent arc stability; it exhib-
its a greater tolerance to variations in arc length compared to the GTAW process.
Plasma arc cutting, plasma arc gouging, plasma weld overlay, and plasma arc spraying are all variations of plasma weld-
ing equipment, consumables, and operating parameters. All materials that can be welded using the GTAW process can
also be welded using the PAW process. Filler metal type product forms for the PAW process for welding the austenitic
stainless steels are the same as those used with the GTAW process.
When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow is increased so that the deeply-penetrating plasma jet cuts through the mate-
rial, removing molten material as cutting dross. PAC differs from oxy-fuel cutting in that the plasma process operates by
using the arc to melt the metal, whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen oxidizes the metal and the heat from the exo-
thermic reaction melts the metal. Unlike oxy-fuel cutting, the PAC process can be applied to cutting metals that form
refractory oxides such as stainless steel, cast iron, aluminum, and other nonferrous alloys.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8.7 Laser Beam Welding (LBW) and Electron Beam Welding (EBW). Austenitic stainless steels are readily joined by
laser beam (LB) and electron beam welding (EBW) processes. The deep and narrow beads and rapid solidification of
laser beam and electron beam welds can make them susceptible to solidification cracking for compositions that are nor-
mally predicted to be crack-free if arc welded.33 The AWS Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 3, Chapter 13 is an excellent
reference for the EBW process as is AWS C7.1M/C7.1, Recommended Practices for Electron Beam Welding. AWS
C7.2, Recommended Practices for Laser Beam Welding, Cutting, and Drilling, is a useful reference for LBW practices.
8.8 Resistance Welding. Stainless steel is readily welded by resistance welding because of its high electrical resistivity.
The faying surfaces should be clean and free of contaminants that can cause inconsistent welds. In addition, some con-
taminants might contain a low melting point element such as sulfur or lead that can cause hot cracking in the welds.
Machined surfaces and mill descaled rolled-sheet surfaces may be welded after solvent or vapor degreasing. Some sol-
vents are toxic, and breathing the fumes can cause dizziness. Other solvents are flammable and require good ventilation;
therefore, proper precautions should be taken. The resistance welding of stainless steels is discussed in AWS
C1.1M/C1.1, Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding.
8.9 Brazing. Brazing is defined as the joining of materials using a filler metal that has a melting point above 450°C
[840°F] and below the melting point of the base metal. During brazing, the filler metal flows between the closely fitting
faying surfaces (typically with a gap of 0.05 mm to 0.10 mm [0.002 in to 0.004 in] for stainless steels) by capillary
action. Brazing processes include torch (TB), furnace (FB), induction (IB), resistance (RB), dip (DB), infrared (IRB),
and diffusion brazing (DFB).
33 Castner, H. R., 1993, What You Should Know About Austenitic Stainless Steels, Welding Journal 72(4): 53.
60
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Most of the austenitic stainless steels can be brazed. Base material cleanliness and brazing procedures are essential to
achieve a quality braze joint. Copper-, silver-, and nickel-based filler metal compositions, as well as compositions based
on precious metals have all been used to braze the stainless steels.
Brazing is beyond the scope of this guide; therefore, additional detailed information on the brazing of stainless steels can
be found in the AWS Brazing Handbook.
Additional brazing information is available in the following references:
AWS A5.8/A5.8M, Specification for the Filler Metals for Brazing and Braze Welding
AWS A5.31, Specification for Fluxes for Brazing and Braze Welding
AWS B2.2, Specification for Brazing Procedure and Performance Qualification
AWS C3.2M/C3.2, Standard Method for Evaluating the Strength of Brazed Joints
AWS C3.3, Recommended Practices for the Design, Manufacture, and Examination of Critical Brazed Components
AWS C3.4M/C3.4, Specification for Torch Brazing
AWS C3.5M/C3.5, Specification for Induction Brazing
AWS C3.6M/C3.6, Specification for Furnace Brazing
AWS C3.8M/C3.8, Specification for the Ultrasonic Examination of Brazed Joints
AWS C3.9M/C3.9, Specification for Resistance Brazing
9. Postweld Operations
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.1 Visual Inspection. The simplest and least expensive welding inspection technique is to visually examine the finished
weld and surrounding area for conformity to the applicable fabrication code and any contract specification requirements.
In the absence of any governing requirements, fabricators frequently develop their own visual acceptance criteria by adopt-
ing criteria from various fabrication codes such as from the AWS D1.6/D1.6M, Structural Welding Code—Stainless
Steel.
As a minimum, the weld should be visually inspected by the welder while welding progresses. While not all surface dis-
continuities can be easily identified, welders should be able to see a large majority of them before depositing the next
bead or layer. These types of surface discontinuities include: porosity, cracks, undercut, under-fill, overlap, and lack of
penetration (if the root side of the weld is accessible). When identified, the discontinuities can be removed rather than
potentially covering the discontinuities with the next weld bead or layer. If, however, weld discontinuities are covered up
by successive weld layers, the discontinuities cannot be subsequently identified by visual inspection. Also, when the
welder performs his or her own visual inspection and discovers discontinuities, welding techniques and procedures can
then be modified (within the limits permitted by the welding procedure) to minimize the formation of discontinuities on
subsequent weld layers. For example, if crater cracks are forming, then pausing the welding progression at the weld
stop/crater in order to fill the crater can frequently eliminate them.
9.2 Weld Size. Welders should also be trained to be able to measure fillet weld size and to achieve the required weld size
(and weld fill) in the least number of weld passes (within the limits permitted by the welding procedure). For example, if
an 8 mm [5/16 in] fillet weld is required but only measures 6 mm [1/4 in] once completed, then engineering needs to
determine if a 6 mm [1/4 in] weld is acceptable or if the fillet size needs to be increased in accordance with the original
design requirements. Depending on the welding process, an additional one to two weld passes may be required and the
final weld size may be larger than required. The final result, after additional welding, may be a 10 mm [3/8 in] fillet size
rather than the 8 mm [5/16 in] fillet that was originally specified. This would result in approximately 44% additional
filler metal, a doubling of the welding time, increased distortion, and likely a less preferable weld appearance. The addi-
tional manufacturing costs could be avoided if the welder slightly modified his or her welding technique to apply the 8
mm [5/16 in] fillet in a single pass.
61
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
9.3 Final Visual Inspection. Depending on the contract requirements, in-process and final visual inspection may be
required to be performed using trained personnel. Examples include an inspector specially trained by the fabricator or a
Certified Welding Inspector. The American Welding Society has a certification program (AWS QC1) for welding inspec-
tors.
9.4 Weld Discontinuities. As a result of welding, the surface of the stainless steels can be affected by slag from coated
electrodes, heat tint, arc strikes, welding stop points, and weld spatter. All of these have been known to initiate corrosion
in aggressive environments that normally do not attack the stainless steel base metal.
Arc strikes damage the stainless steel’s protective film and create small crack-like imperfections that should be removed
by light grinding. Weld stop points can create small discontinuities in the weld metal. Inadvertent arc strikes, weld stop
crater cracks, and embedded iron cause damage—they occur where the protective film has been somewhat weakened by
the heat of welding.
Weld stop cracks can readily be avoided by using run-out tabs (extensions at the end of a weld) or by beginning just
ahead of the stop point and welding over each intermediate stop point. Arc strikes should be kept within the weld joint
area but not on the base material. Initially, the arc can be struck on the run-out tab or on previously deposited weld metal.
Weld spatter creates a tiny weld where the molten slug of metal touches and adheres to the surface. The protective film is
penetrated, and tiny crevices are created where the film is weakened the most. Such problems can be minimized by using
welding processes, filler metals, and techniques that do not produce significant amounts of spatter. A commercial spat-
ter-prevention paste may also be applied when necessary to either side of the joint to be welded. The paste and spatter are
washed off during cleanup.
With chlorides and other aggressive chemicals, corrosion initiation sites can also be created by heavy/coarse grinding
after welding, the welding of attachments on the outside surfaces, rough machining, shearing, and other operations that
roughen the surface. In mild environments, stainless steel can normally tolerate surface imperfections.
Heat tint can affect the ability of the stainless steel to resist corrosion. See 5.4 for more details on heat tint.
9.5 Slag Removal. Slag can be difficult to remove completely, but it is extremely important to do so. It is especially
important if the structure is to be used in corrosive or high-temperature service where the slag particles create crevices
and can cause corrosion problems and premature failure.
In even mildly corrosive media, slag, scale, and iron particles can set up active corrosion cells. Slag is particularly harm-
ful in high-temperature service, over 540°C [1000°F]. It reacts with oxidizing environments to foster fluoride attack on
stainless steels. In reducing sulfur-bearing environments, slag absorbs sulfur, even if present at low concentrations. This
results in the sulfidation of the underlying surface, which leads to corrosion and potentially failure.
Slag removal using wire brushes requires careful control. Carbon steel and Series 400 stainless steel make stiff wires but
severely contaminate the surface and should never be used. Only Series 300 wire brushes should be used on austenitic
stainless steels. Even so, metal transfer from Types 302 and 304 stainless steels to the surface of more highly alloyed
stainless steels occurs especially during aggressive brushing. This leaves the surface contaminated with a less corrosion-
resistant material. For critical service, operators should follow brushing with local pickling or glass-bead blasting.
Grinding is commonly used to remove slag, arc strikes, heat tint, and other surface imperfections. When improperly
used, grinding wheels and continuous-belt grinders can overheat the surface and substantially reduce corrosion resis-
tance. Thus, such devices should be used with caution, if used at all.
Abrasive disks and flapper wheels are not as harmful and have produced good results when carefully used. Disks should
be clean and, therefore, frequently replaced. The best method is to limit the use of coarser disks and employ the finer
grades to smooth the surface.
9.6 Grinding and Finishing. Because of the aesthetic value of many stainless weldments, it is desirable and sometimes
necessary to refinish welds to blend with the parent metal. Finishing may be by grinding and/or by the use of sanding
disks or flexible-backed pads, drums, disks, or belts to accomplish blending.
Rough welds may be ground with a coarse-grit abrasive (No. 20 grit to No. 36 grit) followed by successively finer grits
until they are as smooth as or smoother than the parent metal. No operation in the weld-metal grinding sequence should
leave scratches below the surface of the parent metal. This is necessary to allow sufficient material for the final finishing
operation of the weld, which should leave the weld flush with the base material.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
62
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide wheels are both commonly used. To prevent chatter, rubber-bonded wheels or
flexible-backed abrasives are preferred for the final finishing step.
9.6.1 Grinding Wheel and Wire Brush Requirements. Free iron can be deposited by grinding or wire brushing
with contaminated grinding wheels or brushes that have been previously used on carbon steels. Direct contact with steel
or low alloy steel can also contaminate the material. Stainless steel chipping hammers are usually recommended to min-
imize the potential for contamination. Additionally, grinding wheels should not contain iron, iron oxides, zinc, or sul-
fides. Some grinding disks and wheel manufacturers produce specially identified grinding wheels manufactured from
contaminant-free materials.
9.7 Media Blasting. Media blasting using shot, grit, or bead blasting will rapidly and effectively remove colored and
black scale, as well as heat tint from stainless surfaces. An extremely wide variety of different grit and shot media are
available. Each media has its own advantages and disadvantages, such as removal rate, surface roughness and appear-
ance, and recyclability. Because corrosion resistance depends on the material’s surface condition, the effect of the blast
media and procedure should be closely pre-evaluated to confirm its suitability for a particular application. Some media
examples include glass bead, ceramic bead, plastic beads, olivine, walnut shells, clean silica sand, copper slag, alumi-
num oxide, stainless steel shot, etc. Beads and shot produce smoother surface profiles than grit media. Silica sand should
be used with caution since it is difficult to ensure that only clean sand is being used.
Steel and/or iron-containing grit and shot should be avoided, as well as blast media contaminated with iron. These types
of media (especially grit) will embed iron particles on the surface, which can lead to rusting. If these contaminants are
not removed by a suitable cleaning and/or pickling treatment (see 9.8), they can lead to rust spots and pitting. A thor-
ough, clean water rinse to remove any traces of acid is essential. If shot blasting is used, clean, non-contaminated stain-
less steel shot is recommended.
Caution is advised when blasting light gauge materials since distortion can result from local surface straining. Care
should be taken to prevent excessive cutting by keeping the blast in motion.
9.8 Cleaning, Pickling, and Passivation. Maintaining the corrosion resistance of stainless steels requires that the sur-
face be clean and that the surface maintain its protective, passive film.34 Depending on the service environment, scale,
heat tint, iron contamination, and other surface contaminants (e.g., dirt, chlorides, sulfides, welding slag and spatter,
lubricants, oils, fingerprints, permanent marker inks/paints, crayon marks, adhesives, pickling and cleaning products)
should be cleaned from the material surface as soon as practical after fabrication. Maintaining cleanliness during the
manufacturing process may reduce or eliminate the amount of post-fabrication cleaning. Examples of cleanliness control
methods used during fabrication are discussed in 6.2. Maintaining cleanliness during manufacturing cannot always be
achieved. Unfortunately, corrosion problems and iron contamination resulting in surface rusting is not always identified
until after the equipment is installed. The cost of subsequent cleaning and repair can be substantial. Consequently, the
designer, manufacturer, and end user should evaluate the need for post-fabrication cleaning operations.
9.8.1 Identification of Contaminated Areas. Because iron-contaminated areas are not always identifiable until after
shipment when the surfaces have been exposed to moisture or the service environment, it may be necessary to check for
iron contamination while the component is in the shop. When corrosion resistance is of utmost concern, iron-contami-
nated areas may be identified by methods described in ASTM A380, Standard Recommended Practice for Cleaning,
Descaling, and Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, and Systems. The methods described in the standard
include water-wetting and drying, high humidity test, copper sulfate test, and a ferroxyl test. When either the water-wetting
or humidity tests are used, iron contamination will show up as rusted areas. When the copper sulfate test is used, copper
will deposit on free iron. When the ferroxyl test is used, iron contamination will show up as an intense blue color on the
material surface. After the degree of contamination is determined, the cleaning method may then be decided upon.
9.8.2 General Cleaning Recommendations. For fabrications that will be exposed to low-to-moderate corrosive envi-
ronments, the fabrication may not require any cleaning or only require cleaning or scrubbing with a nontoxic solvent
such as soap and warm water or nontoxic solvents (e.g., aliphatic hydrocarbons and d-Limonene). Other acceptable
cleaning solvents include organic solvents such as acetone, alcohol, white spirits, and thinners.35
34 Gooch, T. G., 1996, Corrosion Behavior of Welded Stainless Steel, Welding Journal 75(5): 135-s–154-s.
35 Hill, J. W., 2002, Chemical Treatment Enhances Stainless Steel Fabrication Quality, Welding Journal 81(5): 40–43.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
63
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
The cleaning of fabrications for aggressive environments is discussed in the February 1993 issue of the AWS Welding
Journal under the Welding Research supplement section. Reported corrosion problems in specific environments and the
importance of using clean stainless steel wire brushes, specially-reserved grinding wheels, and over grinding and coarse
grinding are discussed, as well as the benefits and limitations of pickling to restore corrosion resistance. Additional
grinding, cleaning, and corrosion control methods are discussed in the Nickel Institute Technical Series Publication
No. 10026, Fabrication and Metallurgical Experience in Stainless Steel Process Vessels Exposed to Corrosive Aqueous
Environments.
Various acid-cleaning/passivating solutions are described in ASTM A380, Table A2.1. These solutions range from
nitric-hydrofluoric, nitric, and citric acid-based solutions.
Chlorinated solvents and abrasive scouring powders have been used, but the user should be aware that chlorides can
cause chloride stress corrosion cracking in the austenitic stainless steels. Avoiding chlorinated solvents is especially
important if there are crevices that can trap the solution, if the solution cannot be completely removed or rinsed from the
material’s surface immediately after cleaning, and when there is a potential for high residual welding stresses. If chlori-
nated solvents are used, then the duration of the exposure to any chlorinated solvents should be kept to a minimum; the
base material and solution temperature during cleaning should not be excessive (e.g., 60°C [140°F]). The surface should
be thoroughly rinsed and scrubbed using clean, soapy water followed by a thorough clean water rinse and thorough drying.
If surface contamination is more severe, simple solvents may not be adequate to clean the surface. In those instances,
phosphoric, or nitric acid-based solutions may be used to remove surface rusting and embedded iron.36 However, these
solutions are not particularly effective for removing heat tint or heavier oxide scales. An example solution for cleaning
free iron is a phosphoric acid-based (1 pH–2 pH at 55°C to 65°C [130°F to 150°F]) solution with surfactants and emul-
sifiers. Since acids will not remove oils and waxes, the oils and waxes should be removed prior to acid cleaning. Such
oils and waxes can be removed with various cleaning solvents, or a hot aqueous solution containing surfactants and
emulsifiers can be used.
Cleaning the weld joint area with flapper disks and wheels (coated abrasives) may also be considered as a method for
cleaning surface contamination. Field experience has shown that these methods are relatively effective because contami-
nated sanding grit is continually removed from the disk or wheel while new abrasive is exposed. Smooth blending of the
material surface is better accomplished with flapper disks, wheels, and drums than with grinding disks (bonded abra-
sives) with a grit that leaves a suitable finish. Blending for corrosive environments should preferably be performed in
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
multiple steps using progressively finer grit. An excessively coarse final surface finish affects appearance and can
degrade corrosion resistance. Specialty finishing products (e.g., nonwoven abrasives typically manufactured with nylon
fibers bonded with synthetic resins and impregnated with abrasives such as 3M pads) can also be used to clean and finish
surfaces. The relatively nonaggressive nature of nylon and the abrasive grit makes them an excellent finishing tool.
These nonwoven products are manufactured in product forms such as hand pads, rolls, disks, belts, and wheels. Grind-
ing, sanding, and finishing grit created from the abrasive cleaning process should be blown off the material surface to
prevent recontamination. Abrasive cleaning may be followed by acid cleaning if determined necessary. It should also be
noted that there are instances when using abrasives is undesirable because of the degradation of the material’s surface
appearance, smoothness, and uniformity.
When abrasive cleaning is used, the cleaning effectiveness should be verified by methods described earlier (e.g., water-
wetting and drying, high humidity test, copper sulfate test, and/or ferroxyl test).
9.8.3 General Pickling Recommendations. For fabrications with heat tint or heavy oxide scales, aggressive cleaning
operations may be required if the fabrication will be exposed to highly corrosive environments. Scales and heat tint may
be removed by the use of sanding disks, drums, or by 3M pads, as previously described. However, when mechanical
cleaning is impractical, costly, or not an appropriate cleaning method, post-fabrication acid pickling may be required to
maximize the material’s corrosion resistance. Pickling is frequently considered when large areas of scale or heat tint
must be cleaned or when it is undesirable to abrasively finish the surface. It is also generally preferable to grinding when
corrosion resistance is of utmost importance.
36 Moller,G. E. and R. E. Avery, Nickel Institute Technical Bulletin 10026, “Fabrication and Metallurgical Experience in Stainless
Steel Process Vessels Exposed to Corrosive Aqueous Environments.”
64
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Pickling, when performed, should be done as a final fabrication step (e.g., after slag removal, grinding, heat treatment,
and finishing operations). Pickling with a nitric/hydrofluoric acid solution is a much more aggressive cleaning solution
than the solutions that are typically used for surface cleaning of rust and free iron. The nitric/hydrofluoric acid solution is
used to remove high-temperature oxides, including the underlying chromium-depleted layer and any iron contamination.
Contaminants such as oils, waxes, soil, etc. must be removed prior to pickling.
When size permits, pickling by immersion (e.g., in nitric/hydrofluoric acid) is the simplest way to remove heat tint as
well as other surface imperfections. For large or field-fabricated vessels, a nitric-hydrofluoric acid pickling paste spray
or gel can be applied to heat tinted areas. However, such an application can initiate corrosion of the stainless substrate,
unless the paste is promptly removed according to the manufacturer’s directions. Pickling media applied near the end of
one shift and left on to be removed by the next one or on the next day can initiate considerable discoloration and corro-
sion of the stainless steel. Strict adherence to manufacturer’s instructions will ensure desired results. Other techniques
for removing heat tint include local electropolishing and glass bead blasting. A chemical passivation may be desirable
after removal of heat tint.
ASTM A380 should be referenced before attempting pickling or passivating. Extreme caution must be used when using
pickling solutions because of their toxicity. Manufacturer’s handling, neutralization, and disposal directions must be
adhered to, as well as all state, local, and federal regulations. Additionally, the users should be aware of the potential for
intergranular corrosion of sensitized alloys or severe corrosion attack from prolonged exposure.
Colored or black oxides (heat tint) can form in areas adjacent to welds as a result of exposure to the air or inadequate
inert gas protection while at high temperatures. For light scale, usually a 10% to 15% nitric acid with 1/2% to 3%
hydrofluoric (HF) acid is used at 50°C to 60°C [110°F to 125°F]. Heavier scales and heat tint may be removed using a
15% to 25% nitric, 1% to 8% HF solution as described in ASTM A380, Table A1.1. The HF solution is the active ingre-
dient and the nitric acid, being a passivating agent, acts as an inhibitor to protect the already clean areas. The time of
exposure is determined by periodically examining the surface. Excessive time will lead to overetching.
Heavy scale is frequently removed (prior to pickling) by abrasive blasting, treating with 8% to 11% sulfuric acid at 65°C
to 80°C [150°F to 180°F] for 5 minutes to 45 minutes, or by a nitric-HF solution as described in ASTM A380. A final
scrubbing and rinse should be followed by nitric acid-HF pickling. For applications in aggressive environments, it may
be advisable to develop full corrosion resistance by a passivation treatment subsequent to the pickling operation using a
nitric acid-based gel or solution.37
Post-cleaning and passivation of high purity tubing systems is described in issue No. 5 of Welding and Cutting.38 The
technique includes flushing the system with water, followed by a detergent rinse to remove organics, followed by a water
wash to remove the detergent. Other areas of potential debris accumulation are swabbed and inspected under UV and
white light to verify the removal of organics. A nitric acid solution is circulated to dissolve iron oxide and other contam-
inants. The system is finally flushed with pure demineralized water to remove all traces of the nitric acid. Another com-
monly used passivation treatment uses citric acid for its easier disposal. Any acid treatment should be followed by a
thorough rinsing in clean water to remove any traces of acid.
9.8.4 General Passivation Recommendations. As identified in the Terms and Definitions in this document, passiva-
tion refers to a chemical passivation treatment. A clean stainless steel surface, free of exogenous iron or iron compounds,
automatically forms a passive surface layer. However, the passive layer is further enhanced by a chemical treatment.
The three most widely used chemical passivation treatments use nitric acid, citric acid, or a mild oxidant such as hydro-
gen peroxide. There are various concentrations and procedures commonly used with these products, and are detailed by
the various manufacturers.
9.9 Electropolishing. Electropolishing (EP) is essentially the opposite of electroplating a metal. Rather than depositing
a metallic layer onto the surface of a metal, it is removed. Stainless steel is often a sound candidate for electropolishing
because it creates a smooth textured, glossy surface. This is a common requirement found in many architectural and art
type structures.
37 Hill, J. W., 2002, Chemical Treatment Enhances Stainless Steel Fabrication Quality, Welding Journal 81(5): 40–43.
38 Purnell, S., No. 5, 2003, Peterborough/UK, How to Achieve a Clean Process Pipeline, Welding and Cutting: 55.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 65
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
When removing metal from a surface, contaminants such as oxides (heat tint) and free iron are extracted, as well as any
“altered surface” resulting from cold working operations such as machining, grinding, or mechanical polishing. This
leaves the surface with an optimum corrosion resistance, and with an excellent cleanability factor. It is this feature that
distinguishes electropolishing as a widely used application in hygienic services.
10. Heat Treatment

Most austenitic stainless steel weldments do not require postweld heat treatment; however, a heat treatment is sometimes
used to improve corrosion resistance and/or to relieve stresses. The three primary heat treatments used for austenitic
stainless steels include the following:
(1) Full (solution) annealing by rapid cooling from elevated temperatures,
(2) Stress relieving, and
(3) Stabilization anneal for stabilized grades such as Type 347-SS.
10.1 Solution Annealing. For solution annealing, the furnace should be capable of heating the entire weldment to the
annealing temperature. Localized heating methods, such as induction or resistance heating, can produce sensitized zones
adjacent to the heat treated zone. Residual stresses up to the material’s yield strength can also develop if sharp thermal
gradients are present.
The optimum solution annealing temperature depends on the type of stainless steel. The soaking time is determined by
the section thickness. The steel manufacturer should be contacted for precise annealing information, but the solution
annealing temperatures for austenitic stainless steels are quite high, exceeding 1040°C [1900°F]. A short time at the
annealing temperature is preferred to avoid grain growth. As a general rule, the soaking time at temperature should be 12
minutes for each 10 mm [0.4 in] of thickness. The weldment should be cooled rapidly and uniformly, at least through the
temperature range of approximately 900°C to 425°C [1650°F to 800°F] to retain carbon in solid solution. Water quench-
ing or spraying is necessary for thick sections, while air cooling is suitable for thin sections.
For many weldments, there can be problems performing a solution heat treatment. For example, large annealing furnaces
require adequate heating and cooling capabilities. Special handling methods should be considered if removal from the
furnace is required for accelerated cooling. High-temperature oxide scale will form during solution anneal unless a pro-
tective atmosphere is used. Sagging and distortion of some fabrications can occur unless the fabrication is adequately
braced and supported during heat treatment. Grain growth can occur unless the time at temperature is kept as short as
possible. Weld metal properties should be verified through weld procedure qualification and testing, since solution
annealing will alter the mechanical properties compared to the as-welded (no postweld heat treatment performed) condition.
10.2 Stress Relief. Thermal treatments performed below the solution annealing temperature are sometimes used to
reduce residual stresses, especially if the weldment will be final machined. However, properties of austenitic stainless
steels can be degraded by sensitization or by sigma phase formation when heated in the range of about 425°C to 815°C
[800°F to 1500°F], unless it is a low-carbon or stabilized type. However, even low-carbon and stabilized types can suffer
carbide precipitation when exposed to this temperature range for prolonged periods (see 5.2 and 5.3). A stabilized grade
(such as 321, 347, or 348) or a low carbon grade (L-grade) should be used if stress relief is required in the sensitization
temperature range. The maximum time at temperature should be minimized in order to minimize sensitization if L-grade
stainless is not used. See Figure 5.4a on how to develop a stress relief treatment to avoid carbide precipitation if Type
304 is used.39
The selection of an appropriate heat treat temperature may avoid the need to perform additional supplementary Charpy
tests during procedure qualification testing and during production welding. For example, fabrications built to ASME
Section VIII requirements (part UHA) require impact testing of fabrications/weldments if austenitic stainless steels are
thermally treated between 482°C and 900°C [900°F and 1650°F]. Types 304, 304L, 316, and 316L are exempt from
impact testing for minimum design metal temperatures of –29°C [–20°F] and warmer if thermally treated between
39 Avery,R. E., January/February 1999, Welding and Fabricating Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys, Practical
Welding Today: 30.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
66
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
482°C and 704°C [900°F and 1300°F]. However, the applicable year and addenda of the code of construction should
always be consulted for qualification requirements and allowable exemptions.
For austenitic stainless steel welds intended for service above 480°C [900°F], postweld stress-relieving is sometimes
performed in the range of 790°C to 845°C [1450°F to 1550°F] as a way to reduce residual stresses in welds.
Any phase transformations that occur during the stress-relieving operation are not considered to be detrimental because
the weldments will be exposed to high temperatures in service. An exception, however, is the heat treating of stabilized
grades of austenitic stainless steels.
10.3 Stabilization Anneal. A stabilization anneal may be used to prevent service corrosion attack for stabilized grades
of austenitic stainless steels (e.g., Types 321, 347, and 348). These grades contain strong carbide-forming elements (tita-
nium in Type 321 and niobium in Types 347 and 348) that combine with the majority of the carbon and effectively
reduce the amount of available carbon. The lack of available carbon minimizes the formation of chromium-carbides.
Welding, however, dissolves the stable carbides in the weld HAZ that reached temperatures above 1230°C [2250°F].
Subsequent high-temperature exposure within the sensitization temperature range causes the chromium carbides to form
in the HAZ and can cause a form of corrosion called knifeline attack (KLA). To prevent this from happening, fabrica-
tions can be solution annealed or stabilized annealed after welding if corrosion is a concern. The appropriate temperature
for stabilization anneal is 910°C [1675°F] for these grades. In some high restraint situations, these grades require fast
heating rates to prevent the weld cracking that occurs during heat treatment. Limiting ferrite content to 10 FN maximum
is also important in reducing the chance of cracking during the heat treatment of high restraint weldments.
11. Storage and Shipping Recommendations

Shipping, storage, and handling of materials prior to and after fabrication is important to minimize or avoid contamina-
tion. Plate materials should be stored off the ground, and stacked plate materials should be protected from moisture,
which may initiate premature corrosion especially in the presence of road salts. Carbon steels should not be stored on top
of or with stainless steels. Specialized packaging and coverings may be required depending on the application.
12. Maintenance and Repair

12.1 Maintenance. The maintenance of stainless steel weldments depends to a large degree upon the service applica-
tion. In many services, stainless steels are maintenance-free except for the routine cleaning needed for the particular
application. Stainless steels perform best when the surfaces are maintained clean, free of deposits, free of embedded par-
ticles, or any condition that might damage or disrupt the passive film. Thorough cleaning should be the first maintenance
rule. It is helpful to understand that the passive film in stainless steels exits only on the surface, and is instantly renewed
when oxygen in the atmosphere is present. If conditions exist where oxygen is not present, the passive film is not
renewed and corrosion resistance is compromised. It is then important for optimum corrosion resistance to remove all
slag, spatter, and other contaminations as well as avoiding crevices in the design of the weldment.
Good maintenance practice includes a scheduled visual inspection of the equipment or component. As a rule, properly
designed stainless steel weldments seldom experience structural failures. Problems are more likely to be corrosion-
related, and unfortunately many corrosion problems are close to welds. Therefore, weld areas should be a primary
inspection target. Visual inspection is normally adequate, along with liquid penetrant inspection for suspicious disconti-
nuities.
Stainless steels seldom experience general corrosion, except in the case of high-temperature oxidation losses. Corrosion
is most commonly in the form of pitting (including that from microbiologically-influenced corrosion (MIC)), crevice, or
chloride stress corrosion cracking. The following subclauses provide suggestions when inspecting for these types of
corrosion.
12.1.1 Pitting and MIC. In extreme cases, pits may be completely through the material thickness and evident on the
opposite side, causing a leak. The pits are often only on the product side and vary from initial stage pits to pits of consid-
erable depth. In the case of MIC, the pit diameter at the surface is usually very small, but progresses to a much larger
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
67
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
diameter below the surface. MIC may occur away from welds but more often is near welds, particularly in areas where
heat tint has not been removed. Pits should be probed with a sharp tool to determine the shape and depth as an aid in
developing a repair procedure.
12.1.2 Crevice Corrosion. Crevice corrosion may occur in the space between similar metals, between a metal and a
nonmetal, or very often under deposits. Inspections should focus on surface deposits, under gaskets, or deposits resulting
from evaporation on any surface. The design of crevices in the weldment should be avoided (e.g., lack of seal welds in
tube to tubesheet in heat exchangers).
12.1.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). The most common form of SCC in stainless steels is chloride stress corro-
sion cracking (CSCC). It may take place in environments containing chlorides, elevated temperatures above about 66°C
[150°F], and areas of applied or residual tensile stress. This type of corrosion progresses rapidly, so immediate repair is
necessary to avoid failure of the component. When inspecting stainless steels in services where CSCC might be a factor,
the likely areas of high stress are near welds (there are residual stresses near all welds) or in areas of applied stress, such
as vessel or equipment supports.
12.1.4 Rust Spots. It should be recognized that not all signs of corrosion (such as rust spots) are an indication of a
corrosion problem, but rather may be caused by embedded iron. Subclause 6.2.1 offers guidelines to prevent iron con-
tamination during fabrication. However, during the course of fabrication, installation, or in service, iron contamination
may occur. Rusting from free iron deposits can be more of a cosmetic concern rather than a cause for alarm after a proper
evaluation is made. The prevention and removal for free iron is discussed in 9.8.2.
12.2 Repair. Some preventive maintenance repair work can be relatively simple, and a detailed analysis is unnecessary.
An example might be rebuilding the base metal thickness due to wear or erosion. Before undertaking a major repair, a
thorough analysis should be made into the cause of the problem, the magnitude of the repair, and a well thought-out
repair procedure.
12.2.1 Cause. The first step should be to determine why the failure occurred, particularly if it relates to a fabrication
defect or a service failure. Determining the cause of the failure could preclude a repeat failure if the same design or
welding procedure is used. The investigation should include sketches with dimensions and photographs. Nondestructive
and destructive examinations may be needed to determine the failure cause.
Structural failures usually call for a design reassessment and require engineering design involvement. When there is a
mechanical failure, for example in a groove weld, there is sometimes a tendency to increase the weld reinforcement. This
is usually a mistake and may compound the problem, resulting in an earlier failure.
When the cause is identified as an incorrect material selection, for example where a higher alloy grade of stainless steel
should have been used, there are limited options short of replacing the complete component with a higher alloy. One
exception might be where the weld metal suffered significantly greater corrosion than the stainless steel base metal. A
repair could be made with higher alloy weld metal with greater corrosion resistance for that environment. When a partic-
ular area experiences corrosion or wastage, a higher alloy may be applied only to that area. The repair could be made by
sheet lining the area with a higher alloy. This technique is widely used in the petroleum industry and power industry for
flue gas desulfurization units.40 The applied sheet liner is typically about 1.6 mm [1/16 in] thick and fillet welded to the
base metal. An alternative to sheet lining is to weld overlay the area using a higher alloy filler metal when the base mate-
rial thickness allows.
Another consideration when analyzing the cause should be the length of service before repair is necessary. The shorter
the service life before repairing is required, the more critical it is to establish the cause of the problem. Conversely, if the
unit has provided a long service and is finally wearing out, then a cost-benefit analysis may be appropriate.
12.2.2 Magnitude of Repair. The first assessment should be whether the component is beyond repair or if it would be
more cost-effective to replace the component. Unfortunately, replacements are not always readily available and, if the
unit must be back on line as soon as possible, temporary repairs are the only option.
40 NACE Standard RP0292-03, Standard Recommended Practice—Installation of Thin Metallic Wallpaper Lining in Air Pollution
Control and Other Process Equipment.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
68
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
The remarks in this subclause are applicable to solid solution austenitic stainless steels. If there is any question about
material identity, a material analysis should be made before attempting any repair.
Before developing a detailed welding procedure, there are other factors that need to be addressed since they have an
influence on the final weld procedure, namely the following:
(1) Will the repair be made on site or can the component be moved to a shop for welding?
(2) How accessible is the area for welding?
(3) Will distortion from welding be a problem?
(4) Are codes or specification requirements properly addressed?
(5) Will there be a safe environment for the welders?
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
12.2.3 Weld Repair Procedure. Having examined the cause and magnitude of the repair, the next step is the design
of the repair welding procedure. If the weldment is a part of the original manufacturer’s equipment and the repair is of
significant magnitude, it may be advisable to contact the manufacturer for assistance.
Since there are many types of failures, it is usually necessary to develop a welding procedure for each individual applica-
tion. Two examples are the repair of a cracked weld and the repair of leaks from pitting attack. Additional information on
maintenance and repair welding can be found in the AWS Welding Handbook, Materials and Applications—Part 1, 8th
ed., Vol. 3.
12.2.3.1 Procedure for the Repair of a Cracked Weld. Begin by completely removing the crack and preparing
the weld joint for welding. The tip of a crack is the point of highest stress causing the failure; cracks never improve, they
only expand. Repairs should never be attempted by simply welding over cracks; this does not remove the crack nor does
it contain it. During excavation, cracks have a tendency to travel or increase in length so it is a good practice where pos-
sible to drill a hole at each end of the crack before excavating. Excavation is normally made by grinding, although some
thermal arc processes may be used in some instances. The excavated area and repair weld joint should be inspected by
liquid penetrant inspection to ensure complete removal of the defect.
In repair welding, distortion can be a very important factor and the control of distortion should be an integral part of the
welding procedure. When distortion must be controlled, there are a number of helpful techniques that can be used for
each particular case. The techniques include external support fixtures, heat input control, sequence welding, and block
sequence welding. Peening weld layers is beneficial in reducing weld stress, although it should not be performed on the
root pass. When control of distortion is an important factor, dimensional measurements should be made during the weld-
ing operation so that corrective measures can be employed during the operation (e.g., weld sequencing or peening). Be
aware of iron contamination if peening is considered.
Other aspects of the weld repair procedure are essentially the same as the techniques discussed in Clauses 6 and 7.
12.2.3.2 Repair of Pits. An example of a procedure to repair pits might be pits in a stainless steel vessel as a result
of microbiologically-influenced corrosion (MIC). Characteristically with MIC attack, some sites are through-wall pene-
tration resulting in leaks if fluids are contained in the vessel. Less mature sites would not have through-wall penetration.
Both types usually have very small diameters on the side on which the corrosion started. Also, the attack may travel hor-
izontally below the surface and the void may not be evident from the outside.
Weld procedure details can vary with particular situations, but guidelines to developing a successful repair procedure
would usually include the following elements:
(1) Thoroughly clean the surfaces to be repaired, e.g., by abrasive blasting, removing any tubercles at the pits.
(2) Identify the spots of MIC attack by visual and/or liquid penetrant inspection (LPI). If the sites are all located along
welds, radiography is also very effective in locating the areas of attack and revealing the size of subsurface attack. Mapping
segments to be repaired provides an orderly approach to the inspection.
(3) Use the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process. This is often a trial and error approach with a skilled welder
working on discontinuities in the vessel or, if possible, on scrap material that has been removed. The welder may have all
the proper GTAW qualifications, but this repair technique approaches an “art” rather than a mechanical operation. The
need for welder practice cannot be overemphasized.
69
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
(4) Prior to welding, remove all corrosion products to the extent possible and dry the areas. Grinding into the void
prior to welding may be useful, depending on factors such as material thickness and size of the subsurface void. A
common technique would be to initiate the arc away from the pit opening, move into the pit area (allowing corrosion
products to float to the surface), add filler metal, and apply current decay to the arc.
(5) Ensure that the weld repairs are ground using a fine grit abrasive. Visual and LPI inspections should be used as
final inspections.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
70
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Annex A (Informative)
Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart
This annex is not part of AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012, Guide for the Joining of Solid Solution
A1. General Selection Notes

The following filler metals are suggested based on common industry practice. Guarantees as to the suitability for any par-
ticular application, however, cannot be made because of application and process differences. It should not be assumed
that filler metals having similar or equal chemical composition levels to the base metals will have adequate corrosion resis-
tance and strength properties in highly corrosive environments or extreme service environments. Alloying elements in
filler metals can segregate during weld metal solidification and can adversely affect weld metal corrosion resistance
and strength properties.41 Molybdenum, for example, often segregates during welding, and overmatched filler metals are
frequently specified to compensate. Other elements, such as phosphorous and sulfur, can segregate and cause weld metal
solidification cracking if the levels are excessively high in the weld metal. Weld metal pickup of phosphorous (P) and
sulfur (S) from free-machining base materials can lead to solidification cracking even if the as-purchased filler met-
als have very low P and S contents. Even in the absence of segregation, equivalent chemical composition weld metal can
have properties significantly different than the base material because of the metallurgical microstructural differences
between wrought products and a “cast” weld metal structure.
Properties of the deposited weld metal (e.g., strength, corrosion resistance) are normally, but not always, specified to be
equal to or greater than the base metal for a specific environment. Filler metal selection is typically based on compari-
sons to the applicable base material properties. Filler metals/deposited weld metal may be selected based on any of the
following factors (where applicable):
(1) Strength, e.g., ultimate tensile strength and/or yield strength at room temperature or the specific operating temperature;
(2) Impact toughness properties at temperature;
(3) Corrosion resistance properties at high temperatures against oxidation, carburization, sulfidation, etc.;
(4) Aqueous corrosion resistance properties against pitting, general corrosion, chloride or sulfide stress corrosion
cracking, etc.;
(5) Sensitization resistance;
(6) Low magnetic permeability, e.g., for electrical equipment;
(7) Ductility;
(8) Creep and stress-rupture properties;
(9) Solidification cracking resistance;
(10) Color;
(11) Abrasion or erosion resistance;
(12) Galling resistance;
(13) Available electrodes for a given welding process; or
(14) Cost.
41 Tuthill,
A. H. and R. E. Avery, 1993, Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steel and High-Alloy Weldments in Aggressive Oxidizing
Environments, Welding Journal 72(2): 41-s–49-s.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
71
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Filler metals should be chosen based on desired final properties. It may be preferable, for example, to weld Type 304
base materials for cryogenic service with 316L type filler metals instead of the standard Type 308/308L fillers. Type
316L with a 2 FN maximum would result in better impact properties at cryogenic temperatures than 308 type filler met-
als. Previous studies have shown that carbon, nitrogen, and ferrite are detrimental to toughness; consequently, those val-
ues should be controlled.42, 43, 44 The 316L filler metals, especially E316L-15, would be more crack-resistant than Type
308L fillers.45 DC-lime (-15 type) coatings typically produce better cryogenic toughness than the rutile (-16 or -17 type)
coatings because the DC-lime coatings produce a weld deposit with lower oxygen content than the rutile-coated elec-
trodes. Weld metal oxygen is mostly present as oxide inclusions, which help to nucleate and grow the fracture in a
Charpy V-notch test, or in real service fractures.46 It should be noted, however, that many manufacturers will manufac-
ture and/or pretest their filler metals to specific requirements such as ferrite content. Useful information on the corrosion
resistance of stainless steels in numerous corrosive environments is found in the Welding Journal.47
Some factors to consider for filler metal selection for improved weld metal toughness48 at cryogenic temperatures are
low carbon, low ferrite, low nitrogen, higher nickel, lime-type SMAW electrodes, and a low weld metal inclusion content.
For high-temperature applications, properties such as creep rupture, high-temperature strength, and corrosion resistance
may be the primary considerations for selecting a filler metal. It should be noted that the creep-rupture strengths of weld
metals are often less than those of wrought base metals with similar compositions. A study using Type 308 electrodes
showed that increasing filler metal carbon levels caused an increase in creep-rupture strength and a decrease in ductil-
ity.49 H-grade filler metals are typically selected for high-temperature service applications. ASME code limits the use of
austenitic stainless steels at temperatures above 538°C [1000°F] with a carbon content of 0.04% minimum; this applies
to filler metal 308H. The detrimental effect of bismuth on high-temperature creep of Type 308 weld metals is discussed
in the Welding Journal.50
API RP 582, “Welding Guidelines for the Chemical, Oil and Gas Industries” restricts bismuth for Type 347 flux core
weld deposits for high-temperature service due to reductions in weld metal creep strength. Bismuth is a common flux
ingredient in flux-cored electrodes and may be used by some consumable manufacturers for other types of consumables.
For heavily restrained fabrications which will be exposed to PWHT temperatures or high-temperature service, consider-
ation for purchasing consumables with “no intentional additions of bismuth” should be considered for any consumable
having mineral type fluxes, e.g., SAW fluxes, and SMAW and FCAW electrodes.
A variety of sources should be researched before selecting a filler metal for severely corrosive or other extreme service
environments. Useful descriptions and intended uses of filler metals are listed in the annexes of AWS A5.4/A5.4M, AWS
A5.9/A5.9M, and AWS A5.22/A5.22M. Base material and filler material producers and suppliers may be consulted for
their welding recommendations, as well as welding consultants specializing in welding for corrosive environments. In
many instances the customer will specify the desired filler metal. When welding to a code, the requirements for weld
procedure qualification must be complied with. Most codes, however, only address room-temperature properties, and the
designer and engineer should evaluate the base materials and filler metals for their suitability for specific service envi-
ronments.
AWS D1.6/D1.6M, Structural Welding Code—Stainless Steel, is a useful document for structural welding applications.
It provides a number of prequalified WPSs covering weldments in thicknesses of 2 mm [1/16 in] or greater for the tem-
perature range of –75°C to +430°C [–100°F to +800°F]. The WPSs apply only to austenitic stainless steels and to filler
metals containing delta ferrite of at least 3.0 FN.
42 ESAB, Quality Solutions for Welding and Cutting: 8-5.

43 Matsumoto, T., H. Satoh, Y. Wadayama, and F. Hataya, 1987, Mechanical Properties of Fully Austenitic Weld Deposits for Cryo-
genic Structures, Welding Journal 66(4): 120.
45 AWS A5.4/A5.4M:2006, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Annex Clause A9.
47 Gooch, T. G., 1996, Corrosion Behavior of Welded Stainless Steel, Welding Journal 75(5): 135-s–154-s.
48 Avery, R. E. and D. Parsons, 1995, Welding Stainless and 9% Nickel Steel Cryogenic Vessels, Welding Journal 74(11): 45–50.
49 Klueh, R. L. and D. P. Edmonds, 1986, Chemical Composition Effects on the Creep Strength of Type 308 Stainless Steel Weld
Metal, Welding Journal 65(1): 1-s–7-s.

50 Konosu, S., A. Hashimoto, H. Mashiba, M. Takeshima, and T. Ohtsuka, 1998, Creep Crack Growth Properties of Type 308 Austen-
itic Stainless Steel Weld Metals, Welding Journal 77(8): 322–327.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
72
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table A.1
Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart—Wrought Standard Grades
The electrode listed first in a given space below is commonly selected for welding the referenced base material. Other listed electrodes
have been specified for specific applications. For other specific applications, filler metal types other than those listed below may be
suitable and/or preferable. Where no filler metal is shown, contact the base metal supplier for recommended filler metal.
Base Metal UNS Number r SMAW Electrodess, t Bare Electrodes and Rodsu Flux Core Electrodesv Notes
201 S20100 E209 ER209 E2209T a, b, n
E219 ER219 E308T
E2209 ER2209
E308 ER308
202 S20200 E209 ER209 E2209T a, b, n
E219 E0R219 E308T
E2209 ER2209
E308 ER308
205 S20500 E240 ER240 E2209T n
E2209 ER2209
209 S20910 E209 ER209 E2209T k, n
E2209 ER2209
216 S21600 E209 ER209 E2209T a, n
E2209 ER2209 E316T
218 S21800 E2209 ER218 E2209T n
ER2209
219 S21904 E219 ER219 E2209T n
E2209 ER2209
240 S24000 E240 ER240 E2209T n
E2209 ER2209
241 S24100 E240 ER240 E2209T n
E2209 ER2209
301 S30100 E308 ER308 E308T a, b
302 S30200 E308H ER308H E308HT a, b
E308 E308 E308T
302B S30215 E308 ER308 E308T b
E309 ER309 E309T
303/303 Se — E312 ER312 E312T e
304 S30400 E308 ER308 E308T a, b, d, f, g, m, x
E309 ER309 E309T
E16-8-2 ER308Si E316T
E316 ER316
ER16-8-2
304L S30403 E308L ER308L E308LT b, d, x
E309L ER309L E309LT
E316L ER316L E316LT
ER308LSi
ER316LSi
304LN S30453 E308L ER308L E308LT n
E2209 ER2209 E309LT
E2209T
304H S30409 E308H ER308H E308HT b, f, i, m
E309 ER309 E309T b
E316H ER316H E316HT x
E16-8-2 ER16-8-2 16-8-2
304N S30451 E308 ER308 E308T b, n
E2209 ER2209 E2209T
305 S30500 E308 ER308 E308T a, b, l
(Continued)
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
73
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table A.1 (Continued)

309 S30900 E309 ER309 E309T a, b
309S S30908 E309 ER309 E309T a, b
309H S30908 E309 ER309 E309T q, m
309Cb S30940 E309Nb 24.13LNb¥ E309LNb a, w
310 S31000 E310 ER310 E310T-G o
310H S31009 E310H ER310H E310T-G o
310S S31008 E310 ER310 E310T-G o
310MoLN S31050 25 22 2 N L 25 22 2 N L — o, p
314 S31400 E310 ER310 E310T
316 S31600 E316 ER316 E316T-1 b, c, f
E16-8-2 ER308Mo E308MoT
ENiCrMo-3 ER16-8-2 16-8-2
ERNiCrMo-3
316H S31609 E316H ER316H E316HT f, i
E16-8-2 ER16-8-2ERNiCrMo-3
ENiCrMo-3
316L S31603 E316L ER316L E316LT b, c, f, h,
E308LMo E308LMo ENiCrMo3T
ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3
316LN S31653 E316L ER316L E316LT b, h, j, n, y
E317L ER317L E317LT
316N S31651 E316 ER316 E316T b, h, j, y
E317 ER317 E317T
E318 ER318
E318 ER318
316Ti S31635 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3 — —
317 S31700 E317 ER317 E317T a, h
317L S31703 E317L ER317L E317LT h
E385 ER385 ENiCrMo3T
ENiCrMo-3 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3
317LM S31725 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3 ENiCrMo3T —
ENiCrMo-4 ERNiCrMo-4 ENiCrMo4T
E317LT
317LMN S31726 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3 ENiCrMo3T y
E317LT
317LN S31753 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3 ENiCrMo3T y
321 S32100 E347 ER347 E347T b, f, i, m
E16-8-2 ER321
ER347Si
ER16-8-2
(Continued)
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
74
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

321H S32109 E347 ER347 E347HT f, i, m, q
E16-8-2 ER16-8-2
347 S34700 E347 ER347 E347T b, f, i, m
E16-8-2 ER347Si
ER16-8-2
347H S34709 E347 ER347 E347HT f, i, m, q
E16-8-2 ER16-8-2
348 S34800 E347 ER347 E347T i, m
348H S34809 E347 ER347 E347T i, q, m
a L-grades (low carbon) are generally acceptable. For high service temperatures, L-grade base materials and filler metals are not typically used because of
reduced creep strength.
b Si-grades (silicon enhanced) are available for the GMAW process for improved weld pool fluidity and weld appearance.
c 308Mo/308MoL will result in higher ferrite levels than 316/316L.
d 309/309L may be considered for severe corrosion conditions.
e Welding of this and other “free-machining” grades (303, 303Se, 316F) may result in severe hot cracking because of phosphorous, selenium, or sulfur
additions to the base metal. The increased ferrite of Type 312 filler metals helps but may not always work.
f E16-8-2 may be considered for steam plant use or other high-temperature applications. AWS Welding Handbook, 7th ed., Vol. 4, Table 2.13. 16-8-2
consumables have good hot-ductility properties that offer relative freedom from weld or crater cracking, even under high-restraint conditions. The
weld metal is usable in either the as-welded or solution-treated condition. Corrosion tests indicate that 16-8-2 weld metal may have less corrosion
resistance than Type 316 base metal, depending on the corrosive media.
g Type 316L fillers (2 FN max.) may be considered for cryogenic applications (ESAB, Quality Solutions for Welding and Cutting: 8-5).
h The use of E/ERNiCrMo-3 filler metals for improved corrosion resistance for 316L/317L base materials used in aggressive oxidizing environments
(e.g., paper mill bleach plants) is discussed in the Welding Journal 72(2), “Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steel and High-Alloy Weldments in
Aggressive Oxidizing Environments.”
i Refer to Annex A, General Selection Notes for possible bismuth concerns in flux ingredients for highly restrained weldments which will be exposed
to high temperatures.
j Kotecki, D., 2001, Stainless Steel Q & A, Welding Journal 80(7): 90.
k 8FN may be needed to prevent solidification cracking; Kotecki, D., 2003, Stainless Steel Q & A, Welding Journal 82(11): 80.
l GTAW filler metal additions or consumable inserts for root pass welding may be needed to prevent solidification cracking when welding Type 305
base metals. Kotecki, D., 2002, Stainless Steel Q & A, Welding Journal 8 1(9): 88.
mIf using for high-temperature service applications, ferrite should be restricted to 10 FN maximum to minimize the transformation of ferrite to sigma
phase which would otherwise adversely embrittle the weld.

n Duplex filler metals may be a good choice for 200 series alloys as they also contain higher levels of nitrogen and have comparable yield and tensile
strengths. Duplex microstructures, however, are approx. a 50/50 mix of ferrite and austenite and should not be used if the service temperature is
higher than 300°C [570°F] or below –40°C [–40°F] or if the corrosive environment selectively attacks ferrite. Duplex alloys are also suitable in some
applications for 300 Series.
o Consult electrode manufacturers for their proprietary E 310T-G FCAW electrode versions.
p European Standard EN ISO 143.
q In cases where H grades are not in the AWS filler metal specification, 0.04 min carbon may be requested.
r SAE HS-1086, Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
s Refer to Table 8.3 for useability guidelines for SMAW stainless steel electrodes for welding current, position of welding and operating characteristics.
t AWS Specifications A5.4/A5.4M and A5.11/A5.11M for nickel-based SMAW electrodes.
u AWS Specifications A5.9/A5.9M and A5.14/A5.14M for nickel-based bare wire and electrodes. The AWS electrode classification for bare metal-
cored stainless steel electrodes produced under AWS specification A5.22/A5.22M begins with the letters “EC” instead of “ER.”
v AWS Specifications A5.22/A5.22M and A5.34/A5.34M for nickel-based FCAW electrodes. Refer to Table 8.15 for usability guidelines for FCAW
stainless steel electrodes for welding current, position of welding, and shielding gas.
w 24.13LNb is a registered trademark of Sandvik Materials Technology that meets E309Nb.
x 316/316L filler metals are sometimes used for welding type 304/304L base materials for general corrosive service. For severe corrosive service where
molybdenum-bearing filler metals are indicated for type 304/304L base materials, the user should verify that the corrosive conditions do not selec-
tively attack molybdenum bearing alloys. For example, type 316/316L is reportedly less corrosion resistant in highly concentrated H2SO4 and hydra-
zine than 304/304L base materials and 308/308L weld deposits.
y When welding nitrogen-bearing austenitic stainless steels with niobium [Nb(Cb)]-bearing welding consumables (refer to Table 8.10), there is a strong
tendency for nitrogen to diffuse (migrate) from the HAZ and combine with niobium in the weld deposit (forming niobium nitrides).This leaves the
fusion line strengthened by niobium nitride precipitates, while the HAZ is simultaneously weakened and potentially more susceptible to corrosion
because of the nitrogen depletion. The strength differences between weld deposit, fusion line, HAZ and base material may adversely affect weld procedure
qualification bend test results. For severe corrosive service or when the strength of the weld region must be controlled, niobium free consumables
(example: E/ER NiCrMo-10) may be considered.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
75
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table A.2
Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart—Wrought Proprietary Grades
Base Metal UNS Numbera SMAW Electrodesh Bare Electrodes and Rodsi Flux Core Electrodesj Notes
20 (20Cb-3) N08020 E320LR, ER320LR, ENiCrMo-3 b
E320, ER320,
800 N08800 ENiCrFe-2, ERNiCr-3, ENiCr3Tx-y, —
ENiCrCoMo-1 ERNiCrCoMo-1 ENiCrFe2Tx-y,
ENiCrFe3Tx-y,
ENiCrCoMo1Tx-y
825 N08825 ENiCrMo-3, ERNiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo3Tx-y —
RA 330¥ N08330 E330 ER330, ENiCr3Tx-y, e
ENiCrFe-2, ERNiCr-3 ENiCrFe2Tx-y
ENiCrFe-3
253 MA S30815 EN 1600 alloy — — c, d, f
type 22 12 H
31 N08031 ENiCrMo-10, ERNiCrMo-10, ENiCrMo10Tx-y —
ENiCrMo-13, ERNiCrMo-13,
1925 hMo N08925 ENiCrMo-13 ERNiCrMo-13 ENiCrMo3Tx-y, —
(926) ENiCrMo-3, ERNiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo10Tx-y
254 SMO S31254 ENiCrMo-3, ERNiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo3Tx-y, k
ENiCrMo-10 ERNiCrMo-10 ENiCrMo10Tx-y
654 SMO S32654 ENiCrMo-13, ERNiCrMo-13, — —
28 N08028 E383 ER383 — g
904L N08904 E385, ENiCrMo-3, ER385, ENiCrMo3Tx-y, —
ENiCrMo-4, ERNiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo4Tx-y,
ENiCrMo-10 ERNiCrMo-4, ENiCrMo10Tx-y
ERNiCrMo-10
AL-6XN N08367 ERNiCrMo-3, ERNiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo3Tx-y, k
20Mo-4 N08024 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3 ENiCrMo3Tx-y —
20Mo-6 N08026 ENiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo3Tx-y, k
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
25-6Mo N08926 ENiCrMo-10, ERNiCrMo-10, ENiCrMo10Tx-y, k
ENiCrMo-3, ERNiCrMo-3, ENiCrMo3Tx-y
27-7MO S31277 ENiCrMo-10, ERNiCrMo-10, ENiCrMo10Tx-y —
b 320LR is manufactured with low-residual elements such as sulfur, phosphorous, and silicon to help minimize hot cracking and microfissuring when
welding fully austenitic stainless steels. Low carbon improves corrosion resistance.
c Proprietary grades available.
d European Standard EN ISO 14343.
e RA330 is a registered trademark of Rolled Alloys. Matching grade consumables (e.g., type 330) may be used, with possible risk of hot cracking. For
specific welding guidelines, refer to the Rolled Alloys website. The nickel-based filler metals are capable of producing sound welds, but may not pro-
vide equivalent oxidation resistance as the base material in high temperature service.
f Base material and electrode manufacturers should be consulted prior to selecting a filler material. 253 MA is designed for its high temperature char-
acteristics, e.g., for its creep and corrosion resistance in various environments e.g., oxidizing, reducing, nitriding, sulfidizing, or carburizing. Ferrite
should be limited to minimize the formation of sigma phase during high temperature service.
(Continued)
76
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

Suggested Filler Metal Selection Chart—Wrought Proprietary Grades
g Types 383 and 385 are not available in flux core electrodes.
h AWS Specifications A5.4/A5.4M and A5.11/A5.11M for nickel-based SMAW electrodes.
i AWS Specifications A5.9/A5.9M and A5.14/A5.14M for nickel-based bare wire and electrodes. The AWS electrode classification for bare metal-
cored stainless steel electrodes produced under AWS specification A5.22/A5.22M begins with the letters “EC” instead of “ER.”
j AWS Specifications A5.22/A5.22M and A5.34/A5.34M for nickel-based FCAW electrodes. Refer to Table 8.15 for usability guidelines for FCAW
stainless steel electrodes for welding current, position of welding, and shielding gas.
k When welding nitrogen-bearing austenitic stainless steels with niobium [Nb(Cb)]-bearing welding consumables (refer to Table 8.10), there is a strong
tendency for nitrogen to diffuse (migrate) from the HAZ and combine with niobium in the weld deposit (forming niobium carbides).This leaves the
fusion line strengthened by niobium carbide precipitates, while the HAZ is simultaneously weakened and potentially more susceptible to corrosion
because of the nitrogen depletion. The strength differences between weld deposit, fusion line, HAZ and base material may adversely affect weld pro-
cedure qualification bend test results. For severe corrosive service or when the strength of the weld region must be controlled, niobium free
consumables (example: E/ER NiCrMo-10) may be considered.
Table A.3
Filler Selection for Stainless Steel Castings
ACI UNS Reference ASTM AWS AWS AWS
Designation Numbera Grade Reference A5.4/A5.4M A5.9/A5.9M A5.22/A5.22M
CE20N J92802 309 A351 E309-XX ER309 E309TX-X
A451
CF3 J92500 304L A351 E308L-XX ER308L E308LTX-X
A743
A744
CF10 J92590 304H A351 E308H-XX ER308H E308HTX-X
CF10M J92901 316H A351 E316H-XX ER316H E316HTX-X
CF10MC J92971 316Cb A351 — — —
CF10SMnN J92972 Nitronic 60 A351 — ER218 EC218
A743
CF20 — 302 A743 E308-XX ER308 E308TX-X
CF3M J92800 316L A351 E316L-XX ER316L E316LTX-X
A743
A744
CF8 J92600 304 A351 E308-XX ER308 E308TX-X
A743
A744
CF8C J92710 347 A351 E347-XX ER347 ER347TX-X
A743
A744
CF8M J92900 316 A351 E316-XX ER316 E316TX-X
A743
A744
CG12 J93001 309 A743 E309-XX ER309 E309TX-X
CG6MMN J93790 Nitronic 50 A351 E209-XX or ER209 or ER2209TX-Xg
A743 E2209-XXg ER2209g
CG8M J93000 317 A351 E317-XX ER317 E317TX-X
A743
A744
CH10 J93401 309H A351 E309H-XX ER309 E309HTX-X
A451
A243
(Continued)
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
77
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

Filler Selection for Stainless Steel Castings
ACI UNS Reference ASTM AWS AWS AWS
Designation Numbera Grade Reference A5.4/A5.4M A5.9/A5.9M A5.22/A5.22M
CH20 J93402 309 A743 E309-XX ER309 E309TX-X
A351
CH8 J93400 309S A351 E309-XX ER309Si E309TX-X
A451
CK20 J94202 310H A351 E310H-XX ER310 E310TG-X
A451
A743
CK3MCuN J93254 254SMO A743 ENiCrMo-3b, c ERNiCrMo-3b, d ENiCrMo3Tx-yb
A744 ENiCrMo-10 ERNiCrMo-10d ENiCrMo10Tx-ye
A990
CN3M J94652 904L A743 E385-XX ER385
ENiCrMo-3c ERNiCrMo-3d ENiCrMo3Tx-ye
ENiCrMo-4c ERNiCrMo-4d ENiCrMo4Tx-ye
CN3MCu J80020 20Cb3 A990 E320LR-XX ER320LR —
A744
CN3MN J94651 AL6-XN A743 ENiCrMo-3b, c ERNiCrMo-3b, d ENiCrMo3Tx-yb
ENiCrMo-10 ERNiCrMo-10d ENiCrMo10Tx-ye
CN7M N08007 320 A743 E320LR-XX ER320LR —
20Cb3 A744
CU5MCuC N08826 825 A494 — ERNiFeCr-1d —
HE J93403 312 A297 E312-XX ER312 E312TX-X
A608
HF J92603 304H A297 E308-XX ER308 E308LTX-X
HH J93503 309 A297 E309-XX ER309 E309TX-X
HK J94224 310 A297 E310H-XX — —
A351
A608
HK30 J94203 — A351 E310H-XX — —
A608
HK40 J94204 — A351 E310H-XX ER25/35Hf —
A608 ERNiCrCoMo-1 —
HL N08604 — A297 — — —
A608
HN J94213 — A297 E330H — —
HP N08705 — A297 — ER25/35Hf —
HT N08605 330 A297 E330-XX ER330 —
HU N08004 — A297 E330 — —
b See 5.3.1 on segregation effects.
c AWS A5.11/A5.11M, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding.
d AWS A5.14/A5.14M, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods.
e AWS A5.34/A5.34M, Specification for Nickel-Alloy Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding.
f Proprietary, Non AWS A5.9/A5.9M grade.
g Acceptable filler metal for use up to 500°F.
Note: Filler metal references are not all inclusive but others may be used depending upon the application and service conditions. It is advisable to
check the casting producer for recommended filler metals for high temperature castings.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
78
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Annex B (Informative)
Informative References
ASM International, Home Page, November 16, 2007, http://www.asminternational.org.

ASME B16.25, Buttwelding Ends, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
ASTM A799/A799M (A01.02), Standard Practice for Steel Castings, Stainless, Instrument Calibration, for Estimating
Ferrite Content, ASTM International.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASTM A967, Standard Specification for Chemical Passivation Treatments for Stainless Steel Parts, ASTM International.
Australian Stainless Steel Development Association (ASSDA), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.assda.asn.au.
AWS A4.2M:2006 (ISO 8249:2000 MOD), Standard Procedures for Calibrating Magnetic Instruments to Measure the
Delta Ferrite Content of Austenitic and Duplex Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metal
AWS A5.30/A5.30M, Specification for Consumable Inserts, American Welding Society
AWS C1.1M/C1.1, Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding, American Welding Society.
AWS C5.5/C5.5M, Recommended Practices for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, American Welding Society.
AWS C5.10/C5.10M, Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting, American
Welding Society.
AWS C7.1M/C7.1, Recommended Practices for Electron Beam Welding, American Welding Society.
AWS C7.2, Recommended Practices for Laser Beam Welding, Cutting, and Drilling, American Welding Society.
AWS D1.6/D1.6M, Structural Welding Code— Stainless Steel, American Welding Society.
AWS D10.4-86R, Recommended Practices for Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Piping and Tubing,
AWS D10.11M/D10.11, Recommended Practices for Root Pass Welding of Pipe Without Backing, American Welding
Society.
AWS D18.2, Guide to Weld Discoloration Levels on Inside of Austenitic Stainless Steel Tube, American Welding Society.
AWS, 2007, Brazing Handbook, 5th ed., Miami: American Welding Society.
AWS Welding Handbook series, 8th and 9th ed.
Avery R. E. and A. H. Tuthill, 1993, Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steel and High-Alloy Weldments in Aggressive
Oxidizing Environments, Welding Journal 72(2): 41.
Avery R. E. and D. Parsons, 1995, Welding Stainless and 9% Nickel Steel Cryogenic Vessels, Welding Journal 74(11):
45–50.
British Stainless Steel Association (BSSA), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.bssa.org.uk.
CASTI Metals Blue Book—Welding Filler Metals, 4th ed., CASTI Publishing Inc.
CASTI Metals Red Book—Nonferrous Metals, 4th ed., CASTI Publishing Inc.
79
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
CASTI Publishing, Home Page, December 12, 2007, http://www.casti.ca.

Cedinox (Spanish), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.cedinox.es.
Centro Inox (Italian), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.centroinox.it.
ESAB, Quality Solutions for Welding and Cutting: 8-5.
Euro Inox, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.euro-inox.org.
Gooch, T. G., 1996, Corrosion Behavior of Welded Stainless Steel, Welding Journal 75(5): 135-s–154-s.
Indian Stainless Steel Development Association (ISSDA), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.stainlessindia.org.
International Chromium Development Association, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.icdachromium.com.
International Molybdenum Association, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.imoa.info.
International Stainless Steel Forum (ISSF), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.worldstainless.org.
Irving, B., 1994, Trying to Make Some Sense Out of Shielding Gases, Welding Journal 73(5): 65–70.
Key To Steel, Home Page, December 12, 2007, http://www.key-to-steel.com.
Klueh, R. L. and D. P. Edmonds, 1986, Chemical Composition Effects on the Creep Strength of Type 308 Stainless Steel
Weld Metal, Welding Journal 65(1): 1-s–7-s.
Konosu, S., A. Hashimoto, H. Mashiba, M. Takeshima, and T. Ohtsuka, 1998, Creep Crack Growth Properties of Type
308 Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metals, Welding Journal 77(8): 322.
JIS Handbook, Ferrous Materials and Metallurgy, Books I and II, Tokyo: Japanese Standards Association
Lambert, J. A., 1991, Cast-to-Cast Variability in Stainless Steel Mechanized GTA Welds, Welding Journal 70(5): 41.
Lundin, C. D. and C. P. D. Chou, November 1983, Hot Cracking Susceptibility of Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metals,
Welding Research Council Bulletin 289.
Lundin, C. D., C. H. Lee, R. Menon, and E. E. Stansbury, November 1986, Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steels:
Effects of Welding Variables on HAZ Sensitization of AISI 304 and HAZ Behavior of BWR Alternative Alloys 316
NG and 347, Welding Research Council Bulletin 319.
Matsumoto, T., H. Satoh, Y. Wadayama, and F. Hataya, 1987, Mechanical Properties of Fully Austenitic Weld Deposits
for Cryogenic Structures, Welding Journal 66(4): 120-s–126-s.
MatWeb, Home Page, December 13, 2007, http://www. matweb.com.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.nace.org.
Nickel Institute, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.nickelinstitute.org.
Onsoein, M., R. Peters, D. L. Olson, and S. Liu, 1995, Effect of Hydrogen in an Argon GTAW Shielding Gas: Arc Char-
acteristics and Bead Morphology, Welding Journal 74(1): 10.
PFI ES21, Internal Machining and Fit-up of GTAW Root Pass Circumferential Butt Welds, Pipe Fabrication Institute.
PFI ES35, Nonsymmetrical Bevels and Joint Configurations for Butt Welds, Pipe Fabrication Institute.
Praxair, Shielding Gases Selection Manual: 32.
Specialty Steel Industry of North America, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.ssina.com.
Stainless Steel Council of China Specialist Steel Enterprises Ass. (CSSC), Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.cssc.
org.cn.
Steel Construction Institute, Home Page, May 23, 2011, http://www.steel-sci.org.
Wegst, C. W., Stahlschlüssel (Key to Steel), ASM International.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Worldwide Guide to Equivalent Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 2001, 4th ed., ASM International.
Young, B., 1995, Purging Gases: Making the Right Selection, Welding Journal 74(1): 47.
80
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Annex C (Informative)
ASTM Base Material Specifications
for Austenitic Stainless Steels
C1. Plate, Sheet, and Strip (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.03)
A167: Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
A240/A240M: Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and
General Applications.
A264: (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.04) Stainless Chromium-Nickel Steel-Clad Plate.
A480/A480M: General Requirements for Flat-Rolled Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip (and
applies to each of the following: A167, A240/A240M, A264, A666, A793, and A895)
A666: Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Flat Bar (replaces A177
and A412)
A793: Rolled Floor Plate. Stainless Steel
A895: Free-Machining Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
A946: Chromium, Chromium-Nickel, and Silicon Alloy Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Corrosion and Heat
Resisting Service
C2. Tube (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.01)

A213/A213M: Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes A249/
A249M: Welded Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and Condenser Tubes
A269: Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
A270: Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing
A450/A450M: General Requirements for Carbon, Ferritic Alloy, and Austenitic Alloy Steel Tubes (and includes the
following: A213/A213M, A249/A249M, A269, A270, A271, A688/A688M, A771, A789/A789M,
A791/A791M, A803/A803M, A826/A851)
A511: Seamless Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing
A554: Welded Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing
A632: Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing (Small-Diameter) for General Service
A688/A688M: Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater Tubes
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A778: Welded Unannealed Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubular Products

A789/A789M: Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
A1012: Seamless and Welded Ferritic, Austenitic and Duplex Alloy Steel Condenser and Heat Exchanger
Tubes with Integral Fins
A1016/A1016M: General Requirements for Ferritic Alloy Steel, Austenitic Alloy Steel, and Stainless Steel Tubes
81
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
C3. Bar (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.03)

These standards cover hot-finished or cold-finished bars including rounds, squares, hexagons, and hot-rolled or extruded
shapes, such as angles, tees, and channels in the more commonly used types of stainless steel.
A276: Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes
A479/A479M: Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes for Use in Boilers and Other Pressure Vessels
A484/A484M: General requirements for Stainless Steel Bars, Billets, and Forgings
A582/A582M: Free-Machining Stainless Steel Bars
A955/A955M: (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.04) Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A968/A968M: Chromium, Chromium-Nickel, and Silicon Alloy Steel Bars and Shapes for Corrosion and Heat-
Resisting Service
C4. Forgings (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.03)

These standards cover forgings and billets or other semi-finished material (except wire) for forging.
A276: Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes
A479/A479M: Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes for Use in Boilers and Other Pressure Vessels
A484/A484M: General Requirements for Stainless Steel Bars, Billets, and Forgings
A582/A582M: Free-Machining Stainless Steel Bars
A955/A955M: (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.04) Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A968/A968M: Chromium, Chromium-Nickel, and Silicon Alloy Steel Bars and Shapes for Corrosion and Heat-
Resisting Service
C5. Pipe (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.01)

A312/312M: Seamless, Welded, and Heavily Cold Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
A358/358M: Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-nickel Stainless Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
and General Applications
A376/A376M: Seamless Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-Station Service
A409/A409M: Welded Large Diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for Corrosive or High-Temperature Service
A813/A813M: Single- or Double-Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
A814/A814M: Cold-Worked Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
A999: General Requirements for Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C6. Fittings (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.01)

A403/A403M: Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings
A733: Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe Nipples
A774/A774M: As-Welded Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Fittings for General Corrosive Service at Low and
Moderate Temperatures
A988/A988M: Hot Isostatically-Pressed Stainless Steel Flanges, Fittings, Valves, and Parts for High Temperature
Service
82
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
C7. Castings (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.02)

A297/A297M: Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Fe-Cr, and Fe-Cr-Ni, Heat Resistance for General Appli-
cation
A351/A351M: Standard Specification for Castings, Austenitic for Pressure Containing Parts
A451/A451M: Standard Specification for Centrifugally Cast Austenitic Steel Pipe for High Temperature Service
A494/A494M: Standard Specification for Castings, Nickel and Nickel Alloy for Corrosion Resistance Service
A608/A608M: Standard Specification for Centrifugally Cast Fe-Cr-Ni High Alloy Tubing for Pressure Application
at High Temperature
A743/A743M: Standard Specification for Castings, Fe-Cr, Fe-Cr-Ni, Corrosion Resistant for General Application
A744/A744M; Standard Specification for Castings, Fe-Cr-Ni, Corrosion Resistant for Severe Service
C8. Miscellaneous
A941: (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.01) Terminology Relating to Steel, Stainless Steel, Related
Alloys, and Ferroalloys
A947M: (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.03) Textured Stainless Steel Sheet (Metric)
A959: (ASTM Book of Standards Volume 01.03) Standard Guide for Specifying Harmonized Standard
Grade Compositions for Wrought Stainless Steels
General: The ASTM International web site (www.astm.org) has an excellent search engine for finding most
ASTM specifications that address corrosion testing, cleaning, and passivation topics.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
83
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
84
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Annex D (Informative)
Estimating the Ferrite Content of Cast Base Materials
The ferrite content of castings can be estimated using the Schoefer Diagram (see Figure D.1) if the actual chemical com-
position of the base material is known. The chemical composition can be obtained from the foundry’s certified material
test report or by performing a chemical composition analysis of the casting.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Source: ASTM A800/A800M-01 (2006), Standard Practice for Steel Casting, Austenitic Alloy, Estimating Ferrite Content Thereof.
Figure D.1—The Schoefer Diagram
85
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
The Schoefer Diagram is considered useful for alloys within the following composition ranges:
C: 0.20 max. Ni: 4.0–13.0

Mn: 2.00 max. Mo: 4.0 max.
Si: 2.00 max. Cb: 1.00 max.
Cr: 17.0–28.0 N: 0.20 max.
First calculate the composition ratio (Cre)/Nie) of “chromium equivalent” (Cre) to “nickel equivalent” (Nie) using the
actual composition of the casting and the following formula: Elements in the chromium equivalent part of the formula
are elements which promote the formation of ferrite. Elements in the nickel equivalent part of the formula are elements
which promote the formation of austenite.
[ Cr(%) + 1.5Si(%) + 1.4Mo(%) + Cb(%) – 4.99 ]

[(Cre)/(Nie)] = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[ Ni(%) + 30C(%) + 0.5Mn(%) + 26(N – 0.02%) + 2.77 ]
Plot a horizontal line through the calculated [(Cre)/(Nie)] value (on the diagram’s vertical axis). Next, plot vertical lines
at the intersection of the horizontal line with the individual curves (two outer dashed lines and a central solid line). The
intersection of the vertical lines with the diagram’s horizontal axis provides an estimation of the castings ferrite content
in volume percent. The casting’ nominal ferrite content is represented by the middle solid line. The possible range of fer-
rite within the casting is represented within the two outer dashed lines.
This method of estimating ferrite is thoroughly discussed in ASTM A800/A800M, Standard Practice for Steel Casting,
Austenitic Alloy, Estimating Ferrite Content Thereof.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 86
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Annex E (Informative)
Engineering Terms, Common Conversions,
and SMAW Electrode Diameters
Table E.1
Common Engineering Terms
Mass Quantity of mattera
SI kg = kilogram
U.S. lb = pound (international avoirdupois unit)
Density Mass per unit volumea
SI g/cm3 = grams/cubic centimeter of kg/m3
U.S. lb/in3 = pounds/cubic inch
Force = Mass × Acceleration
SI N = Newton
U.S. lbf = Pound force
Stress Force per unit area
SI 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (1 Pascal = 1 Newton/meter2)
1 MPa = 1N/mm2
U.S. psi = pound(s) per square inch
a “mass” and “weight” are terms that are commonly interchanged since a quantity of matter (mass) is commonly measured by weighing material in
earth's relatively constant gravitational field.
Table E.2
Data
Standard acceleration of gravity SI 9.807 m/s2
U.S. 32.174 ft/s2
Power Rate at which work is done or rate energy is used or transferred.
Power = Work (or energy) ÷ time
Unit of Power SI Watt, 1 W = 1 J/s
U.S. ft lb/min, foot pound(s) per minute
Work Force × Distance
Work and Energy The same units can be used interchangeably, e.g., W·S = 1 J = 1 N·M
Unit of energy (or work) SI 1 Watt-Second = 1 Joule = 1 Newton-meter, 1 W·S = 1 J = 1 N·M
U.S. ft·lb, foot pound(s)
Force (mass × acceleration) 1 kgf = 9.807 N
1 lbf
Note: SI = International System of Units, U.S. = U.S. Customary Units.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
87
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table E.3a
Common Welding-Related Conversion Factors
Weight
Convert from: to: Multiply by:
g lb 0.0022046 lbs/g
kg lb 2.2046 lbs/kg
lb g 453.6 g/lb (453.59237 g/lb exact)
lb kg 0.4536 kg/lb
Length
in cm 2.54 cm/in (exact)
cm in 0.3937 in/cm
m in 39.37 in/m
in m 0.0254 cm/m (exact)
ft m 0.3048 m/ft
m ft 3.28083 ft/m
Density
g/cm3 lb/in3 0.0373
lb/in3 g/cm3 27.68
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.0185
Stress or Pressure
Pa psi (lb/in2) 0.000145038
MPa psi 145.038
MPa ksi Quick rough estimate: divide MPa value by 7
psi Pa 6894.76
psi MPa 0.00689476
Force
N lbf 0.22481 lbf/N
lbf N 4.448222 N/lbf
kgf N 9.80665 N/kgf
N kgf 0.1020 kgf/N
Weight per unit length
lb/ft kg/m 1.488
kg/m lb/ft 0.672
Energy
J ft·lbs 0.737562 ft·lbs/J
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ft·lbs J 1.355818 J/ft·lbs
Temperature
Convert from: to: Use Equation:
T°F T°C T°C = (T°F – 32) ÷ 1.8
T°F TK (Kelvin) TK = (T°F + 459.67) ÷ 1.8
T°C T°F T°F = (T°C × 1.8) + 32
T°C TK TK = T°C + 273.15
TK T°C T°C = TK – 273.15
TK T°F T°F = (TK × 1.8) – 459.67
Temperature Interval (Note: Delta = change, i.e., 1.8 ∆T°F = 1∆T°C)
Convert from: to: Use Equation:
∆ T°F ∆ T°C ∆ T°C = ∆ T°F ÷ 1.8
∆ T°C ∆ T°F ∆ T°F = ∆ T°C × 1.8
(Continued)
88
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Table E.3a (Continued)

Common Welding-Related Conversion Factors
Flow Rates
L/min ft3/hr 2.11888
ft3/hr L/min 0.47195
Pressure
atm psi 14.696 psi/atm
atm Pa 101 325 Pa/atm
atm mmHg 760 mmHg/atm
atm bar 1.01325 bar/atm
atm torr 760 torr/atm
bar Pa 100 000 Pa/bar
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
bar psi 14.504 psi/bar

bar mmHg 750.06 mmHg/bar
bar torr 750.06 torr/bar
torr mmHg 1 mmHg/torr
Pa lb/in2 0.000145038 lb/in2/Pa
Speed
in/min m/min 0.0254
in.min m/s 0.0004233
ft/min mm/s 5.08
ft/min m/h 18.288
mm/s in/min 2.3622
mm/s ft/min 0.1969
m/h ft/min 0.0547
Heat Input
kJ/in kJ/m 39.37 in/m
kJ/m kJ/in 0.0254 m/in
Miscellaneous
Percentage ppm 1 × 104
ppm Percentage 1 × 10–4
Power Prefixes
Prefix: Symbol: Factor:
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Centi c 10–2
Milli m 10–3
Micro µ (mu) 10–6
nano n 10–9
a References to “pound” are based on the international avoirdupois pound unit.
89
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
90
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
Annex F (Informative)
Guidelines for the Preparation of Technical Inquiries
F1. Introduction
The American Welding Society (AWS) Board of Directors has adopted a policy whereby all official interpretations of
AWS standards are handled in a formal manner. Under this policy, all interpretations are made by the committee that is
responsible for the standard. Official communication concerning an interpretation is directed through the AWS staff
member who works with that committee. The policy requires that all requests for an interpretation be submitted in writ-
ing. Such requests will be handled as expeditiously as possible, but due to the complexity of the work and the procedures
that must be followed, some interpretations may require considerable time.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
F2. Procedure
All inquiries shall be directed to:
Managing Director
Technical Services Division
American Welding Society
8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130
Doral, FL 33166
All inquiries shall contain the name, address, and affiliation of the inquirer, and they shall provide enough information
for the committee to understand the point of concern in the inquiry. When the point is not clearly defined, the inquiry
will be returned for clarification. For efficient handling, all inquiries should be typewritten and in the format specified
below.
F2.1 Scope. Each inquiry shall address one single provision of the standard unless the point of the inquiry involves two
or more interrelated provisions. The provision(s) shall be identified in the scope of the inquiry along with the edition of
the standard that contains the provision(s) the inquirer is addressing.
F2.2 Purpose of the Inquiry. The purpose of the inquiry shall be stated in this portion of the inquiry. The purpose
can be to obtain an interpretation of a standard’s requirement or to request the revision of a particular provision in the
standard.
F2.3 Content of the Inquiry. The inquiry should be concise, yet complete, to enable the committee to understand the
point of the inquiry. Sketches should be used whenever appropriate, and all paragraphs, figures, and tables (or annex)
that bear on the inquiry shall be cited. If the point of the inquiry is to obtain a revision of the standard, the inquiry shall
provide technical justification for that revision.
F2.4 Proposed Reply. The inquirer should, as a proposed reply, state an interpretation of the provision that is the point
of the inquiry or provide the wording for a proposed revision, if this is what the inquirer seeks.
91
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
F3. Interpretation of Provisions of the Standard

Interpretations of provisions of the standard are made by the relevant AWS technical committee. The secretary of the
committee refers all inquiries to the chair of the particular subcommittee that has jurisdiction over the portion of the stan-
dard addressed by the inquiry. The subcommittee reviews the inquiry and the proposed reply to determine what the
response to the inquiry should be. Following the subcommittee’s development of the response, the inquiry and the
response are presented to the entire committee for review and approval. Upon approval by the committee, the interpreta-
tion is an official interpretation of the Society, and the secretary transmits the response to the inquirer and to the Welding
Journal for publication.
F4. Publication of Interpretations

All official interpretations will appear in the Welding Journal and will be posted on the AWS web site.
F5. Telephone Inquiries

Telephone inquiries to AWS Headquarters concerning AWS standards should be limited to questions of a general nature
or to matters directly related to the use of the standard. The AWS Board Policy Manual requires that all AWS staff mem-
bers respond to a telephone request for an official interpretation of any AWS standard with the information that such an
interpretation can be obtained only through a written request. Headquarters staff cannot provide consulting services.
However, the staff can refer a caller to any of those consultants whose names are on file at AWS Headquarters.
F6. AWS Technical Committees

The activities of AWS technical committees regarding interpretations are limited strictly to the interpretation of provi-
sions of standards prepared by the committees or to consideration of revisions to existing provisions on the basis of new
data or technology. Neither AWS staff nor the committees are in a position to offer interpretive or consulting services on
(1) specific engineering problems, (2) requirements of standards applied to fabrications outside the scope of the docu-
ment, or (3) points not specifically covered by the standard. In such cases, the inquirer should seek assistance from a
competent engineer experienced in the particular field of interest.
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
92
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012
List of AWS Documents on the Joining of Metals and Alloys
Designation Title
G2.1M/G2.1 Guide for the Joining of Wrought Nickel-Base Alloys
G2.3M/G2.3 Guide for the Joining of Solid Solution Austenitic Stainless Steels
G2.4/G2.4M Guide for the Fusion Welding of Titanium and Titanium Alloys
G2.5/G2.5M Guide for the Fusion Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
93
AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2012

--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
94
--`,``,,,`,`,`,``,`,``,,``,,```-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


AWS G2.3M-G2.3-2012 - Guide For The Joining of Solid Solution Austenitic Stainless Steels

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

AWS G2.3M-G2.3-2012 - Guide For The Joining of Solid Solution Austenitic Stainless Steels

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

AWS G2.3M/G2.

Provided by IHS Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

Guide for the Joining of

Supersedes AWS G2.3M/G2.3:2009

Under the Direction of the

Provided by IHS Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-87171-824-2

All rights reserved

Statement on the Use of American Welding Society Standards

This page is intentionally blank.

AWS G2E Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Alloys

Advisor to AWS G2E Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Alloys

This page is intentionally blank.

This page is intentionally blank.

7.5 Other Forms of Weld Cracking and Prevention Strategies .........................................................................34

Guide for the Joining of

American Welding Society (AWS) standards:1

3. Terms and Definitions

Provided by IHS Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

316N S31651 0.08 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 1.0 0.10–0.16 —

Table 4.1 (Continued)

Figure 4.1—Alloying Variations of Common Austenitic Stainless Steels

No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

Not for Resale, 08/18/2014 09:29:33 MDT

Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

Not for Resale, 08/18/2014 09:29:33 MDT

Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

HF J92603 7, 3 A297 302 0.20–0.40 18.0–23 8.0–12.0 0.50 2.00 2.00 —

No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

Not for Resale, 08/18/2014 09:29:33 MDT

Licensee=City of Dallas -DART/9962507100, User=Ellen, Hays

201-1 S20100 515 75 260 38 40 217 95

201-2 S20100 655 95 310 45 40 241 100

202 S20200 620 90 260 38 40 241 —

209 S20910 725 105 415 60 30 241 100

216 S21600 690 100 415 60 40 241 100

218 S21800 655 95 345 50 35 241 100

219 (XM-11) sheet S21904 690 100 415 60 40 — —

240 S24000 690 100 415 60 40 241 100

301 S30100 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

302 S30200 515 75 205 30 40 201 92

304 S30400 515 75 205 30 40 201 92

304L S30403 485 70 170 25 40 201 92

304LN S30453 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

304H S30409 515 75 205 30 40 201 92

304N S30451 550 80 240 35 30 217 95

304HN S30452 620 90 345 50 30 241 100

305 S30500 485 70 170 25 40 183 88

309H S30909 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

309S S30908 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

310Cb S31040 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

310H S31009 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

310HCb S31041 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

310S S31008 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

310MoLN sheet S31050 580 84 270 39 25 217 95

254SMo S31254 690 100 310 45 35 223 96

316 S31600 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

316H S31609 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

316L S31603 485 70 170 25 40 217 95

316LN S31653 515 75 205 30 40 217 95

316N S31651 550 80 240 35 35 217 95

Table 4.3 (Continued)