On The Steady-State Performance of A Synchronous Machine With Convertor: With Special Attention To Wind Energy Conversion Systems

On the steady-state performance of a synchronous
machine with convertor : with special attention to wind

energy conversion systems
Hoeijmakers, M.J.
DOI:
10.6100/IR109133
Published: 01/01/1984
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Citation for published version (APA):

Hoeijmakers, M. J. (1984). On the steady-state performance of a synchronous machine with convertor : with
special attention to wind energy conversion systems Eindhoven: Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven
10.6100/IR109133
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ON THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF
A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR
M.J. HOEIJMAKERS
ON THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF
A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR
with special attention to wind energy conversion systems
PROEFSCHRIFT
TER VERKRIJGING VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE

TECHNISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN AAN DE TECHNISCHE
HOGESCHOOL EINDHOVEN, OP GEZAG VAN DE RECTOR
MAGNIFICUS, PROF. OR S. T. M. ACKERMANS, VOOR
EEN COMMISSIE AANGEWEZEN DOOR HET COLLEGE
VAN DEKANEN IN HET OPENBAAR TE VERDEDIGEN OP
VRIJDAG 30 MAART 1984 TE 16.00 UUR
DOOR
MARTIN JACOBUS HOEIJMAKERS

GEBOREN TE GEERTRUIDENBERG
Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd
door de promotoren:
prof.ir. J.A. Schot
en
prof.dr.ir. J.G. Niesten
CIP-gegevens
Hoeijmakers, Martin Jacobus
On the steady.;.state performance of a synchronous machine
with convertor: witb special attention to wind energy
conversion systema I Martin Jacobus Hoeijmakers.-
[S.l. : s.n.]. -Fig. ·
Proefschrift Eindhoven. -Met lit. opg., reg.
ISBN 90-9000602-8
SISO 662 UDC 621.313.32:621.314.5 UGI 650
Trefw.: synchrone machines I vermogenselektronica.
Druk: Dissertatie Drukkerij Wibro. Helmond. Telefoon 04920-23981 ..

Aan mijn moeder
ter nagedachtenis aan mijn vader
VOORWOORD
Het in dit proefschrift beschreven onderzoek is verricht in de

vakgroep Elektromechanica en Vermogenselektronica van de Technische
Hogeschool Eindhoven en komt voort uit het onderzoek dat binnen deze
vakgroep in het kader van het Nationale Onderzoekprogramma Windenergie
wordt uitgevoerd.
Iedereen, van binnen en van buiten de vakgroep, die een bijdrage
heeft geleverd aan de totstandkoming van dit proefschrift dank ik
hartelijk voor alle geboden hulp. In het bijzonder ben ik dank
verschuldigd aan prof.ir. J.A. Schot, mijn eerste promotor, voor het
stimuleren en ondersteunen van het onderzoek, prof.dr.ir. J.G.
Niesten, mijn tweede promotor, voor zijn kritische opmerkingen bij de
totstandkoming van dit proefschrift, ir. W.J. de Zeeuw, mijn dagelijks
begeleider, in het bijzonder voor zijn bijdrage op het gebied van de
vermogenselektronica, ir. J.A.N. de Bonte voor de stimulans vanuit het
windenergieonderzoek, mevr. J.Ph. Maartense voor de uitstekende
verzorging van het typewerk en G.H.H. Wissink voor de technische
assistentie en voor zijn bijdrage aan het tekenwerk.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 7
THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

1.1 Introduetion 19
1.2 The general equations of the synchronous machine 21
1.3 Operational inductances 33
1.4 The equations of the synchronous machine with n damper
circuits on the direct axis and m damper circuits on
the quadrature axis 34
1.5 The per-unit system 38
1.6 The equations and equivalent circuits of the synchronous
machine with one damper circuit on the direct axis and
one damper circuit on the quadrature axis 43
1.7 The synchronous machine with a symmetrical three-phase
system of sinusoidal armature currents 45
1.8 The operational inductances of the synchronous machine
with one damper circuit on the direct axis and one
damper circuit on the quadrature axis 48
1.9 The sub-transient behaviour of the synchronous machine 56
2 EXPERIMENTAL DETE~~INATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE QUANTITIES

2.1 Introduetion 59
2.2 Standstill tests 60
2.3 Determination of the synchronous inductances 62
2.4 Determination of the operational inductances 69
3 THE THREE-PHASE BRIDGE CONVERTOR

3.1 Introduetion 78
3.2 The convertor without commutation inductances 79
3.3 The convertor with an infinitely large self-inductance
in the direct-eurrent circuit 91
4 SIMPLE MODELS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR
4.1 Introduetion 100
4.2 The synchronous machine with an ideal damper ciruit
in whieh the armature leakage inductanees and
resistanees are neglected 101
4.3 A simple, practical model of the synchronous
machine with convertor 109
5 COMPUTATION OF THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF A

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR BY ~n&ANS OF
OPERATIONAL INDUCTANCES 'AND FOURIER ANALYSIS
5.2 Some machine quantities as functions of the armature
currents 121
5.3 An infinitely large self-inductance in the direct-eurrent
circuit of the synchronous machine with convertor 126
5. 4 On the choice of the value of the external self-inductance 133
5.5 The influence of the truncation of the armature-eurrent
Fourier. series on the computing results 135
5.6 Some remarks on the use of the simple model as
described in section 4.3 142
5.7 A finitely large self-inductance in the direct-eurrent
circuit of the synchronous machine with convertor 157
5.8 A simple thyristor model 167
6 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

6.2 Computation of the steady-state performance by means of
operational induetanees and Fourier analysis 170
6.3 Experimental results 172
6.4 Some practical remarks on the computation
of the steady-state performance 183
SUMMARY 188
SAMENVATTING 190
LIST OF SYMBOLS 192
REFERENCES 197
INTRODUCTION
Wind enePgy as stimulus foP PeseaPoh on eleotPomeohanios

and poweP eleotPonios
After having been used for many centuries, wind energy was repelled
by other kinds of energy. However, the increasing importance of fuel
saving caused a revival of interest in this "alternative" souree of
energy, especially for the generation of electricity.
In order to obtain an impression of the power which may be extracted
from the wind, the kinetic energy in flowing air will be considered.
Air mass flowing with a velocity v through an area A (perpendicular to
the direction of the flow) represents a mass flow rate of pAv and thus
a flow of kinetic energy per unit of time or kinetic power:
Pk = }(pAv) 2 = iPAv 3
where p is the air density and v is the (undisturbed) wind velocity
[Lys 82]. Only a part of this power can be converted into a more
useful kind of mechanica! power by using a wind turbine, the power
available on the shaft of which may be expressed as:
where CP is the so-called power coefficient, which depends on the

turbine rotor itself, the rotational frequency of this rotor, and the
wind velocity [Gol 76; Lys 82]. As an example, the calculated power
available on the shaft of a wind turbine as a function of its
rotational frequency is depicted in figure 0.1 forsome values of the
wind speed [deB 82]. The dasbed curve in this figure corresponds with
an optimal load of the wind turbine.
As may beseen in figure 0.1, the optima! rotational speed of the
turbine depends on the wind speed. This ~s one of the reasans why a
generator operating at a variabie speed is aften preferred to a
generator operating at a (nearly) constant speed [Koe 79b; Bon 80;
deZ 82]. If the wind fluctuates considerably (see for example
figure 0.2), the use of a generator operatingat a variabie speed has
even more important advantages, because the possible starage of
kinetic energy in the rotating parts of the wind turbine system may
decrease the torque fluctuations in the mechanica! system and the
current fluctuations in the electrical system [deB 82; deZ 82]. This
7
40
v=12 m/s
30
20
10
0
0 2 3 4
Figure 0.1 An example of the calculated power available on the
shaft of a wind turbine as a function of its
rotational frequency for a wind turbine with three
rotor-blades and a radius of 5.3 m
V
(mis)
20
10
t(s)
100 200
Figure 0.2 An example of the wind velocity as a

function of time (measured curve)
may, for example, result in a cheaper, smaller gearbox with a better

efficiency (usually a gearbox is placed between the rotor of the
turbine and the rotor of the generator).
For these reasons, the research on the field of wind energy
conversion systems in the group Electromechanics and Power Electronica
of the Department of Electrical Engineering of the Eindhoven
University of Technology, which fits in the framewerk of the Dutch
National Research Programme for Wind Energy, was concentrated on
8
variabie-speed systems. Since power electronics, which are very
important in modern variabie-speed electromechanical systems, have
been introduced into electromechanical engineering, many overviews of
the different possible variabie-speed systems have been publisbed (see
for example [Ale 38; Sto '39; Hoe 43; Lab 61; Sch 64; Ste 67; Mag 81;
Sku 81]).
Although other systems arealso possible (see for example [Mue 79]),
the combination of a synchronous generator with a diode bridge
rectifier, a smoothing coil and an inverter with line commutation, as
it is depicted in figure 0.3, seems to be very promising. The three-
Figure 0.3 The combination of a synchronous generator,

rectifier, smoothing coil, and inverter as
the electrical system for a wind turbine
phase grid in figure 0.3 may be either a normal utility grid [Koe 79b;
Bon 80; deB 82] or an autonorneus grid [Hoe 80].
Especially because of the question what kind of synchronous machine
(a salient-pole or a cilindricàl-rotor machine; with or without damper
windings; what kind of a damper winding; with or without solid poles)
should be used in this system, a detailed computation metbod was
needed. This resulted in the research work described in this
dissertation. However, some kinds of wind turbines, for example a
Darrieus wind turbine (a turbine with a vertical axis), require of the
generator the ability to opera te as a motor (or the addition of an
auxiliary motor). For this reaso.n and for reasans of universality, the
research has not been restricted to the synchronous generator with
diodebridge rectifier, but has been done into the synchronous machine
with convertor in general. The synchronous generator with diode bridge
rectifier can be considered as a special case of the synchronous
machine with convertor. Although the knowledge of the steady-state
performance of the synchronous machine with convertor,. which is
described in this dissertation, is often sufficient for the
9
application of this system to wind energy conversion systems, the
stability problems which sametimes arise require further research into
the dynamic behaviour of the synchronous machine with convertor.
On the history of the synahronous machine with aanvertor

Mainly as a motivation for the choice of the convertor and the
armature winding of the synchronous machine, a bistorical overview of
the synchronous machine with convertor will be given. The first
combination of a synchronous machine with convertor is probably a
rectifier connected to the utility grid, which is supplied by a
synchronous generator. Since the rectifiers with their load are
(normally) only a small part of the load of the synchronous
generator(s) supplying the grid, this combination will not be
considered as a synchronous machine with convertor.
In 1931 an idea to build a locomotive with the combination of a
synchronous machine with convertor was publisbed [Mey 31; Ker 31a;
Ker 31b; Mar 32]. The starting-point in the consideration was the
replacement of the commutator in a normal direct-eurrent motor by a
series of electric valves (grid-controlled mercury are rectifiers or
thyratrons). Since the valves are stationary, the armature winding is
placed on the stator and the excitation winding on the rotor. This
results in á construction similar to the construction of a synchronous
machine, which is illustrated by the elementary circuit in figure 0.4
(for reasans of simplicity, the valves are represented by thyristors).
The valves are triggered by means of a distributor~ a kind of small
commutator, on the shaft of the motor. The voltage induced in the
armature enables the direct current to transfer from one armature
winding to the next (commutation). During the starting period, when
this voltage is too low for a normal commutation, a small auxiliary
Figure 0.4 Elementary "commutatorless" motor
10
machine supplies the commutating voltage. However, when the system is
supplied from an alternating voltage source, this problem does not
occur because the motor current flows intermittently. In other words,
when the system is supplied from an alternating voltage source, the
commutating voltage is supplied by the line (low speed operation) or
by the laad (high speed operation). According to the publications, the
use of a commutatorless motor as a railway motor may have the
following important advantages:
- there is no commutator
- there are no serious isolation problems (the armature is on the
sta tor)
- the speed is regulated continuously
- expensive control, switchlng and reversing equipment is not
necessary (only one convertor and a very simple and cheap grid
control)
- the system can be supplied from a direct-eurrent as well as from an
alternating-current source.
In 1933 Willis mentioned a methad of starting commutation by means
of a circuit with two resistors and a condensor for the case where the
system is supplied by a direct current [Wil 33]. He also introduced
the name "thyratron commutator motor'' for the synchronous machine with
convertor. However, later on this name was contracted to "thyratron
motor". The well-known German name "Stromrichtermotor" was introduced
by Stöhr in the same year [ Sto 33] •
Stöhralsomentioned the possibility of supplying the synchronous
motor with convertor from a three-phase power system [Sto 33]. The
development of such an idea was described by Alexandersen and Mittag
[Ale 34]. The resulting motivation of a plan of applying a thyratron
motor for a draft fan in a generating station was publisbed by Sporn
and Langdon in 1935 [Spo 35]. This motor, the first thyratron motor
installed in America, was placed in regular operation at the Logan
power station of the Appalachian Electric Power Company on May 29,
1936 [Bei 38]. In spite of a comparatively large number of
difficulties, which were mainly caused by the thyratron tubes
(primarily the fragility of the catbode heater), the plant operators
were very enthusiastic about its performance [Bei 38]. In 1938 Kern
paid attention to the possible industrial application of the
synchronous motor with convertor [Ker 38].
11
Although several research workers were investigating the extra
dissipation in the synchronous machine caused by the use of the
machine in combination with a convertor (see for example [Poh 35;
Kue 39]), an important part of the fundamental research into the field
of the synchronous machine with convertor was done by Stöhr [Sto 33;
Sto 38a; Sto 38b; Sto 40']. Considering the number of valves in the
convertor and the utilization of the armature winding as well as the
valves, it follows from his publications, that the three-phase star-
connected synchronous machine with bridge convertor as depicted in
figure 0.5 may be preferred. Later research on this field led to the
Figure 0.5 The three-phase star-connected synchronous

machine with bridge convertor
same result [Lei 75]. The term synchronous machine with convertor when
used later on in this dissertation, refers to the system as depicted
in figure 0. 5.
When the circuit as shown in figure 0.5 has to be supplied from a
three-phase power system, normally the system as depicted in figure
0.6 is used. Nowadays, the German term "Stromrichtermotor" mostly
refers to this system, In spite of the advantages of this system, Stöhr
Figure 0.6 The synchronous machine connected to a three-

phase power system via a direct-eurrent link
12
preferred the system as shown in figure 0.7 because of the commutation
probieros in the machine convertor at low eperating speeds. A
Figure 0.7 The system preferred by Stöhr
comparison of the systems as depicted in the figures 0.6 and 0.7,

shows that there is no direct-eurrent link in the convertor in figure
0.7: this convertor has the function of a rectifier as wellas an
inverter. In other words, the intermediate direct-eurrent link is
bidden (German: "Unterdrückter Gleichstromzwischenkreis" and
"Ausgeprägter Zwischenkreis").
As has been mentioned before (in the description of the railway
motor), the system as depicted in figure 0.7 may be used fora wide
speed range. However, mainly because of the wave form of the output
voltage of this convertor, its output frequency is usually limited to
a fraction of the frequency of the power system [Lab 61]. In spite of
this important disadvantage, the possibility to use this sytem for a
wide speed range has been applied in practice and described in
literature for a rather long time (see for example [Sat 64; Ohn 67;
Tsu 69; Mae 72; Cor 74; deR 74]).
When the system as shown in figure 0.7 is only used with a machine
frequency lower than the supply frequency, the convertor in this
system is known as a cycloconvertor. Because of the wave form of the
output voltage, modern cycloconvertors are mostly equipped with 36
thyristors (6 three-phase bridges) [Sla 66]. Since the output
frequency is practically limited to' about half the supply frequency
[Sch 64; Due 66, Sku 81], the cycloconvertor is mainly applied to
(gearless) low-speed drive systems, such as the fan of a low-speed
wind-tunnel [Eek 81), mills in the cement industry [Ste 70; Zin 73],
13
and steel rolling mills inthesteel industry [Mor 79]. The
cycloconvertor mayalso be used forship propulsion systems [Sti 78].
When the speed range of large drive systems (some megawatts) is not
limited to half the supply frequency, the system as depicted in figure
0.6 ("Stromrichtermotor") is chosen frequent ly. The fact is that many
different solutions for the low-speed commutation of the machine
inverter have been found (see for example [Ker 31a; Wil 33; Kue 58;
Lab 61; Koe 67; Ohn 67; Ste 78; Int 79; Wil 80]). However, thesolutien
as described by Labahn turns out to be the most practical solution for
many applications [Lab 61]. He proposed to intermit the current in the
intermediate direct-eurrent link (and also in the synchronous
machine) at the instant at which this current has to transfer from one
armature winding to the next. This current can be interrupted by using
the (controllable) rectifier (the left-hand convertor in figure 0.6).
For this purpose this rectifier may even be used as an inverter. For
reasous of a rapid decrease of the current in the direct-eurrent link,
the smoothing coil is sametimes short-circuited by means of a
so-called by-pass thyristor (see for example [Mau 75]).
The introduetion of the thyristors into power electranies [Joe 60]
and the introduetion of the transistors into the control equipment for
the inverter-fed synchronous machine [Lab 61] were very important
contributions to the development of the inverter-fed synchronous
machine. Since these introductions, the system as depicted in figure
0.6 ("Stromrichtermotor") has been used for numerous applications,
such as, large variabie-speed pump and fan drives [Eek 81; Wal 82],
the starting of pumped starage generator/motors [Pet 72], the starting
of large drive systems for paper mills [Coe 80], and other large
variabie-speed drives [Eek 81]. Moreover, other ideas for applications
have been published, for example a variable-speed drive for a pumped
hydro plant [Ker 80].
In recent years many refinements to the inverter-fed synchronous
machine have been introduced. One of these improvements was the
application .of brushless excitation systems which can operate when the
machine is at standstill (see for example [Nit 73]). Other
improvements have been obtained thanks to the development of the
control system, so that the shaft-position sensor (distributor) is not
necessary any more (see for example [Sch 78; LeH 82]) and the
utilization of the machine has been improved (see for example [Led 78;
14
Sau 81]). Another development is the application of microprocessors in
the control system of the inverter-fed synchronous machine (see for
example [Ric 81]).
In special cases, for example when a low torque ripple is required
or when the power dissipation in the rotor caused by the armature-
current harmonies should be very low (very large drives), a twelve-
pulse inverter-fed synchronous machine is applied. The synchronous
machines in these systems have two separate three-phase windings
displaced ~ (electric) radians from each other. Each of these three-
phase windings is connected to a thyristor bridge; the mutual
conneetion of these bridges may be realized in different ways (see for
example [Sku 81; Mey 82]), An example of the application of this
twelve-pulse system is an inverter-fed railway motor [Ham 82].
Although in most applications the inverter-fed synchronous motor is
supplied via a controllable rectifier, by means of which the current
in the intermediate direct-eurrent link is controlled, it may also be
supplied by a (nearly) constant voltage source, such as a battery. The
use of the inverter-fed synchronous motor in an electric motor-car is
an example of this application (see for example [Fuc 83]).
Although in literature more attention has been paid to the motor
operation of the inverter-fed synchronous machine than to the
generator operation, this system is much more applied to generate
electricity (the synchronous generator with rectifier): nearly each
modern motor-car is equipped with such a system for charging its
battery. Besides these small systems, the synchronous generator with
rectifier is also used for high power applications, such as some
systemsfor generating direct voltage for the direct-eurrent motors in
ship propulsion systems (see for example [Sti 78]).
The synchronous generator ~th reatifier in a wind energy conversion

system
Another application of the synchronous generator with rectifier is
the wind energy conversion system as shown in figure 0.3. The main
reasou why in this system a diode bridge rectifier is used instead of
a thyristor rectifier, is the simplification of the system. Moreover,
as will be shown in section 3.3, the application of a diode bridge
instead of a thyristor bridge has a favourable influence on the
(armature) phase-current harmonies and the reactive power which has to
15
be supplied by the generator. For similar reasons, the largest
possible value of the delay angle of the line-commutated inverter will
be preferred (see sectien 3.3).
As a result, the direct voltage in the intermediate direct-eurrent
link is (nearly) constant, which allows for various generators with
rectifier to be connected in parallel on the direct-eurrent side ofthe
inverter without hardly any mutual influence (see figure 0.8) [Koe 79b].
Figure 0.8 The parallel conneetion on a direct-voltage grid
As a matter of fact, this results in a kind of direct-voltage grid. In

practice, the ripple on the voltage of this grid may be relatively
small when cables are used in the grid because of the capacity of this
cables. Hence, this grid may be considered as a constant (direct)
voltage source. For that reason, the examples given in this
dissertation will refer to a synchronous generator with diode bridge
rectifier supplying energy to a constant voltage source.
As will be shown in the chapters 4 and 6, the power supplied to a
constant voltage souree by a synchronous generator with diode bridge
(the generator is excited by a constant voltage) as a function of the
rotational frequency may be characterized by the curve as depicted in
figure 0.9. It has been shown that the corresponding operatien of the
conversion system is nearly optimal for wind-energy extraction when
the system parameters are chosen in a proper way [deB 82].
16
p
Figure 0.9 The power supplied to a constant voltage souree

by a synchronous generator with diode bridge
(the generator is excited by a constant voltage)
as a function of the rotational frequency
Furthermore, as may be seen in this figure, the power is limited in a

natural way and, in the case of a relatively high average value of the
wind velocity (a relatively high rotational frequency), strong wind
fluctuations will hardly affect the power supplied to the direct-
voltage grid. Apart from that, the parallel conneetion of several wind
turbine systems on the direct voltage grid will result in the relative
power fluctuations in the conneetion to the utility grid to be smaller
than the relative power fluctuations in each of the subsystems
[Koe 79a].
The twelve-pulse system as mentioned before, might even improve this
system because of its possible choice between series and parallel
conneetion of its two rectifiers on their direct-eurrent sides
[van 83].
A shoPt deaa~iption of the ahapte~a in this disae~tation
In chapter 1 a description of the synchronous machine, the part of

the combination of the synchronous machine with convertor that takes
care of the conversion from mechanica! energy into electrical energy,
will be given, whereas in chapter 2 attention is paid to the
experimental determination of the machine parameters which are
important for the application of the synchronous machine with
convertor. The basic properties of the other part of the combination,
the three-phase bridge convertor, are considered in chapter 3. Using
the theory as described in the chapters 1 and 3, two simple roodels of
17
the synchronous machine with convertor are given in chapter 4. The
most important part of this dissertation (in the author's opinion) is
chapter 5, in which a metbod of computing the steady-state performance
of the synchronous machine with convertor in details is described. In
chapter 6, the results obtained by means of this computation metbod
are compared with experimental results for a synchronous generator
with diode bridge rectifier. However, other aspects of the synchronous
generator with diode bridge are also dealt with in this chapter.
18
THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
1.1
In this chapter a description of the synchronous machine will be

given. Without endangering the general usefulness, this description
is restricted to the two-pole synchronous machine as shown in figure
1.1.1. Some of the quantities used in this description, which is
~
d
I
Figure 1.1.1 Schematic diagram of the synchronous machine.
focused on the use of the machine with a convertor, are defined in

this figure. The following suppositions will be used in the
description:
- The stator inner side is circular cylindrical: the bore diameter
equals Zr and the core length equals 1.
- The stator innerside is smooth: the effects of slots are neglected.
- In the stator hysteresis, eddy-currents, skin-effect, and saturation
phenomena are neglected.
- In the rotor hysteresis and saturation phenomena are neglected.
19
- The reference directions of current and flux correspond as do the
direction of rotatien and the direction of advance of a right-handed
screw.
- The magnetic circuit of the rotor is symmetrical to two mutually
perpendicular axes: the direct and the quadrature axis.
- The excitation winding, the field axis of which is the direct axis,
is the only accessible rotor winding. Skin effects in this winding
are neglected. However, other closed electric circuits on the rotor
are possible: eddy-current paths in solid steel or damper windings
which are distributed symmetrically witb respect to the direct axis
and to the quadrature axis.
- The stator windings are sinusoidally distributed along the stator
circumference. These distributions are described by:
za î sin as (l.l.1a)
~ = z sin(as - 2
-Tt)
3
(1.1.1b)
zc îsin(a. - ~'IT) (1.1.1c)

s 3
where Z is the number of conductors per metre with Z as its maximum.
In the general description in the fitst part of this chapter
(sections 1.2 and 1.3) the non-accessible rotor current paths are not
specified. Insection 1.4 these current paths will be restricted to an
integer number of damper windings. Af ter introducing per-,unit va lues
insection 1.5, insection 1.6 the number of damperwindingsis
restricted to one damper winding on the direct axis and one damper
winding on the quadrature axis. Insection 1.7 attention is paid to
the synchronous machine with a symmetrical three-phase system of
sinusoidal armature currents. The operational inductances as
introduced insection 1.3 are calculated for the synchronous machine
with one damper winding on the direct axis and one damper winding on
the quadrature axis insection 1.8. Inthelast sectien of this
chapter a model of the synchronous machine that allows for a
symmetrical three-phase system of sinusoidal armature currents as well
as for very fast changing armature currents, is given.
Although in synchronous machine descriptions the term "reactance" is
widely used, it will not be used here, because a reaetanee is tied to
a fixed frequency. Since a synchronous machine used in a combination
with a convertor has in general no fixed frequency, the term
"inductance" is preferred here.
20
1.2 The general equations of the synchronous machine
In this section the general equations of the synchronous machine

described insection 1.1 are derived by investigating the results of
any set of armature currents i , ib and i .
a c
With (1.1.1) the sinusoidal current distribution~ (sheet) caused by
these currents can be given:
A i Zsin o. (1.2.1a)
a a s
. - . ( 2 ) (1.2.1b)
l.bZsl.n o.s- 31T
A 1.. -Zs1.n
. ( o. - -4'1T ) (1.2.1c)
c c s 3
The total effect of these current distributions is the same as the
effect of the superposition of these distributions:
A( o.s ) = -{ . .
Z J.asJ.nO.s+ . . (
l.bSJ.n 2 )
o.s- 31T . . (
+ l.cSJ.n 4 )}
as- 31T ( 1 .2. 2)
Using the complex representation of sinusoidal quantities, this

expression can be written as:
(1.2.3)
When time is used as the independent variable for a sinusoidal

quantity, a (time) phasor is often used to represent the amplitude
and the phase of this quantity. Since the current distribution A(a )
8
varies sinusoidally with the (space) angle a , a space phasor can be
8
introduced for this current distribution in a similar way as the time
phasor is introduced for quantities varying sinusoidally with time
[Kov 59]. Here the current space phasor
.21T .41T
J- J-
i = ~(i
3
- 3 a
+ e ib+ e 3 ie) = -32 (.1. a + al.• + a 2 1• )
(1.2.4)
-b - c
will be used. The choice of the factor ~ in the expression for the
current space phasor is more or less arbitrary. One of the advantages
of this choice is that the per-~nit value of the modulus of this
phasor will be 1, when the machine is used with a symmetrical three-
phase system of sinusoidal armature currents of rated value (section
1. 7).
Using the current space phasor according to (1.2.4), the current
distribution given by (1.2.3) can be expressed as:
21
(1.2.5)
This current distribution acts as a sinusoidally distributed winding,

3A
the maximum number of conductors of which is 2Z: its positive field
axis is located at a =arg i and its positive current is lil (see
s -
figure 1.2.1). If the current space phasor is represented by a vector
Figure 1.2.1 The resulting current distribution

in the complex plane.
in the complex plane with the positive real semi-axis corresponding to

the positive field axis of winding a, this vector points to the
direction of the field axis of the winding corresponding with (1.2.5)
and has a length proportional with the current in this winding. In
other words, the current space phasor represents the total effect of
the current distributions given by (1.2.1).
With a =a +y-In the armature current distribution according to
s r
(1.2.5) can be given in the rotor coordinate system:
-j (y- !n) -ja

A(a r ) = 3 î Re {..
J~e e r} (1.2.6)
2
.
\fhen the quadrature axis is used as the real axis, and the direct axis
is used as the imaginary axis of the complex plane, the current space
phasor (in the rotor coordinate system)
-j(y- ~'IT)
ie (1.2.7)
22
can be used to represent the current distribution according to (1.2.6):
(1 .2.8)
The current space phasor is divided into two parts:
(1.2.9)
where iq =Re ~q and id=Im ~q • The first part (iq) represents a

current distribution the field axis of which is the quadrature axis,
and the second part (jid) represents a current distribution with its
field axis on the direct axis. With (1.2.4), (1.2.7) and (1.2.9) the
following expressions can be given for those components:
4
ibcos(y - .k)
3
+ i cos(y - -1f)}
c 3
( 1. 2. 10a)
2 4 } (1.2.10b)
ibsin(y - -1T) + i c sin(y - -=-1f)
3
3
These expressions correspond with the well-known two-axis theory
[Par 29].
The current distribution corresponding with id results in an

induction distribution along the stator circumference Bd(ar,id). On
the basis of the symmetry with respect to the direct and to the
quadrature-axis, this distribution can be represented by:
! 1 Bd n (id)cos{n(ar -!n)}
Bd(a r ,id) = n= n=1,3,5, .. (1.2.11)
Bècause of the rotor symmetry the induction distribution along the

stator circumference Bd(ar,if)' which is caused by the excitation
current, can be given as:
n=1 ,3,5, .• (1.2. 12)
Changes in the currents id and if cause changes in the magnetic

flux density in the rotor. These induction changes are the primary
cause of a current density distribution jd in the rotor besides the
current density distribution which corresponds with the excitation
current if: eddy currents and currents in closed damping circuits.·In
its turn, this current density distribution jd produces an induction
distribution along the stator eircumference Bd(ar,jd). On the basis
of rotor symmetry, this distribution can be given as:
23
Bd(ar ,jd) = n=r 1 Bd n (jd)cos{n(a r -i~)} n=1,3,5, •• (1.2.13)
The contributions to the air-gap induction (1.2.11), (1.2.12), and

(1.2.13) result in the air-gap induction distribution:
n=1,3,5, •. (1.2.14)
The current distribution corresponding with i results in an

q
induction distribution along the stator circumference B (a ,i). On
q r q
the basis of the symmetry with respect to the direct and to the
quadrature axis, this distribution can be represented by:
B (a ,i ) =
q r q
r
n= 1
B (i )cos(na )
qn q r
(1.2.15)
Changes in the current iq cause changes in the induction in the

rotor. In consequence of this, a current density distribution j is
q
produced in the rotor: eddy currents and currents in closed damping
circuits. On the basis of symmetr~ the induction distribution along
the stator circumference B (a ,j ) caused by this current density
q r q
distribution can be expressed as:
n=1,3,5, .• (1.2.16)
The contributions to the air-gap induction (1.2.15) and (1.2.16)

result in the air-gap induction distribution:
B
q
(a )
r
r
= n= 1{Bqn (i q )
+ (j )}cos(na )
qn q
B
r
= r B cos(na ) n= 1 , 3, 5, •. (1.2.17)
n= 1 qn · r
With (1.2.14) and (1.2.17) the total air-gap induction can be given:
B(a )
r
= Bd(a r ) + B (a )
q r
=
= n=r1{Bdncos(n(ar -iff)) + B
qn
cos(na )}
r n=1,3,5, .. (1.2.18)
Next, the flux associated with a sinusoidally distributed armature

winding and corresponding with the air-gap induction will be
determined. For this purpose a winding with an arbitrary axis
(a =a ) and with a distribution:
r o
Z = Zsin(a r - ao ) (1.2.19)
will be considered (figure 1.2.2). The fluxlinkinga turn whose
24
Figure 1.Z.Z The determination of the flux
associated with an armature winding.
sides are located at the positions a' and Zet -a' is:
r o r
et'
r
J B(et )lrda .
za -a, r r
o r
So, the flux associated with rZsin(a'-a )det turns at the positions
r o r
a'r and Zet o--a'r is:
a~. )
rÎsin(a'- a ) {
r
f B(et )lrda ;da •
o Za -a, r rJ r
o r
The flux associated with the complete winding considered is:
a +TI a1
0
J rZsin(et'-
et ){ { B(et )lrda }da' (1.Z.ZO)
a0 r
o ct -a' r r r
o r
Substituting (1.Z.18) in (1.Z.ZO) gives
W = r2Zln{Bq 1cosa0 + Bd 1cos(a0 - in)} (1.2.Z1)
As can be seen in this expression, only the fundamental harmonie

components of B(Ct ) contributes to the flux associated with a
r
sinusoidally distributed winding.
Using the complex representation of sinusoidal quantities,
expression (1.Z.21) can be written as:
À -jao
W = r 2 ZlnRe{(Bq 1+ jBd 1)e } (1.Z.22)
Z5
This expression can be simplified by using the flux space phasor:
(1.2.23)
where the subscript m stands for main field. Using (1.2.23), the main
flux associated with an armsture winding with its axis on a ;a
r o is
given by:
(1.2.24)
The main flux space phasor can be represented by a vector in the

complex plane. If the axis of an armsture winding corresponds with
this vector, the main flux associated with this winding will be
maximal and its value will equal the modulus of this vector. So, the
flux~ in (1.2.23) is the main flux associated with an armsture
mq
winding on the quadrature axis, and the flux ~md is the main flux
associated with an armsture winding on the direct axis.
The main flux space phasor in the stator coordinate system is given
by (comparable to expression (1.2.7)):
( 1.2 .25)
Using this expression, the main fluxes associated with the armsture
windings a, b and c are given by:
1jJma Re~ ( 1.2.26a)

.2
1jJmb
Re{~e -J31f} = Re{!!2~} (1.2.26b)
.4
1jJmc Re{~e -J3'} =Re{!!~} ( 1.2. 26c)
The armsture winding voltage equations are:
(1.2.27a)
d1jJb
~
= -Ra i b -dt (1.2.27b)
dljlc
uc = -Ra i c -dt (1.2.27c)
26
The flux associated with an armature winding consists of a main flux
(according to (1.2.26)) and a leakage flux [Hum 40]. This leakage flux
is supposed to be independent of the rotor position. On the basis of
armature symmetry the fluxes associated with the armature windinga
can be represented by:
ljla "'1jl ma + Laoa i a - La boa (ib+ i c ) (1.2.28a)
ljlb =ljlmb +L aoa ib- Lab oa (i a + i c ) (1.2.28b)
ljlc =ljlme +L aoa ic- Laboa (i a + ib) (1.2.28c)
where the inductances Lao a and L aboa are introduced. Although Labocr
will be positive in most cases, it might be negative_.
Using the homapolar component of the three-phase system of armature
currents:
• 1 (. • • ) (1.2.29)
10 =3 1 a+ 1 b+ 1 c
the expressions (1.2.28) can be written as:
ljla Ijlma+ (Laoa+ L aboa ) ia- 31aboio ( 1. 2 .30a)
ljlb =$mb+ (Laoa+ Labocr )i b- 31aboio ( 1. 2. 30a)
$c = 1/Jmc+ (L +L )i - 31 (1.2.30c)
aocr abocr c aboio
In many cases the homapolar component i is zero; in those cases the
0
leakage inductance L is effective in each phase:
aa
(1.2.31)
With (1.2.4) and (1.2.29) the phase currents may be expreseed as

functions of the current space phasor and the homopalar current
component:
i Re i+ io ( 1.2. 32a)
a
ib Re{a 2 i} + io (1.2.32b)
i Re{!_i) + i 0 (1.2.32d)
c
Using the homapolar inductance
L
0
= L aocr - 21
abocr
(1.2.33)
and the expressions (1.2.26), (1.2.31), and (1.2.32), (1.2.30) cari

be written as:
27
Wa = Re{~+ Laoi} + Loio (1.2.34a)
wb = Re{a- 2 {ljJ---m+ LaG--'i)}+ t 0i 0 ( 1. 2.34b)
;pc = Re{a(lji
- ---m
+ L ~i)} + L i
av- 0 0
(1. 2. 34c)
With the homopalar flux component

ljio = 1 oio (1.2.35)
and the flux space phasor
lji=w+L i ( 1. 2 .36)
- ao-
"""!11
the expressions (1.2.34) change into
ljia = Re.!!!_ + ll! 0 (1.2.37a)
llib = Re{~2.!!!_} + :Po (1.2.37b)
ljJc =Re{~.!!!_}+ ljJO ( 1.2.37c)
The next step is the substitution of the armature fluxes (1.2.37)

and the armature currents (1.2.32) in the voltage equations (1.2.27):
= ae{-a i - d.!l!_l + (-a i - d;J;o\} ( 1 .2. 38a)

"a a- . dtf a 0 dt
u. = Re{a2
D -
(-aa-i - d.!l!_\;}
dt
+ { -R i -
\ a 0
dljJ0)
dt
(1.2.38b)
u
c
= Re{i ~
-R i -
a- dt
)}+ (,
d.!l!_ -R i -
a 0 dt
1
dV o\} (1.2.38c)
With the voltage space phasor

. dil'
,!!. = -Ra!. - dt (1.2.39)
and the homapolar voltage component

. dlJio
"o = -Ra 1 0- "'dt (1.2.40)
the expression (1.2.38) can be written as:
u =Reu + "o (1.2.41a)

a
"b = Re{a u} + "o (1.2.41b)

2
u • Re{~~} + "o (1.2.41c)

c
Using the voltage and the flux space phasors in the rotor coordinate
system:
28
u =u+ ju = ue-j(y-in) ( 1.2.42)
-=dq q d -
~ = ~ + j~ = ~e-j(y-5n) (1.2.43)
~q q d -
and using expression (1.2.7), the voltage equation (1.2.39) can be
expressed in the rotor coordinate system:
d~
. .:.dn ., , dy
u = -R 1 - ~- J't'1 (1.2.44)
-=dq a-=dq dt 2:.dq -dt
when this expression is divided into its real and its imaginary
parts, the well-known two-axis voltage equations of the synchronous
machine are found (using (1.2.9), (1.2.42), and (1.2.43)):
d~
dy
i - ___.9:. + lj!ddt
u = -R (1.2.45a)
q a q dt
. dlj;d
-R1 - - - 1jJ dy ( 1.2.45b)
ud a d dt q dt
The aften used Park transformation follows from the equations

(1.2.7), (1.2.9), (1.2.32), (1.2.37), (1.2.41), (1.2.42), and
(1.2.43):
(1.2.46a)
(1.2.46b)
(1.2.46c)
where:
2
cosy cos(y- Jff) cos(y- 4n)
3
2
C=3 sin y sin(y- ~1T) sin(y- .in)
3
(1.2.46d)
i i
cosy sin y
2
c-1 = cos(Y- 3) sin(Y- ~
3
) (1.2.46e)
sin(y- ~ )
4
cos(y- -)
3
29
The voltage equation of the excitation winding is given by:
. dlj!f
uf = Rflf+ ïfi: (1.2.47)
The equations (1.2.45), (1.2.46), and (1.2.47) describe the

electrical relations of the synchronous machine. However, directly
usable expressions for the fluxes lj!d, lj!q' and lj!f have still to be
found.
Using (1.2.43), (1.2.36), (1.2.23), (1.2.9), and (1.2.7), the flux
lj!d can be written as:
,~. = ,~. + L i (1.2.48)
'~'d '~'md acr d
As can beseen with the equations (1.2.23) and (1.2.14), the flux $md
consists of three components:
(1.2.49)
Introducing the inductances Lmd and Lafd' this expression can be

converted into:
(1.2.50)
As mentioned before, the flux ~md is the main flux associated with
an armature winding on the direct axis. However, the contribution of
the direct-axis current id to the air-gap induction can be considered
to be the result of the current id in a sinusoidal distributed
winding with its axis on the direct axis and with one and a half
times as many turnsas an armature winding (expression (1.2.8.) and
(1.2.9)). Therefore, the coefficient Lmd is nota normal coefficient
of self-induction. After introducing the direct-axis synchronous
inductance
(1.2.51)
and substituting·(1.2.50) into (1.2.48), the flux· lj!d can be written

as:
(1.2.52)
The flux associated with the excitation winding also consists of

three components:
(1.2.53)
30
Introducing the coefficient of self-induction Lffd and using the
inductance Lafd introduced before, this expression can be converted
into:
(1.2.54)
The factor ~ is caused by the fact that id is the current in a

winding with one and a half times as much turns as an armature
winding.
The causes and effects of the current density distribution jd can
be considered to be the causes and effects of a linear time-invariant
system: the currents id and if are the input quantities and the
fluxes Wmd(jd) and Wf(jd) are the output quantities. With the
system's pulse responses f(t), p(t), h(t), and k(t) the following
integral expressions can be given:
+"" +oo
1)Jmd(jd) _Lid(T)f(t-T)dT +_Lif(T)p(t-T)dT (1.2.55a)
+m +oo
Wf(jd) =_rid(T)h(t-T)dT +_Lif(T)k(t-T)dT (1.2.55b)
Making use of Fourier or Laplace transforms, these expression change

into an easier form (section 1.3).
Using (1.2.43), (1.2.36), (1.2.23), (1.2.9), and (1.2.7) the
flux 1jJ can be written as:
q
lj;q = 1jJ
mq + Lacr i q (1.2.56)
As can beseen with the equations (1.2.23) and (1.2.17), the
flux 1jJ consists of two components:
mq
;lo
~mq
= ,,,~mq (i q) + ,~.
~mq
(J' )
q (1.2.57)
Introducing the inductance Lmq' this expression can, be converted

into:
*mq = 1 mqiq+ *mq(jq) (1.2.58)
After introducing the quadrature-axis synchronous inductance
L
q
= L mq + L
acr (1.2.59)
and substituting(1.2.58) into (1.2.56), the flux 1j; can be expressed

q .
as:
L i + 1jJ (j ) (1.2.60)
q q mq q
31
The cause and the effect of the current density distribution j
q
can be considered to be the cause and the effect of a linear time-
invariant system: the current i q is the input and the flux W
mq (j q) is
the output quantity. With the system's pulse response n(t) the
following integral expression can be given:
+co
W (i ) = fi (T)n(t-t)dT
mq q -co q
(1.2.61)
The equations (1.2.45), (1.2.46), (1.2.47), (1.2.52), (1.2.54),

(1.2.55), (1.2.60), and (1.2.61) describe the electrical behaviour of
the synchronous machine.
Using (1.2.46), (1.2.9), and (1.2.42) the expression for the

electric power withdrawn from the armature can be written as:
(1.2.62)
Substituting the voltage equations (1.2.40) and (1.2.45) into this

expression results in:
3 r.
dwd . dw
p = --\1 -- + 1 ~ +
2 ddt q dt
(1.2.63)
The electromagnetic torque is given by (see for example [Con 51]):

m = l(i w - i 1jJ ) ( 1. 2 .64a)
2 d q q d
or after using (1.2.9) and (1.2.43):
m = lrm{i lji* } (1.2.64b)

2 -=dq4:lq
In literature other views on the field of the three-phase to two-

axis transformation are given [Con 51; Kov 59; Adk 75; Sar ·79].
Because of the different choices of the directions of the direct and
the quadrature axes or because of the difference between motor and
generator convention, the signs in the equations may differ.
Instead of the three-phase to two-axis transformation according to
Park, which is used here, a power-invariant transformation is
sametimes used.
32
1.3 Operational inductances
Making use of the Fourier transformation, the integral expressions

(1.2.55) and (1.2.61) are converted into expressions with simple
multiplications. With (1.2.52), (1.2.54), and (1.2.60) the fluxes
ljld' ljlf, and ljl q may be expressed as:
~(w) {Ld+ !(w)}~(w) + {Lafd+ ~(w)}if(w) ( 1. 3. 1a)
~f(w) ftLafd+ ~(w)}~(w) + {Lffd+ !(w)}if(w) (1.3.1b)
1/1 (w) {L + N(w)}i (w) (1.3.1c)

-q q - -q
where ~(w), ~(w), ~f(w), ~(w), iq(w), (w), !(w), ~(w), ~(w),
!(w), and ~(w) are the Fourier transforms of, respectively, ljld' ljlq'
1/lf' id, iq, , f, p, h, k and n.
When the excitation winding is supplied by a current source, the
expr~ssions (1.3.1) may be used. In many cases, however, the
excitation winding is supplied by a voltage source. By means of the
Fourier transferm of the excitation winding voltage equation (1.2.47):
(1.3.2)
where ~f(w) is the Fourier transferm of uf' and the expressions

(1.3.1) the fluxes ~(w) and ~(w) can be given as functions of
id(w), iq(w) and uf(w):
~(w) = ~(w)~(w) + Q(w)~f(w) (1.3.3a)

ljl (w) = L (w)i (w) (1.3.3b)
-q -q -q
(1.3.3c)
L (w) = L + N(w) (1.3.3d)

-q q -
L fd+ ~(w) (1.3.3e)
G(w) = a .
- Rf+ JW{Lffd+ !(w)J
When the excitation voltage is an ideal direct voltage: uf~uf,

equation (1.3.3a) can be written as (o(w) is the unit pulse):
(1.3.4)
33
When the excitation current is an ideal direct current:
if~If, equation (1.3.1a) can be written as:
~(w) ~ ~0 (w)~(w) + Lafdif 2no(w) (1.3.Sa)
where
~ (w) = Ld+ !(w) (1.3.5b)

0
The subscribt o indicates an opeh excitation circuit (an ideal
current source).
\lhen the currents id, iq' and if are ideal direct currents, the
following equation might be useful:
~(0) = ~ 0 (0) = Ld ( 1. 3 .6a)
L (0) = L (1.3.6b)
-q q
As early as 1929 Park made use of operators like ~(w), .!!q(w), and
~(w} [Par 29]. Some years later Waring and Crary used the term
"operational impedance" for ~ (w) and .!!q (w) [\var 32]. Concordia
preferred the term "operational inductance" because these operators
give arelation between current and flux [Con 51]. He, however,
continued using the term "operational impedance". As in [Sar 79] in
this dissertation the term "operational inductance" will be used.
1.4 The equations of the synchronous machine with n damper

circuits on the direct axis and m damper circuits on the
quadrature axis
In IEC standard 34-10: "Conventions for description of synchronous

machines" the rotor damping circuits of the synchronous machine are
represented by n damper circuits on the direct axis and m damper
circuits on the quadrature axis. Between the damper circuits on one
axis an inductive as well as a galvanic coupling may be present. In
figure 1.4.1 various quantities are defined in accordance with
IEC 34-10.
To the suppositions already given insection 1.1, the following
will be added:
- In the rotor electric circuits the skin effect can be neglected.
- In the rotor no eddy currents can occur.
34
Figure 1.4.1 The representation of the synchronous machine
with n damper circuits on the direct axis and
m damper circuits on the quadrature axis.
The following voltage equations can be given for the n short-

circuited damper circuits on the direct axis:
[I] . [:ij rr· . . :r-] [:1·] '

R1nd nnd nd
d
[1J
1/Jnd
(1.4.1a)
where
r~J~t ... :~·"]

1 1 id
f1d 11d
if (1.4 •.1b)
:pnd 2 and 1 fnd 1 1nd nnd i1d
ind
35
The currents in these n damper circuits represent, in this case,
the current distribution jd introduced insection 1.2. The flux
~md(jd), which is linked with an armature winding on the direct axis
and corresponds to the current density distribution jd, and the
flux ~f(jd), which is linked with the excitation winding and also
corresponds to this current density distribution, can be expressed
as:
~md(jd) = 1 a1di1d + + Landi n d (1.4.2a)
~f(jd) = 1 fldi1d + (1.4.2b)
In the description of the synchronous machine the equations (1.4.1)

and (1.4.2) can be used insteadof (1.2.55), in which the currents
id and if act as "driving forces". With the equations (1.2.45b),
(1.2.47), (1.2.52), (1.2.53), (1.4.1), and (1.4.2) the direct-axis
voltage equations can be written as:
-ud
uf
R
a
Rf
id
if
l);d l ljiq
0
0 R11d ••• R1nd
d
ild +dt
- .,~1dJ +
0
dy
dt
(1.4.3a)
0 ind ljind 0
Rlnd • • .Rnnd J
where
lj!d Ld 1 1 L id
afd a1d and
3
~f tLafd 1 ffd 1 f1d
1
fnd if
3 (1.4.3b)
lj!1d 1 1 1 i1d
tLa1d f1d 11d 1nd
~nd l1
2 and
L L
fnd 1nd
The voltage equations of the m damper circuits on the quadrature

axis can be given by:
(1.4.4a)
where
36
(1.4.4b)
i
m
The currents in these m damper circuits represent, in this case, the

current density distribution jq introduced insection 1.2. So, the
flux $ (j ) is given by:
mq q
$ (j ) = L i + ••• + L i (1.4.5)
mq q a 1q 1q amq mq
Insteadof equation (1.2.61) the equations (1.4.4) and (1.4.5)
can he used in the description of the synchronous machine. With
the equations (1.2.45a), (1.2.60), (1.4.4) and (1.4.5) the
quadrature-axis voltage equations become:
-u R i wq lJ!d
q q
0 R i1q 1Ji1q 0
R11q 1mq d dy (1.4.6a)
+-
dt dt
0 R R i wm 0
1mq mm m
where
lj!q L L L i
q a1q amq q
l1 L L
w,q 2 a1q 11q 1mq i1q
. (1.4.6b)
$ l1
2 amq
L
1mq
L
mm
i
m
For reasons of completeness the equations for the homopalar

components (1.2.40) and (1.2.35) are given here:
( 1.4. 7a)
where
(1.4.7b)
37
1.5 The per-unit system
In the theory of electrical machines it is advantageous to

express the quantities not in actual units but in a per-unit system
[Har 70]. In this thesis, with the exception of the preceding
sections and chapter 2, the quantities voltage, current, angular
velocity, angular frequency, time, flux, power, and torque are
related to their base values. These base values are indicated by
the subscribt o. For example, the voltage in the per-unit system is
given by:
u(in V)
u(in p.u.)
u (in v)
0
In IEC standard 34-10 the following ~ase values are recommended:

3. . 3. .
uo=IZUN' io=I:2IN' wo~N' to=1/wo, ~o=uoto, po=~olo' and mo=2uoloto
In these expressions UN and IN are the rated values of, respectively,
the armature phase voltage and the armature phase current; wN is the
rated angular frequency. The base values for the rotor quantities
are not appointed in IEC standard 34-10.
Except for the torque, the symbols used for the quantities
designated in per-unit values are the same as the symbols used for
the quantities designated in actual units. If it is not clear
whetherquantities are designated in per-unit or in actual units,
the coefficients in the equations might sametimes be helpful: R and
L are used in the case of actual units, whereas r and 1 are used in
the per-unit system (An angle in actual radians equals an angle in
per-unit).
Using per-unit quantities the voltage equations given in section
1.4 ((1.4.3), (1.4.6), and (1.4.7)) and the expressions for the
torque (1.2.64a) and the power (1.2.62) are transformed into:
38
i
-ud -ud ~R id
u a 1/Jd 1/Jq
0
i
uf uf ~R if 1/!f 0
ufo f
d dy
+- +
i i dt dt
0 ~ ndoR 0
uld uldo 11d'''u 1do lnd ild ljlld
(1.5.1)
i i
~R ndoR
L
0
LunJ u d lnd'''u d nnd
n o n o
ind ljlnd 0
i i i i
1do ndo
ljld --2.1 ~ u
1
ald
1 id
u0 d u afd u and
0 0 0
3i i i i
~ ~ ~ ndo
ljlf 1 if
2ufo afd ufo ffd ufo fld ufo fnd
=w ( 1. 5 .2)
0
3i i i
~
1do1 ndo1
lj!ld 2uldo ald ld uldo 11d uldo 1nd ild
3i i i
1Pnd
0
- --L ~L ~
2undo and undo fnd undo lnd
i
-uq -u
q
4u a
i
q
1jJ
q 1)Jd
0
i i
0 ~R mqoR 0
ul q: 11q' .. u lmq ilq d 1P1q
ulqo 1qo +- (1.5.3)
dt
i i
0 u ~ ••• mqoR i 0
m u lmq u mmq mq
mqo mqo
39
i i i
mqo1
!jJq __!!.L
u0 q
~
u alq u 0 amq
i
q
0
3i i
ljJ1q ~
2u alq lq
... u
mqo
1
1mq ilq
1qo 1qo
"'W ( 1.5 .4)
0
3i i i
~ __!_g_oL mqoL i
lj!mq 2u amq u lmq umqo mmq mq
mqo mqo
i d1/!o
uo - __!!.R i -dt (1.5.5)
u a 0
0
w i
1j.i ~·1 ( 1 .5 .6)
0 "' u
0
o o
(1.5.7)
m = -1)1 i + 1jJ i ( 1.5 .8)

d q q d
In developing equivalent circuits for the direct and the
quadrature axis, thematrices in (1.5.2) and (1.5.4) should be
symmetrical: the coefficients of mutual inductance should not
depend on the direction. Hence
3 . . . . . . (
2uo 1 o=ufo 1 fo=u1do 1 1do= ..• =undo 1 ndo=u1qo 1 1qo"'···=umqo 1 mqo 1 •5 • 9 )
Using (1.5.9),theequations (1.5.1), (1.5.2), (1.5.3), (1.5.4),

(1.5.5), and (1.5.6) are transformed in the following form, which
corresponds with IEC standard 34-10:
40
0 (1.5.10)
1 1 1 1
d afd a1d •• and
1 1 1 1
afd ffd d1d fnd
(1.5.11}
1 1 1 1
a1d f1d 11d 1nd
i 1/1 tiJ
q q d
• I
1
1q d o/1q 0 dy
+- (1.5.12}
dt dt
r i 0
mmG mq
1j; 1
q q
1/11q 1 1 1
a1q a1q 1mq (1.5.13)
1 i
1j;
mq amq 11 mq .. 1mmq mq
-r i ( 1. 5. 14)
a 0
(1.5.15)
The base value for the rotor quantities are chosen according to
the method preierred in [Har 70], In this metbod for each axis the·
contribution of each base current in its circuit to the main flux
is the same:
41
1mdio "" 1 afifo .. 1 a1di!do ""••• "' 1 andindo (1.5.16a)
1 mqio "" 1 alqi1qo = ••• = 1 amqimqo ( 1.5.16b)
Using these equations, the base value for the rotor currents can be
obtained. Subsequently, the rotor base voltages can be determined
by means of equation (1.5.9),
Finally, the base quantities are expressed by:
i
0
., 12IN u
o
= v'2UN
1 31
md . afd
=--u
ifo = Lafd l.o 2Lmd o
1 31 (1.5.17)
md akd
ikdo = io "'--u
2Lmd o
31 k
.. ~u
2L o
mq
Using these quantities, the coefficients in (1.5.10), (1.5.11),

(1.5.12), (1.5.13), (1.5.14) and (1.5.15) can be written as:
i
r =~R
a u
0
a
2i L2 2i 1 2
r omd R omq R
jkl" 3u L .dL kd jkd rjkq = 3u L . L k jkq
o aJ a o aJq a q
wi wi wi
ld ==~L
u d
1 =~L 1 =~L
0
q uo q 0 u 0
0
2w i L2 d 2w i 12 d
lfkd= o o m L 1 = oom ~
3u0 LakdLafd fkd kJ'd 3uo La kd.LaJ'd J.d
wi 2w i 1 2
1 =~L o o mq
1 ·q"" 3 L
akq u
0
mq kJ u o a k qL aJq
. L .
l<Jq
( 1 .5. 18)
42
Using (1.5.18), (1.2.51) and (1.2.59), the fo11owing quantities
can be introduced:
1md 1afd 1akd ( 1. 5. 19a)
1 1 ( 1.5. 19b)
mq akq
wi wi
1aa 1d - 1md = ~(L- L ) =~L (1.5.19c)
u d md u aa
0 0
wi w0 i 0
1
aa
1
q
- 1
m.q
= ~(L-
u q
L )
mq
{ 1.5. 19d)
0
u0
1.6 The equations and equivalent circuits of the synchronous

machine with one damper circuit on the direct axis and
one damper circuit on the quadrature axis
The synchronous machine is often represented with one damper

winding on the direct axis and one damper winding on the quadrature
axis. Using this model many phenomena can be explained. In this
section the electrical equations and equivalent circuits are given.
Introducing the following quantities:
1 1 nd - 1md ( 1 • 6. 1a)
x
1 (1.6.tb)
11d- 1 ftd
1 ffd - 1f1d ( 1. 6. 1c)
and using ( 1. 5. 19a) and (1.5.19c) the equation (1.5.10) and ( 1. 5 . 11 )

become:
-ud r 0 0 id \m+ 1aa 1 id

a md
1 tnd+V~dcr 1md+ 1x
rf 0 if md ~ (1.6.2)
0 ï,d 1 1md+ 1x 11dcr+\nd+ 1x

md
43
By means of this voltage equation, the equivalent circuit shown
in figure 1.6.1 can be constructed. The inductance 1 in this
x
figure is often neglected, which is not always allowed [Can 68].
Figure 1.6.1 The equivalent circuit for the direct axis,
Using (1.5.19) and introducing
1 = 1 - 1 ( 1 .6.3)
1a 11q mq
the equations (1.5.12) and (1.5.13) are transformed into:
(1.6.4)
The equivalent circuit shown in figure 1.6.2. is given by this

voltage equation.
Figure 1.6.2 The equivalent circuit for the quadrature axis,
Substitution of (1.5.15) into (1.5.14) gives:

di
0
uo = -raiO - 10 dt (1.6.5)
44
The derived equivalent circuit is given in figure 1.6.3.
Figure 1.6.3 The equivalent circuit for the

homopolar components.
In the equations (1.6.2) and (1.6.4) the fluxes ~d and ~q are

needed. From the equations (1.5.11), (1.5.19b), and (1.5.19d) it
fellows that ~d is the total flux associated with the inductors
lao and lmd in figure 1.6.1:
(1.6.6)
From the equations (1.5.13) and (1.5.19) it fellows that ~ is the

q
totalflux linked with the inductors 1 and 1 in figure 1.6.2:
aa mq
~
q = 1q i q+ 1a1q i 1q = 1 aa i q + 1 (i + i1q)
mq q
(1.6.7)
1.7 The synchronous machine with a symmetrical three-phase

system of sinusoirlal armature currents
In this sectien the rotor is assumed to rotate with a constant

angular speed w and the excitation current is assumed to be constant:
if=If ; using the still arbitrary phase angles ó and ~. and the
0
amplitudes ûand i, the armature voltages and currents are given by:
-·o 'wt
u ûcos(wt-o) = Re{ûe J e 3 } Re{û ejwt} (1.7.1a)
a -a
2
Re{û
j(wt - 3TI)} (1.7.1b)
ub -ae
4
u Re{~e
j(wt 3TI)} (1.7.1c)
c
45
i ( 1. 7. 2a)
a
... j(wt
Re{ 1. e ( 1. 7. 2b)
-a
{
~ j(wt
i Re i e (1.7.2c)
c -a
û and i are represented in the complex plane

The time phasors -a -a
in figure 1.7.1.
Re
Figure 1 • 7 • 1 The time phasors -aû and i in the complex plane.

-a
It foilows from the substitutions of (1.7.1) in (1.2.41) and the

substitution of (1.7.2) into (1.2.29) that the homopalar armature
voltage and current are zero: u =0 and i =0.
0 0
The voltage space phasor can be found by substituting u =0 and
0
( 1 • 7. 1) into ( 1. 2. 41) :
,... J'Wt
u = -a
u e (1.7.3)
The substitution of (1.7.2) into (1.2.4) gives the current space

phasor:
(1.7.4)
It can beseen from the equations (1.7.3) and (1.7.4) that the
current as well as the voltage space phasor rotate with the same
angular speed as the rotor does: w.
Writing the rotor position angle as:
y = Yo + wt (1.7.5)
where y is a still arbitrary phase angle and using the equations

0
(1.2.7) and (1.2.42), the space phasors expressed by (1.7.3) and
(1.7.4) can be designated in the rotor coordinate system:
46
j 01f-yo)
û e (1.7.6a)
~q -a
j 01f-Yo>
i e
~q ~
-a
(1. 7 .6b)
y ~2,
1f
Choosing
0 these expressions are transformed into a simple
form:
û ( 1. 7. 7a)
~q -a
~q (1.7.7b)
In other words, in this case the time phasor equals the

corresponding space phasor in the rotor coordinate system. Besides
this advantage, the phase angle o in (1.7.1) corresponds to the
often used "load angle".
Using (1.2.9), (1.2.42), (1.7.1), and (1.7.2), the splitting
of the (constant) space phasors according to (1.7.7) into their
real and imaginairy parts results in:
ud u do ûsin(-o) ( 1. 7 .Sa)
u uqo ûcos(-o) ( 1. 7. 8b)

q
id 1 !sinh'H)) (1.7.9a)
dO
i IqO icos(-6-<jl) ( 1. 7. 9b)
q
(if~rf )
Because the excitation current is constant
0 and the current
(~~~~q ),
space phasor is stationary with respect to the rotor 0
the current density distributions jd and jq introduced in section
1.2 will be zero. In this case, the expressions fortheflux ~d
(1.2.52) and the flux~ (1.2.60) can, after being transformed to

q
the per-unit system, be expressed as:
( 1. 7. 10a)
( 1. 7. 10b)
After transforming the armature voltage equations (1.2.45) to

the per-unit system, the expressions (1.7.10) are substituted in
these equations. Using (1.7.5), (1.7.8), and (1.7.9), this
substitution results in:
47
udo -r I
a dO
- wljlqO = -r a I dO - wl I
q qO
( 1. 7. 11 a)
uqo = -r a I qO + wijl dO -ra 1qo+ w(ldidO+ 1 afdif0) (1.7 .11b)
Using ( 1 .2. 9) and (1.2.42) these equations can be expressed as a

phasor equation:
(1.7.12)
~qO
As an example, in figure 1.7.2 a phasor diagrambasedon this
equation is given. This diagram refers to a synchronous generator
with an inductive load.
d lm
Re
q
Figure 1.7.2 A phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

with an inductive load.
In the case described in this section, using the expressions

(1.5.8) and (1.7.10), the electromagnetic torque is given by:
(1.7.13)
1.8 The operational inductances of the synchronous machine with

one damper circuit on the direct axis and one damper circuit
on the quadrature axis
The equations of the synchronous machine with one damper circuit

on the direct axis and one damper circuit on the quadrature axis
have been given insection 1.6. The operational inductances of this
machine can be calculated by applying the Fourier transformation on
48
these equations.
After Fourier transformation of the equations (1.6.6) and (1.6.2),

the current if(w) and i d(w) can be e1iminated from these equations:
1
~f(w)
{ 1+jo.rr(T4+T_s>+(jw)21:4T6 } 1d~ (w)+{1+jwT1} 1md ----r;-
~(w) = 1 + jW(T + T ) + (jW) 2 T T ( 1. 8. 1a)
1 2 1 3
where:
1md+ 1 + 1
x fda (1.8.1b)
rf
1md+ 1 + 1
x 1da ( 1 .8. 1c)
r11d
( 1md+ 1) 1fda
11da + (lmd+ 1x) + 1fda
( 1.8.1d)
r 11d
( 1 .8. 1e)
= 1 (1 + (1.8.1f)
~1d
( 1 .8. 1g)
( 1.8.1h)
49
Commonly (1.8.1a) is written in the following form:
(1+jWTd)(1+jWT~)ld~(W) + (j+jWT1d)lmd~
~(w) = (1.8.2)
The time constauts in this expressiou can be found by comparing the

equations (1.8.1a) aud (1.8.2) and equating coefficients:
T' + T"
d d
= T4+ '5 ( 1.8.3a)
T1 T" = '4'6 (1.8.3b)

d d
T' + T" = T + T2 (1.8.3c)
dO dO 1
'
'do l1
'do--
'1'3 (1.8.3d)
In practical cases r d is much larger than rf. Hence,the time

11
constauts -r aud 1: are much less thau T1'aud 1: and 1: are much less
2 3 5 6
than T • For that reasou the time constauts T and T are often
4 5 2
used instead of, respectively,the time constauts 1: aud 1: in
6 3
equation (1.8.3) [Adk 75]. Thus:
T' ~ ~ • Ttt ~ T • T 1 - T • ~~· - T (1.8.4)

d '4 ' d '6 • dO- 1 • 'do- 3'
It is, however, not necessary to use the approximate values
according to (1.8.4): it is also possible to solve the quadratic
equations (1.8.3).
An expression for the operational inductance ~(w) can be found
by camparing the equations (1.3.3a) and (1.8.2):
(1 + jwTd)(1 + jwTd)
~(w) (1 + jwT' H1 + jun"
1
) d
( 1.8.5)
dO dO
In the case of a direct current (w=O), the direct-axis operational

inductance equals the direct-axis synchronous inductance: ~(O)=ld'
as bas already been expressed by (1.3.6a).
If the current id is changing rapidly, the change of the flux
linked with the excitation winding as well as the change of the
flux linked with the direct-axis damper circuit can be neglected. In
other words, in this case the voltage drops over the resistances
r 11 d and rf in figure 1.6.1 and equation (1,6.2) can be neglected.
The quotient of the flux ~d and the current id for this case is
called the direct-axis sub-transient inductance. Using uf=O, r d=O,
11
50
and rf&Q in the equations (1.6.6) and (1.6.2), this inductance can
be expressed by:
1" (1.8.6)
d
This inductance corresponds with the inductance seen at the port

of the net-workin figure 1.8.1, which can be derived from figure
1.6.1.
I"d -
Figure 1.8.1 A net-work todetermine the direct-axis

sub-transient inductance.
Using the equations (1.8.1), (1.8.3), and (1.8.5), expression

(1.8.6) can be transformed into the following form:
lim 1 ( ) (1.8. 7)
w->eo -=.cl w
The third direct-axis inductance which is often used in machine

theory is the so-called direct-axis transient inductance. This
inductance is defined in a similar way as the direct-axis sub-
transient inductance is; the difference is that the presence of
the damper winding is ignored: i 1d&Q, Using uf=O, i d=O, and rf&O
1
in the equations (1.6.6) and (1.6.2), this inductance can be
expressed by:
(1.8.8)
S1
This inductance corresponds with the inductance seen at the port of
the net-workin figure 1.8.2, which differs from figure 1.8.1 in the
absence of the inductor 1 do•
1

transient inductance.
Using (1.8.1), expression (1.8.8) changes into:

'4
1' 2
-1 (1.8.9)
d Tl d
Replacing the time constants by their approximate values according

to (1.8.4), this expression becomes:
T'
ld""' T~dO ld (1.8.10)
Subsequently the dirext-axis time constants used in (1.8.2) are

characterized:
TdO : Direct-axis transient open-circuit time constant. Using the
approximate value according to (1.8.4): T , a net~ork to
1
determine this time constant can easily be found by means of

transient time constants.
52
equation (1.8.1b). The time constant T corresponds with the
1
time constant of the circuit shown in figure 1.8.3 in the
case this circuit is open (figure 1.8.3 is comparable with
figure 1.8.2 concerning the term "transient").
1
1 Direct-axis transient short-circuit time constant. Using
d
Td~1
(1.8.4):
4 and (1.8.1e), it can beseen that this time
constant corresponds to the net-work shown in figure 1.8.3
with a closed circuit.
TdO Direct-axis sub-transient open-circuit time constant. Using
the approximate value according to (1.8.4): T , a net-work to
3
determine this time constant can easily be found by means of
equation (1.8.1d). The time constant 1 corresponds with the
3
time constant of the circuit shown in figure 1.8.4 in the
case this circuit is open (figure 1.8.4 is camparabie with
figure 1.8.1 concerning the term "sub-transient").

sub-transient time constants.
Td Direct-axis sub-transient short-circuit time constant. Using

(1.8.4): T~""l; and (1.8.1g), it eau be seen that this time
constant corresponds to the net-work shown in figure 1.8.4
with a closed circuit.
1
1d : Direct-axis damper leakage time constant (see (1.8.1h)).
The approximate values given by the equations (1.8.4) and what

is derived by means of these equations are mentioned to make a link
to literature: except in this section, these approximations will
not be used in this thesis.
53
After Fourier transformation of the equations (1.6.7) and (1.6.4),
the current i (w) can be eliminated from these equations:
1
-q
+ jWT"
1J; (w) = ...,----+-],.-.w-,~..f---1 i ( w) ( 1 .8. 11a)
--q qO q --q
where:
T"
qO = _1-( 1 + 11 qcr) (1.8.11b)
r11q mq
T"
q
= _1_(
r 1 lqcr +
1 1
mq ao )
1 + 1
(1.8.11c)
11 q mq ao
Gomparing the equations (1.8.11a) and (1.3.3b), the fo11owing

expression for the quadrature-axis operational inductance is found:
+ jw1""
1 (w) q 1 ( 1 .8. 12)
--q + jw1" q
qO
In the case of a direct current (w=O), the quadrature-axis
operationa1 inductance equa1s the quadrature-axis synchronous
inductance: 1 (0)=1 , as has a1ready been expressed by (1.3.6b).
--q q
If the current
.
i q is changing rapidly, the change of the flux
linked with the quadrature- axis damper circuit can be neglected.
Hence, in this case, the voltage drop over the resistance r q in
11
figure 1.6.2 and equation (1.6.4) can be neglected. Using the
equations (1.6.4) and (1.6.7) with r . =0, the quadrature-axis
1 .q
sub-transient inductance, which is defined by the quotient of the
rapid1y changing flux 1J; and current i , can be expressed by:
q q
1 1
1" 1 + mq 1qcr (1 8 13)
q acr 1 + 1 • •
mq 1qcr
This inductance corresponds with the inductance as seen at the .port

of the net-workin figure 1.8.5, which can be derived from figure
1.6.2.
54
llqa
lmq
Figure 1.8.5 A net-work todetermine the quadrature-axis

sub-transient inductance.
Using the equations (1.8.11) and (1.8.12), expression (1.8.13) can

be transformed into:
t"
1"~___9_1
q t" q
= lim 1 (w)
W-+<x> -q
(1.8.14)
qO
The time constants and t" are named respective1y, the

t"
qO q •
quadrature-axis sub-transient open-circuit time constant and the
quadrature-axis sub-transient short-circuit time constant. A circuit
with which these time constants correspond is shown in figure 1.8.6
(according to the equations (1.8.11b) and (1.8.11c)).
Figure 1.8.6 A net-work todetermine the quadrature-

axis sub-transient time constants.
55
1.9 The sub-transient behaviour of the synchronous machine
Insection 1.8 the sub-transient ind~ctances ld and 1~ have been

defined for the case the synchronous machine has one damper circuit
on the direct-axis and one damper circuit on the quadrature-axis.
In more general cases, the direct-axis sub-transient inductance is
defined as the quotient of an infinitely fast changing flux ~d and
the corresponding current id:
~~~
11 d
1d =Til" ( 1 • 9. 1a)
1d
The quadrature-axis sub-transient inductance is defined in a
similar way:
wn
1" = q (1.9.1b)
q I"
q
The term "sub-transient behaviour of the synchronous machine" is
used bere for the case in which the cutrent id as well as the
current iq consist of two components: a constant part (IdO and IqO)
and a very fa st changing part (i" and i"):
d q
id 1 dO+ id (1.9.2a)
i
q IJIO+ inq ( 1. 9. 2b)
In addition the excitation winding is supplied by an ideal direct

voltage source:
Hence the fluxes ~d and lJ!q also consist of a constant part

('!'dO and 'l'qO) and a very fast changing part (lJ!d and ~~):
1
'"d
'~' 'I' dO + ''~'d
'" ( 1 ' 9 ' 4a)
'I' + lj!" (1.9.4b)

qO q
These constant parts are given by:
uf
1 1 ( 1 • 9. Sa)
d dO+ rf 1afd
1q I qO (1.9.5b)
Afterexpressing the voltage equations (1.2.45) in the per-unit

system, the expression (1.9.1), 1.9.2), (1.9.3), (1.9.4), and
(1.9.5) can be used to transform the equations into:
56
di
- (1 - l")I dy- r i - 1" d 1"'l .dy
- (1.9.6a)
ud q q qO dt a d d q q dt
di
uq { (ld- 1d)Id0 + : : 1afd} :~- r iq- 1"q ___g_
dt
+ 1"' dy
dl.d dt (1.9.6b)
These equations are used to construct.the equivalent circuits shown

in figure 1.9.1. In these circuits the currents need not be divided
in a constant and a very fast changing part.
-(1 -l")I dy
q q qO dt
iq
+
+
Uq
Figure 1.9.1 The direct-axis (a) and the quadrature axis (b)
equivalent circuits for the sub-transient
behaviour.
In the special case of:
1" = 1"
d q
= 1" ( 1. 9. 7)
a constant rotor angular speed

dy =w (1.9.8)
dt
and
i
0
=0 ( 1. 9. 9)
57
the armature phase voltages can be expressed in the following form
by using the voltage equations (1.9.6) and the Park transformation
(1.2.46):
di
u e"- r i - 1"~ ( 1. 9. 10a)
a a a a dt
di
~ ei;-raib- 1"2
dt (1.9.10b)
di
c-
u = e"- r i 1"--c (1.9.10c)
c c a dt
where e", eb", and e" form a symmetrical three-phase system of
a c
sinusoidal voltages according to:
e" e"cos y + e"sin y (I. 9. I la)

a d q
e"
b
edcos(y-~n) + e~sin(y-~n) (1.9.11b)
e"
c
= e"cos(y-~'IT)
d 3
+ e"sin(y-:±n)
q 3
(1.9.11c)
where
e" -w(l - 1")1 ( 1. 9. 12a)

d q qO
e"
q w{ (ld- l")IdO+ ~: 1 afd} (1.9.12b)
In figure 1.9.2 an equivalent circuit corresponding with the

expressions (1.9.10) is shown •.
Figure 1.9.2 An equivalent circuit corresponding

to equation (1.9.10).
58
2 EXPERTMENTAL DETERMINATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE QUANTITIES
2.1 Introduetion
The coefficients in the equations in the preceding chapter can, in

principle, be calculated from the machine design. Most of the machine
quantities, however, can also be determined from tests. Detailed
descriptions of various tests and of the determination of the
quantities from those tests are given in the IEC recommendation 34-4:
"Methods for determining synchronous machine quantities from test" and
IEC report 34-4A: "Unconfirmed test methods for determining
synchronous machine quantities". These descriptions, however, are
mainly intended to apply to synchronous machines which are connected
with a three-phase rated frequency symmetrical sinusoidal voltage
system. The object of this chapter is to describe some test methods
which are useful for determining the quantities of a synchronous
machine connected with a convertor.
In this chapter special attention will be paid tostandstill .tests.
As early as 1931 Wright used a standstill test to determine the sub-
transient reactances [Wri 31]. Later on Nürnberg introduced a stand-
still test to test large synchronous machines at rated flux and
current, which is normally impossible at the rated speed of rotation
[Nue 53]. Although Nürnberg used test windings in the machine to
conduct his tests, it is also possible to determine the synchronous
inductances by means of a standstill test without those additional
windings [Kov 57; Pre 59]. Such a test is especially of great value
for the determination of the quadrature-axis synchronous inductance,
because other known test methods are rather difficult (see for example
IEC recommendation 34-4). Standstill tests arealso used todetermine
the operational inductances [Sen 56; Bha 63].
In section 2.2 a description of the theory of the .standstill test
will be given, while in section 2.3 the determination of the
synchronous inductances and in section 2.4 the determination of the
operational inductances will be discussed. The synchronous machine is
supposed to be star connected.
As examples the results of the tests on two quite different
synchronous machines will be given and discussed. The first one is an
inverted machine (the excitation winding is on the stator and the
59
armature winding is on the rotor) with the following rating plate
data:
manufacturer Siemens Schuckertwerke AG
apparent power 24 kVA
armature voltage 400 V
armature current 35 A
frequency 50 Hz
rotational frequency: 25 s-1
This machine has a cage damper winding· with solid cylindrical
conductors lying in semi-closed slots in the laminated stator
(inverted machine).
The second one is a solid pole synchronous machine. To allow for the
machine to be loaded by a twelve-pulse rectifier, the three-phase
armature winding of the original machine has been changed. The new
winding consists of two separate three-phase windings displaced n/6
(electric) rad from each other. In this chapter only one three-phase
winding will be used. The rating plate data of this machine using one
three-phase winding are:
manufacturer Heemaf
apparent power 21.4 kVA
armature voltage 380 V
armature current 32.5 A
frequency 50 Hz
rotational frequency: 25 s-1
2.2 Standstill tests
To conduct the standstill test a current is supplied to any two line

terminals of the armature winding. In this chapter the terminals a and
b are used as shown in figure 2.2.1 (i =O· this figure relates to an
c '
inner pole machine). The quantities
u "" ua -~ (2.2. ta)
ljJ lj!b -;pa (2.2.1b)
i ib "" -i a (2.2.1c)
will be measured.
If the rotor is in the direct-axis position with respect to the
60
Figure 2.2.1 The test circuit.
armature winding field axis, the quantities according to (2.2.1)

correspond with the direct-axis quantities (figure 2.2.2a). If,
however, the rotor is in the quadrature axis position with respect to
the armature winding field axis, those quantities correspond with the
quadrature-axis quantities (figure 2.2.2b). As can beseen in figure
2.2.2, the rotor is in the direct axis position with respect to the
armature winding field axis for the rotor angular position y=~n and
y=-~, and in the quadrature axis positionfor the rotor angular
positi~nsy=~ and y=-~n. With (1.2.46), (2.2.1), and ic=O tpe
Figure 2.2.2 The rotor in the direct axis (a} and in the
quadrature axis (b) position with respect to
the armature winding field axis.
61
following expressions can be given for those four angular positions:
-~13i
3
i
q
0 u ., l3ud (2.2.2a)
i ., ~l3i i 0 u - -l3ud (2.2.2b)
d 3 q
id - 0 i _fl3i u - l3u (2.2.2c)

q 3 q
i ~13i u = -13uq 13lj! (2.2.2d)
q 3 q
In this chapter only the angular positions y=-~ and y=3
'IT •
WLll be use d •
To find the four angular positions the rotor is slowly rotated,
while an alternating voltage is applied to the excitation winding.
When the rotor is in a direct axis position with respect to the
armature winding field axis, the (alternating) voltage u will be at
its maximum (u .,0). The voltage u will be zero when the rotor is in
c
a quadrature axis position.
2.3 Determination of the synchronous inductan~es
In the first part of this section a description of the determination

of the synchronous inductances Ld and Lafd by means of the well known
no-load ·saturation and the sustained three-phase short-circuit test
will be given, The secoud part contains the description of the
determination of the synchronous inductances Ld and Lq by means of
standstill tests.
The no-load saturation test is conducted by driving the tested

machine as a generator at rated rotational frequence by a prime-mover.
During this test the excitation current and the armature open-circuit
line voltage are measured simultaneously. Before making the test a
high negative current is applied to the excitation winding, so that
the magnetic circuit is saturated. After switching off this current
the residual line voltage is at its maximum value. During the first
part of the test the excitation current is increased in steps until it
reaches its maximum value. Subsequently it is lowered in steps until
zero.
For the Siemens synchronous machine the resultant no-load saturation
characterestic is given in figure 2.3.1. In addition to the measured
62
600
460
400
360
300
260
200
160
100
60
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 2.3.1 The no-load saturation characteristic of the
Siemens synchronous machine.
x,+: measured values
curveif •-0.111+7.21•10- 3 U +1.059•10- 11 U~+1.655•10- 21 u~
1 0 1
curvelfo•7.225•10- 3 U +8.5•10- 19 u~
2
1
curve\ =0.109+7.224•10- 3 U +1.324•10- 11 U~+1.582•10- 21 u~
3 0 1
values in figure 2.3.1 three approximative curves are given. For the
determination of the synchronous mutual inductance Lafd the second
curve in figure 2.3.1 is used. The substitution of
13
UL = 72 w 1 afd 1 fO (2.3.1)
in the expression for the linear part of this curve results in:
Lafd = 360 mH.
The mutual inductance Lafd of the Reemaf synchronous machine has
been determined in a similar way: Lafd = 345 mH.
The sustained three-phase short-circuit test is also conducted by
driving the machine as a generator at rated rotational frequency by a
prime-mover. In order to get a well-defined starting point for thé
test the magnetic circuit is temporarily saturated by means of a high
negative excitation current (with open armature circuit). During the
63
test the excitation current is increased in steps from zero to its
maximum value, while the excitation and the armature current are
measured simultaneously.
In figure 2.3.2 the resultant three-phase sustained short-circuit
characteristic is given for the Siemens synchronous machine. In
40
2·:
36 l
la
(A) 1. 5
1
30 .s
26
4 4.5 6
-
IfO (A)
5.5 6
Figure 2.3.2 The three-phase sustàined short-circuit

characteristic of the Siemens synchronous machine
x: measured values
1: curve Ia=6.96(If0-0.075)
2: curve Ia=-6.96(If0-0.075)
addition to the measured values in this figure two approximative line

segments are given. Neglecting the armature resistance, with the
direct-axis flux equation
Lafd ~IfO = Ld /2 8Ia (2.3.2)
and the value of Lafd mentioned before, the following value can be
withdrawn from figure 2.3.2: Ld 36.6 mH.
The analogous determination for the Reemaf synchronous machine
resulted in: Ld = 22.2 mH.
The direct-axis synchronous inductance is the quotient of the flux

~dO and the current IdO' while the excitation current is zero. When
this inductance should be measured by means of a standstill test, the
64
rotor should be in the direct-axis position with respect to the
armature winding field axis (y=-rr/6); (2.2.2a) gives:
'1'0 2
(- 73) = Ld (-313 IQ) (2.3.3a)
The quadrature axis synchronous inductance can be determined when the

rotor is in the quadrature-axis position with respect to the armature
winding field axis (y=rr/3), (2.2.2c) gives:
Ijl 0 2 TI
(- 73) 1 q (- 73 IQ) y =3 (2.3.3b)
A very easy way to determine the flux associated with a winding in

the case the winding is supplied by a direct current, is not yet
known. Most known methods are based on the integration of the voltage
equation of the winding:
u =R i + dljl (2.3.4a)
dt
or:
fudt = R fidt + ~lji (2.3.4b)
Kovacs advised the circuit shown in figure 2.3.3 for the measurement
of self-inductance [Kov 57]. In the first part of his test the switch
Figure 2.3.3 Circuit for the measurement of self-inductance

given by Kovacs.
s1 is open and s2 is closed. The current in the circuit is adjusted by

means of the controllable resistor. When the current has its steady-
state value (direct current), the switch s1 is closed: the winding
voltage is zero. From this moment fidt is measured by means of a shunt
and an integrating volt meter (in this case a flux meter) or an
oscilloscoop. The test is finished when the current (and the current
in the damper circuit) is about zero. Because Judt is zero during the
test and because the resistance R is known, equation (2,3.4b) give·s
directly the change of the flux corresponding to the.change of the
current from its starting value to zero. The quotient of these changes
gives the desired value of the self-inductance. When a flux meter is
65
used, the reading of the meter is hindered by the movement of the
pointer at the moment of switching on s 1 • The same problem arises
when the test is finished. Because s 1 is not an ideal switch, the
stationary value of the current i is nat exactly zero. This results in
a moving pointer of the flux meter at the end of the test. When an
oscilloscoop is used, the problem is how to determine the integral
with reasonable accuracy. Also the large time-constant of the circuit
shown in figure 2.3.3 (with s 1 closed) counts against this circuit.
Instead of eliminating the term Judt, Jones eliminated the term
Rfidt in equation (2.3.4b) [Jon 58; Jon 67]. He used the Wheatstone-
bridge circuit shown in figure 2.3.4. After the switch is put in

given by Jones.
position 1, the bridge is balanced, so that the pointer of the flux

meter ~ is stationary. Next the supply connections are reversed
(position 2). Aftera transient disturbance the bridge will be in
balance again: the direct current has been inverted and the pointer is
stationary. The displacement of this pointer is directly related to
the change of the flux associated with the winding. This test method
is rather simple for small machines. Because of the rather large time-
constauts of large machines (some seconds), the test of large machines
takes rather much time. During this time the machine is being heated
up and the resistance of the winding is increasing. Because of the
change of the resistance the bridge will nat be in balance at the end
of the test: the pointer of the flux meter keeps on moving. Another
problem caused by the heating up is the occurrence of (thermic)
contact voltages. The balance of the bridge may be disturbed by these
voltages: if, for example, the bridge is in balance when the switch is
66
in position 1, the bridge doesnothave to be in balance when the
switch is in position 2.
Because of the slip rings in the armature circuit, neither of the
methods mentioned befere can be used to test inverted machines (like
the Siemens machine used here), unless the slip-ring brush centacts
are bridged over.
With modern digital wave-form analysers, as they are used nowadays,
the use. of equation (2.3.4b) as a whole is no problem. Such an
instrument is used here to determine the synchronous inductances Ld
and L • The test circuit used here is shown in figure 2.3.5. The
q

used here.
description of the test metbod will be given with the help of a

saturation characteristic as shown in figure 2.3.6. Before making the
Figure 2.3.6 Saturation characteristic of a. winding.
test a high negative current is applied to the winding by putting the

switch in position 1 and triggering the thyristor. The current can be
adjusted by means of the controllable resistor and should have a value
which is so high that the magnetic circuit is saturated (point A in
figure 2.3.6). Subsequently the current is cut by putting the switch
in position 0. The winding voltage is limited by the resistor R • The
1
67
magnetic circuit corresponding to the winding is now in a state
corresponding with point B in figure 2.3.6: the starting point of the
test. The controllable resistor is adjusted so that the direct current
will have its desired value in the final steady state and the switch
is put in position 2. The test is started by triggering the thyristor.
During the test the winding current and voltage are recorded. In case
of an inverted machine two additional brushes should be used to
measure this voltage. When the current change is becoming too small
the test is stopped. Next, the integrals Judt and fidt over the test
period are numerically determined and the resistor R is determined on
the basis of the last measured values of the voltage and the current.
In this way the thermic influence on the resistance is practically
eliminated. The change of the flux can now be found by means of
equation (2.3.4b). Because the value of fudt is only a little higher
than the value of Rjidt a very accurate measuring instrument should be
used in order to keep the error in the flux change on an acceptable
value.
In figure 2.3.7 the results of the described test are given for the
1 '3
1.2
1. i
rdO
(Vs)
1 '3
1 ,z
l.J
ro
(V~)
,g ,g
.8 .a
.7 7
.6 .6
.s .s
,4 ,4
.3 .3
,z ,z
.l
0
0 20
a
40
-
IdO (A)
60
.l
0
0 20 40
b
60 80
-
IqO (A)
100
Figure 2.3.7 The determination of the synchronous inductances

Ld (a) and Lq (b) by means of a standstill test:
x: measured values
a: curve Id 0 =29.1~d0+3.077~~ 0
b: curve IqOc51.8~q0+54.98~~0
68
Siemens synchronous machine. Besides the measured values an
approximative curve is given in each figure. From the linear parts of
those curves the following values can he deduced:
34.4 mH and L
q
= 19.3 mH.
The synchronous inductances of the Reemaf synchronous machine can he
determined in a similar way: Ld = 20.8 mR and Lq = 13.5 mH.
The fact that the values of the direct-axis synchronous inductance
Ld found in the first part of this section differ from those found in
the second part can be due to the measuring error in the determination
of the change of flux in the second part: this error is relatively
high, because fudt and Rfidt in equation (2.3.4b) have the same order
of magnitude. That is why, in the circumstances, the values given in
the first part are preferred.
2.4 Determination of the operational inductances
This section contains the theory of the determination of the

operational inductances by means of standstill tests and the results
of these test for the Reemaf and the Siemens synchronous machine.
When the machine is at standstill = 0), the voltage equations

(1.2.45) can be written in the following form:
Ri - (2.4.1a)
ad
u i
=- R (2.4.1b)
q a q
Using the Fourier transformation, these equations change into:
!!d(w) - Ra!d(w) - jw~d(w) (2.4.2a)
u (w)
-q
- Ra-q
i (w) - jw•'•q(w)
:t:
(2.4.2b)
Insection 1.3 the operational inductances Ld (w), Ld(w), and L (w)

- 0 - -q
have been introduced. The direct-axis operational inductance 1d (w) is
0
used when the excitation current is a constant direct current (current
source) and will be determined using an open excitation circuit, so
that (1.3.5a) can be written as:
(2.4.3a)
On the other hand, the direct-axis operational inductance bd(w) is
69
used when the excitation winding is supplied by an ideal voltage
source. This inductance will be determined using a short-circuited
excitation winding. so that (1.3.3a) changes into:
(2.4.3b)
For reasous of completeness the quadrature-axis flux equation
(1.3.3b) is also given here:
~
-q
(w) = -q
L (w)i (w)
-q
(2.4.3c)
Substitution of the equations (2.4.3) in {2.4.2) results in:
!:!d(w) + jwl:!do(w)}!d(w)
{R if 0 (2.4.4a)
a
!:!d(w) - {R + jw!;d(w)}!d(w) uf 0 (2.4.4b)
a
u (w) {R + jwL (w) }i (w) (2.4.4c)
-q a -q -q
For the determination of the direct-axis operational inductances.
the rotor is placed in the direct-axis position with respect to the
armature winding field axis. Using an open excitation circuit the
expressions (2.4.4a) and (2.2.2a) give an expression for the
determination of Ld (w):
- 0
u(w) 2
~ = {Ra+ jwbd (w)} 13 !(w) (2.4.5a)
0 3
The operational inductance l:!d(w) is determined using a short-circuited
excitation winding; the expressions (2.4.4b) and (2.2.2a) give:
1T
y = -- (2.4.5b)
6
Using the expressions (2.4.4c) and (2.2.2c). the quadrature-axis
operational inductance can be determined when the rotor is in the
quadra~ure-axis position with respect to the armature winding field
axis:
==- =
u(w)
3
v.:>
{R
a -q
2
+ jwL (w) }-13 i(w)
3 -
y = 1T-3 (2.4.5c)
After multiplying by 13 the expressions (2.4.5) have the following

form:
u(w) = 2{R + jwL(w)} i(w) (2.4.6)
- a - -
so. the determination of the operational inductances comes to the
determination of an impedance:
~(w) = R(w) + jX(w) (2.4. 7a)
where
R(w) = 2R - 2wim{L(w)} (2.4.7b)
a
X(w) = 2wRe{L(w)} (2.4.7c)
To determine the resistance R and the reaetanee x. the measuring
70
circuit shown in figure 2.2.1 is supplied by a sinusoirlal voltage
souree the frequency as well as the amplitude of which are adjustable;
the applied voltage U, the current I and the active power P are
measured. The resistance R and the reaetanee X are determined by:
p
R =v (2.4.8a)
(2.4.8b)
It appears from the experiments that the resistance R and reaetanee

X do not only depend on the frequence f, but also on the current I.
An example of this phenomenon is given in figure 2.4.1, in which the
resistance R as a function of the current I with the frequency f as a
parameter is given for the case the rotor is in the direct-axis
position with respect to the armature winding field axis and the
excitation winding is short-circuited.
2
I0
l(~) y y y
f2l f2l 121 121
;:;{ ~
ld ;:;{ ;:;{
+ + +
'I'
+ + ~
~
~
<!> 0 <!>
x x
x x
x x +
+ +
0
+ + +
-
10
~ "'
(!) "'
(!) "'
(!) "'
(!) I (A)
-l 0 1
10 10 10
Figure 2.4.1 The resistance R in the case the rotor is in the

direct-axis position with respect to the armature
winding field axis and the excitation winding is
short-circuited:
(!) 60 Hz X 600 Hz ;:;{ 3000 Hz
"' 150 Hz <!> 900 Hz B 6000 Hz
+ 300 Hz + 1500 Hz Y 5000 Hz
71
By means of figure 2.4.2 it can be made plausible that hysteresis is
an important factor in this phenomenon. As it can be seen in this
Figure 2.4.2 Some minor loops in the hysteresis loop

of a winding.
figure, hysteresis is of little importance when the current changes

are relatively small. When, however, the current changes increase, the
hysteresis loss, and also the supplied power, will increase. As a
result the measured resistance will increase (equation {2.4.8a)).
Assuming that the hysteresis losscan be nèglected for I=O.JA, the
hysteresis loss as a function of the frequency f and the current I can
be found by:
Physt(f,I) = P(f,l) - RI=O.lAI 2 (2.4.9)
A diagram of this function, in which measured values are used, is
given in figure 2.4.3. The hysteresis loss is expected to be directly
proportional to the frequency. This would result in straight lines at
72
2
10
lphyst
(W) /
X I tA
(!)
1' 1=4A
l=2A /+
/"'
10
1
1'/
/
/ /<!>
/ (!)
<!>/
/ x
/
0 x/
10
/<!>
,fo
/
/
/
x f (Hz)
-1
10
10
3
10 •
Figure 2.4.3 The hysteresis loss corresponding with the
increase of the resistance in figure 2.4.1.
an angle of 45 degrees with respect to the frequency axis in figure

2.4.3. The deviation from these straight (dashed) lines are probably
caused by the fact that the flux path depends on the frequency and by
measuring errors. Fromthis discussion may be concluded that the
resistance R should be determined using a relatively small current.
Using Ra=0.232~, the resistances -wim{1} corresponding to the
operational inductances of the Siemens machine as functions of the
frequency f are shown in figure 2.4.4 (I=0.1A). In figure 2.4.5 these
resistances are shown for the Reemaf machine (R =0.12W; I=0.1A). A
a
remarkable difference between those two figures is the way in which
the resistance depends on the frequency: for the solid pole machine
(Heemaf) the increase of the resistance with respect ·to the frequency
is rather constant, whereas the resistances of the Siemens machinewith
the cage damper winding are relatively low for the lower frequency
73
r(~)
(!)
(!) -wim{~do} !
.t. -wim{~d} (!)
+ -wim{L-q }
!
(!)
+
4>
(!)
(!) +
.t.
(!)
+
.t.
(!) +
(!) A
+
(!)
+ A
+
IÖI
ld uf
4>
~--L-~~~~~~--~~wu~~~~~~~~--~~~ww~S
10
3 4
10
-
f (Hz)
10
Figure 2.4.4 The resistance corresponding with the imaginary

part of the operational inductances of the
Siemens synchronous machine.
2
10
+
c:l-wim{!,:d }
0
.t. -wim{!:d} + ED
I
10 + -wim{L } +
-q ED
+
+ ti&
+
+ ti&
~
+ ~
(!)
+ ""
-I
10
ld 10
2
10
3 4
10
-
f (Hz)
6
10
Figure 2.4.5 The resistance corresponding with the imaginary
part of the operational inductances of the
Heemaf synchronous machine.
74
range, but increase rapidly in the higher frequency range. This rapid
increase is caused by the relatively strong skin effect of a solid
cylindrical conductor placed in a semi-closed slot [Swa 62]. Another
important difference between the two machines is the influence of the
excitation winding on the direct-axis resistance. As can be seen in
figure 2.4.5 the difference between an open and a short-circuited
excitation winding is very small in the high frequency range for the
Reemaf machine. On the other hand the influence of the excitation
winding for the Siemens machine is rather clear for the whole frequency
range measured.
In the figures 2.4.6 and 2.4.7 the real parts of the operational
inductances are given as functions of the frequency for, respectively,
the Siemens and the Reemaf synchronous machine. Because the real parts
depend on the current I, this current is used as a parameter in these
figures. This dependence, which is also caused by hysteresis, can be
explained with the help of figure 2.4.2: the quotient of the change of
flux and the corresponding current change gets a larger value when the
current change gets a larger value.
As can be seen in the figures 2.4.6 and 2.4.7, the real parts of the
quadrature-axis operational inductance of the Reemaf machine depends
much more on the frequency as well as on the current than the other
real parts of the operational inductances do. This phenomenon is
caused by the absence of a damper winding: the eddy currents in the
solid rotor steel have the damping action. In 2.4.7 can be seen
that the difference between Re{1d } and Re{1d} for the Reemaf machine
0
is negligible small in the whole frequency range measured. As can be
seen in figure 2.4.5 the difference between Im{1do} and Im{~d} for the
high frequence range is also very small. In other words, in the Reemaf
machine the effect of the excitation winding can be neglected in the
high frequency range.
75
4.5
5
lRe{!:do}
(mH) ~
x ~
'l'
4
~ x
ê
~
+
3.5 ~ ~
è ~ I
3 èiS
111
2.5 111
2
1 .s !::0 ·IA
(!)
6 l::0.2A
+ I:0.4A
X I:::!A
.5
0
Hf
~
+ !:4A
l::2A
lrf lef
~
10
-
f (Hz)
10
5
3.5
lRe{!;d}
~ i i
2.5
3 (mH) i •
• ~ 11
ê
2
l .s !::0 .tA
(!)
6 J:::0.2A
+ !:::0.4A
X !:::lA
.s ~ !:::2A
0
td
1' !:::4A
10
2
10
3 104
-
f (Hz)
10
5
4
lRe{L-q }
~
•• • • •
3.5
3
(mH)
i i
2.5 ê
2
l. 5 !:::0 ·lA
(!)
4 !::0.2A
+ l:::0.4A
X !=lA
.s ~ !:::2A
0
td
+ l:::4A
10
2
10
3
10
4
-
f (Hz)
10
s
Figure 2.4.6 The real parts of the operational inductances
of the Siemens synchronous machine.
76
3
te{~do}
2.5 (mH)
2
I
1. 5 (!)l=O. JA
"'l=0.2A
~ I ii
+ I=0.4A
X !=lA
a ili ~
~ l=2A •
.5
0 1
10
+ l=4A
10
2
10
3 4
10
-
f (Hz)
10
5
3
te{~d}
2.5 (mH)
2
l=O .JA i ~ I ii
(!)
1. 5
"'!:0.2A
+ !:0.4A
X !=lA
~ ili ~
~ l=2A
ê
-
.5
+ !:4A f (Hz)
0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 JO 10
6.5
6
lRe{L-q }
(mH)
~
5.5
5 x
4.5 +
+ ~
4
"'
(!) x
3.5 +
~
+
3 x
"'
(!)
~
2.5
~ x $
2 ~ x
!:0 .JA ~ ~
(!)
~
~
1 .5
"' !:0 .2A
+ !:0.4A é
X !=lA è
-
.5 ~ l=2A
+ l=4A f (Hz)
0 2 3 4 5
Jd 10 10 10 . 10
Figure 2.4.7 The real parts of the operational inductances
of the Reemaf synchronous machine.
77
3 THE THREE-PHASE BRIDGE CONVERTOR
3.1 Introduetion
After discussing the syncbronous machine in the preceding chapters,

in this chapter attention will be paid to some aspects of the other
important part of the combination of the synchronous machine with
convertor: the three-phase bridge convertor.
As mentioned insection 1.5, the per-unit system will be used in
this chapter. However, the equations which will be given in this
chapter differ hardly from the corresponding equations designated in
actual units: only the symbols for the resistance (r4R) and the
inductance (l~L) are different (the value of an angle in the per-unit
system equals the value of this angle expressed in radians).
Figure 3.1.1 The base circuit for the description

of the convertor.
souree (for a example a ~attery) and u~, ~· and uc are three

voltage sourees according to:
u ûcos (wt) (3.1.1a)

a
2
ûcos(wt - 31T) (3.1.1b)
~
ûcos(wt 4
u - -1T) (3.1.1c)
c 3
78
where w is a constant angular frequency and û is a constant amplitude.
The thyristors will be considered as ideal switches; resistances in
the circuit are neglected.
Each ~ (electric) rad a thyristor or sometimes, as will be shown
later on, a pair of thyristors is triggered; the sequential order of
triggering is: -T -T -T -T -T -T -. The convertor is controlled by
1 6 3 2 5 4
varying the delay angle a: the time in electrical angular measure by
which the triggering instant is delayed with respect to the starting
instant of the conduction of this thyristor in the case all thyristors
are continuously triggered and the direct current has a constant value.
Thanks to the symmetry of the circuit 3.1.1) and of the
currents and voltages in this circuit, the description of the
convertor can be restricted to an interval ~ rad of length. In this
chapter the interval between the angle corresponding to the triggering
instant of thyristor T and the angle corresponding to the triggering
1
instant of thyristor T will be used. When all thyristors were
6
continuously triggered, thyristor T would turn on at the instant at
1
which the voltage u reaches the same (positive) value as the voltage
a
u (i >0); this instant corresponds with the angle wt=-~ • Hence, the
c g 3
considered interval is given by:
1T
a - < wt < a. (3.1.2)
3
In section 3.2 attention will be paid to the circuit shown in
figure 3.1.1 with lc=O, whereas section 3.3 will contain some aspects
of the circuit shown in figure 3.1.1 with =~.
3.2 The convertor without commutation inductances
In this sectien the commutation inductances 1 in figure 3.1.1 are

c
supposed to be zero, so that any commutation in the convertor proceeds
instantaneously (1 >0). Hence, if the current i is positive, always
g g
two thyristors are conducting. In succession these pairs of thyristors
are: T1-T ; T -T ; T -T ; T -T ; T -T ; T -T •
4 1 6 3 6 3 2 5 2 5 4
In the considered interval (3.1.2) the pair of thyristors T and T is
1 4
of interest; for this interval figure 3.1.1 can be simplified to
figure 3.2.1. Using (3.1.1) the voltage uab in this figure is given by:
79
l3ûcos(wt + ~) (3.2.1)
T4
Figure 3.2.1 The base circuit for the convertor

description in this section.
When the thyristors T and T are conducting, the following

1 4
differential equation may be used:
di
1~ (3.2.2)
gdt
The next part of this section deals with the case where the
thyristors are triggered by means of short pulses. The case where the
thyristors are triggered by means of long pulses (~n in length) will
be considered in the last part of this section. A three-phase diode
bridge rectifier corresponds to a convertor the thyristors of which
are triggered by means of long pulses with the delay angle a equal to
zero.
A distinction will be drawn between intermittent and continuous flow

of the direct current.
Regularly thyristor T is triggered at the beginning of the considered

1
interval (3.1.2). Because, in the cons.idered case, the current in the
circuit shown in figure 3.2.1 is zero at this instant (ig(a-~)=0),
thyristor T should also be triggered at this instant. This may be
4 n
done by repeating each trigger pulse once after 3 rad. Another
condition that bas to be fulfilled at the moment of triggering is:
uab>Ub (see figure 3.2.1). Using (3.2.1) this condition can be written
as:
80
(3.2.3)
If this condition is fulfilled, the current i in the circuit

g
shown in figure 3.2.1 will start to increase at the triggering
moment. This increase will continue until the voltage uab equals the
voltage Ub. From this moment the current will decrease until it is
zero: the thyristors quench. The time in electrical angular measure
elapsed from the beginning until the end of the conduction is called
the conduction angle ~. In this case (intermittent flow of direct
current) this angle is smaller than j rad.
Using the initial condition ig(a-})=0, integrating (3.2.2) results
in:
wt
g Wl
1
i (wt) "'--
g
J (uab -ub)d{wt)
'lT
(3.2.4)
a-3
At the end of the conduction interval (wt=a- j +i;) , the current i g
equals zero. So, it fellows from (3.2.4) that the integral of
uab-Ub over the conduction interval is zero. This is illustrated in
the figures 3.2.2.
u u
I I
I ~
-!!.1 ,o' n
I
31 I
I
I 1
I I
I
! '
a b
Figure 3.2.2 Intermittent flow eperation of a rectifier (a)

and an inverter (b).
81
Substituting (3.2.1) into (3.2.4) gives an expression for the
current i :
g
ub 1T 13û {s1n
. ( wt+-
'IT) -s1n 1T)}
• ( a--
i (wt) = wl (a- -wt) + ---
g g 3 wl
g
6 6
'IT 1T
a - < wt < a - + ~ < a (3.2.5)
3 3
With the condition i (a-~+~)=0 an expression from which ~ as a
g 3
function of û, Ub and a can be determined, is found:
U~ = 213ûsin(~)cos(a-~+~) (3.2.6)
b 2 6 2
In figure 3.2.3 Ub related to ~l3û is given as a function of a with Ç
as a parameter according to (3.2.6) (dashed lines).
In steady-state intermittent-flow eperation only a part of each of
the dasbed curves in figure 3.2.3 is used. Besides the condition
1.3
1. 2 t ~/3û
ub
1•l 1T
l
.9
.s
•7
.(i
.<;
,4
.j
.2
·I
0
- •I
-.2
-.j
-.4
-.5
.(i
- .1
-.a
-.9
-1
1.l
Figure 3.2.3 The convertor operatien using

short triggering pulses.
82
O<t;<J, the condition uab>Ub according to (3.2.3) gives a limit to
the usable region in figure 3.2.3: the corresponding curve piece in
this figure, which equals a part of the curve for i;=O, is marked
with an a.
Another limiting condition is found in the case of inverter
operation: for steady-state eperation the current i has to be zero
g
before uab-Ub becomes positive. If this is not the case, the current
ig starts to increase again at the moment uab-Ub attains a positive
value. Hence, the condition uab (a-j +i;)<Ub has to be fulfilled.
Using (3.2.1) this condition may be expressed as:
/3ûcos(a-i +0 < ub (3.2.7)
Using (3.2.6), the limiting curve piece b in figure 3.2.3 is

deduced from this condition.
The curve piece c in figure 3.2.3, which equals a part of the
curve for .;= 31T , closes the borders of the steady-state intermittent-
flow region in this figure. The delay angle a corresponding to the
meeting point of the curve pieces a and c is called the critical
delay angle a (a =0.176) [Sch 80]. This angle is the lower bound
er er
of the delay angle a for the steady-state intermittent-flow
operation: the corresponding conduction angle .; equals J• as is shown
in figure 3.2.4a.
a b
Figure 3.2.4 The delay angles acr (a) and a~r (b).
83
The delay angle a corresponding to the meeting point of the curve
pieces b and c is called a' • This angle is the upper bound of the
er
delay angle a for the steady-state intermittent-flow operatien with
the maximum conduction angle for intermittent flow (~~i). This is
illustrated in figure 3.2.4b.
As can be seen, the figures 3.2.4a and 3.2.4b are complementary.
It can be concluded from these figures that: a~r=n-acr'
Using (3.2.5), the average value of the current i for
g
intermittent-flow operation eau be expressed by:
I =lf i gd(wt)=-
gO rr
1T
rrwl
g
3
-{-/3û~sin(a-~)-!U
6 b
~ 2 +213ûsin(~)sin(a-:!+~)}
2 6 2
a3 (3.2.8)
The value of ~ needed in this expression can be found (numerically)

by solving equation (3.2.6). In the limit case of ~=i (the border
to continuous-flow operation: c), using (3.2.6) and (3.2.8) results
in an analytic expression for the transition current:
lim1 = 313û(l 1T) •

(3.2.9)
c.ngO 1rw1 -msma
s) g
Ç2~!i~~2~~-!12~_2!_!~~-~!!~S~-S~!!~~!
In the case of a steady-state operation with a continuous flow of
the direct current the condition i (a-~ ) .. i (a) has to be fulfilled.
g g 3
Hence,integrating (3.2.2) results in:
Ct
J (uab- Ub)d(wt) =0 (3.2.10)

a-:!!.
3
Substituting the expression for uab (3 .• 2.1) into this equation
gives an expression for the steady-state eperation with a continuous
flow of direct current:
ub = ~3ûcosa ; 0 ;;> a < 1T (3.2.11)
In the situation considered here (1 =0; the resistances in the

c
circuit are neglected), the direct current i cannot be determined.
g
In sectien 3.3 more attention will be paid to a special case (1 =co)
g
84
of steady-state operation with a continuous flow of the direct
current.
The curve piece corresponding to (3.2.11) in figure 3.2.3 consists
of three parts:
c a er <a<a'er
e a' <et<n
er
For the values of the delay angle corresponding with the curve
piece d, which equals a border of the intermittent-flow region, a
continuous transition between intermittent and continuous flow
operation is possible. Normally the curve pieces d and e are not
used: these operating points can only be reached by using unorthodox
procedures [Sch 80].
~~~~~--!!igs~!!~s-2x_~~~~~-~f_1~~s_E~!!~!
When applying a long trigger pulse - the pulse used here is jn rad·
in length - the number of operation modes is larger than in the case
of applying a short trigger pulse. Besides the continuous-flow and
the "normal" intermittent-flow eperation modes, also the operation
modes with refiring (the thyristors T and T are conducting twice
1 4
in the interval a-j<wt<a) and with delayed firing (the thyristors
T and T are not fired at the triggering instant wt=a-j, but at a
1 4
later instant) can occur.
"Normal" intermittent flow

-------------------------
Like in the case of triggering by means of short pulses, in this
case in the "normal" intermittent-flow mode (figure 3.2.2) the
condition uab (a-j)> Ub has to be fulfilled. In the borderline case
this condition corresponds to the border a of the "normal"
intermittent-flow region in figure 3.2.6.
In the inverter operation mode the condition uab<Ub has to be
fulfilled at the end of the considered interval a-j< wt<a. If this
is not the case the conduction of the thyristor T and T starts
1 4
again at the instant corresponding with u =Ub (see "Refiring in the
ab
85
inverter operation,mode" later on in this subsection). In figure
3.2.5a a borderline case is given. Using (3.2.1) the condition
uab(~)<Ub can be expressed as:
(3.2.12)
- wt
a b
Figure 3.2.5 Triggering by means of long pulses:

a) a borderline case for the "normal"
intermittent-flow operation;
b) an example of delayed-triggering
operation.
The border curve piece f in figure 3.2.6 corresponds with this

condit ion.
The third border of the "normal" intermittent-flow region
corresponds with a conduction angle i; =j: curve piece c in figure
3.2.6. The meeting point of this curve pieèe and the curve piece f
corresponds with the critica! delay angle a' •
er
For the region described bere, which is circumscribed by the curve
pieces a, f, and c, the expressions for the conduction angle ~
(3.2.6), for the direct current i (3.2.5), for the average value of
g
this current I (3.2.8), and for the ~verage value of IgO on the
go
border c (3.2.9) are still operative.
86
!?~!~:t~~-!i!i!!.S
If the thyristors T and T are triggered at an instant at which
1 4
uab<Ub and Ig=O, they will notstart to conduct (at once). If the
voltage uab acquires a greater value than the voltage Ub during the
interval a.-i<wt<a, the thyristors T and T will turn on as yet.
1 4
The instant at which they turn on corresponds with an angle wt=Ç-J
(see figure 3.2.5b). Using (3.2.1), an expression for the
determination of ~ can be found:
l3ûcos(ç-2!_) = U (3.2.13)
6 b
1. 06
1 .os h
1.04
ub 1.03
1~13û
1. 3
1 .z 1. 02
1.1 h. 1.01
1 1
refiring~
.9 9
.a .98
•7 .97
.6 .96
.s .95
0 a 1T
.4 er 6
.3
.z
·l
a
0
a
-. l er
-.z
-.3
-.4
-.5
-.6
-. 7
-.8
-.9 efiring
-1
-1.1
Figure 3.2.6 The convertor operation using long pulses.
87
So, the angle ç can be used to give a relation between Ub and û.
The operating region in which the phenomenon described here occurs,
will be called the delayed-firing region. In this region the
convertor functions like a convertor with a delay angle Ç.
In this region the thyristors T and T will only turn on if the
1 4
condition /3û>Ub is fulfilled. This leads to the border curve piece h
in figure 3.2.6.
An expression for the current i is found by using (3.2.13) and
g
(3.2.5) with a=Ç:
i (wt) = 13û{(Ç-.:!!.- wt)cos(Ç - .:!!.) + sin(wt +

g wl
g
3 6 i> - sin(Ç - i>};
'IT
ç - < wt < ç - .:!!. + !; (3.2.14)
3 3
The value of the conduction angle !; can be determined by means of
equation (3.2.6) with a=Ç. Subsequently the average value of the
direct current IgO can be determined by using (3.2.8) with a=ç.
Because the current ig is periodic with angular period j, the initial
condition
' i g (a-.:!!.)=0 can be replaced by the end condition i g (a)=O.
3
Using (3.2.14) in the limit case wt=a, this end condition results in
the boundary condition:
(ç - j - a)cos(ç - g> + sin(a + ~) - sin(Ç - ~) = 0 (3.2.15)
The border curve piece g in figure 3.2.6 is found by using this

expression and expression (3.2.13).
The border between the region with delayed firing and the region
with "normal" intermittent-flow is formed by a part of the curve
piece a.
~~f!E!~g_!~-!~~-!~~!!!i~!-2~~!~!!2~-~2~~
The region of refiring in the rectifier operation mode in figure
3.2.6 can be reached by crossing the border g from the region with
delayed triggering. In the region described. bere, the current i g is
positive at the instant thyristor T is triggered (ig(a-i)=ig(a)>O).
1
As a result, thyristor T will turn on at this instant (thyristor T
1 4
was already conducting}. The characteristic feature of refiring is
that the thyristors quench before uab gets a larger value than Ub and
turn on again at the instant corresponding to uab(wt)=Ub (figure
3.2.7a). Hence, in the refiring eperation mode two conduction
88
intervals for the thyristors T and r can be distinguished in the
1 4
interval a-i<wt<~ (~ is the total conduction angle in this
interval):
'lT 2 (3.2.16a)
I ~-3 < Wt < ~-3'IT+Ç
II ç-'lT < wt < a (3.2.16b)

3
In the interval II the expression for the current i (3.2.14) can be
g
-J.
I
I
a b
Figure 3.2.7 Refiring in the rectifier (a) and in

the inverter (b) operatien mode.
used; the integration of equation (3.2.2) gives an expression for

the current i in the interval I:
g
WJ,t
(u -u )d(wt)+i (~-~)· a--1T < wt < ~--2TI+Ç
i (wt)
g 1T ab b g 3 ' 3 3 (3.2.17)
a-3
Using the expression for uab (3.2.1), the boundary equation
i (a-~ )=i (a), the expression for i
g 3 g g
in the interval II (3.2.14) and
the relation between Ub' û, and Ç (3.2.13), the expression (3.2.17)
can be written as:
13û
i (wt) = --{cos a- sin(ç-~) +
g Wl 6
sin(wt+~) - (wt-Ç+~'lT)cos(ç-~)};
g
a-~< wt < ~-~'lT+Ç (3.2.18)
Using the condition that the current i is zero at the end of
g
89
interval I ((3,2.16a)), expression (3.2.18) can be used to find the
conduction angle i;,:
cosa. - sin(!;-~) - cos(!;,+!;) - i';,cos(t;-~) =0 (3.2.19)
The average value of the direct current can be determined by using

the expressions for i (3.2.18) and (3.2.14):
g
= ~
TITI
1~-~n+Ç i d(wt)
g
+ ~
1T
Ja.
'ITg
i (dwt)
a.-3 ç-3
313û {<t;,-'!!+t;-a.) cos a. +sin a. -sin(!;, +1:;)-i';,sin(t;-'!!) +( 1-~€;: 2 )cos(z:;-!!}
= 1TW1 3 6 6J
g
(3.2.20)
The value of i;, needed in this expression can be found by solving
(3.2.19).
The transition from the refiring rectifier operation mode to the
continuous-flow operation mode is found by substituting !';,=~ into
equation (3.2.19) and using (3.2.13), which results in:
/3ûcos a = ~Ub (3.2.21)
The border d in figure 2.3.6 corresponds with this expression. The

average value of the direct current as a function of a. for this border,
the transition current, can be found numerically by using the
equations (3.2.19) and (3.2.20) in the limit case of i';,=~.
Refiring may also occur in the inverter operation mode: the region
of refiring in the inverter operation mode in figure 3.2.6 can be
reached by crossing the border f from the "normal" intermittent-flow
region. In the region of figure 3.2.6 described here, thyristor T
1
turns on at the triggering instant (wt=a.-i) and the thyristors T1
and T quench before uab gets a larger value than Ub. At the instant
4
corresponding to uab=Ub(wt=t;-~), the thyristors turn on again
(figure 3.2.7b).
The two conduction intervals in the interval considered a.-'!!<wt<a
3
are:
90
TI
I a-- (3.2.22a)
3
TI
II ç-- < wt < a (3.2.22b)
3
As these intervals correspond with the intervals in the case of
refiring in the rectifier operatien mode (3.2.16), the expression for
i in interval I (3.2.18), the expression for i in the interval II
g g
(3.2.14), the expression for ~ (3.2.19) and the expression for IgO
(3.2.20) for refiring in the rectifier eperation mode can also be used
in the case of refiring in the inverter operatien mode.
The border to the continuous-flow operatien is given by the curve
piece e in figure 3.2.6. This curve piece is characterized by
equation (3.2.21).
The third border j in figure 3.2.6 corresponds to the condition that
the voltage uab should be lower than the voltage uac at the end of the
interval considered: u b(a)<u (a) (Ifu b(a)>u (a), the transfer of
a ac a ac
the direct current from the arm with thyristor T to the arm with
4
thyristor T does not succeed: conduction through). This condition
6
leads to a<TI (see 3.2.7b).
Continuous flow of the direct current
-------------------------------------
The continuous-flow eperation using long triggering pulses is the
same as the continuous-flow eperation using short triggering pulses;
the corresponding curve piece in figure 3.2.6 consists of the curve
pieces d, c and e (compare with figure 3.2.3). An important
difference with the use of short pulses is that the curve pieces d
and c can simply be used: a continuous transition between intermittent
and continuous flow operatien is possible for the whole range of
values of the delay angle a: O~a<TI.
3.3 The convertor with an infinitely large self-inductance

in the direct-eurrent circuit
In this section the coefficient of self-induction of the inductor

1 in the direct-eurrent circuit is supposed to be infinitely large,
g
so that the current i is a constant direct current:
g
i I (3.3.1)
g g
91
As a result, the convertor works in a continuous-flow operation mode.
Further, the commutation inductances are not neglected: 1 >0, so that
c
the angle of overlap ~. which will be defined later on, has a
1f
positive value. This value is supposed to be smaller than 3 rad.
Resistances in the circuit are still neglected.
Just before the considered interval (3.1.2) (a-j<wt<a) the
thyristors T and T are conducting; at the beginning of this
4 5
interval (wt=a-~) thyristor T is triggered. This thyristor will turn
1
on and the current Ig starts to transfer from thyristor T to
5
thyristor T (the starting instant of commutation). During the
1
Figure 3.3.1 The base circuit for the convertor

description in this section.
considered commutation the circuit shown in figure 3.3.1 is

operative.
Using figure 3.3.1 and i =I ((3.3.1)), the following relations can
g g
be given for the commutation interval considered:
i + i
a c
(3. 3. 2a)
u - u (3.3.2b)
a c
di
u u-u.-1 _..! (3.3.2c)
g a o c dt
Using the voltage expression (3.1.1), i =I , and the initial

g g
condition ia(a-~)=0, the following expressions canbe gathered from
(3.3.2) (only valid for the commutation interval):
92
v'3û
--{cosa-
1f
(3.3.3a)
i = cos(wt+3)}
a 2wl
c
ib == -I (3.3.3b)
g
v'3û 'lT
i I - --{cos a- cos(wt+3)} (3.3.3c)
c g 2wl
c
u 3Aucos ( wt+3
'lf) (3.3.3d)
g 2
The commutation is finished when the current through thyristor
r 5 (ie) becomes zero. The time expressed in angular measure, elapsed
from the beginning of the commutation until the end of the
commutation is called the angle of overlap ~. In the considered
interval the commutation is finished at the instant corresponding to
wt=a-~+~. From the condition ic(a-~+~)=0 and (3.3.3c), it follows:
2wl I
cosa - cos(a+~) = 13 ~ g (3.3.4)
After the commutation being finished, the thyristor r 1 and r are

4
conducting. Using i =I , figure 3.3.1 with i =0 and the voltage
g g c
expressions (3.1.1), the following expressionscan be given:
i -i I (3.3.5a)
a b g
i 0 (3.3.5b)
c
u
g ua- ub = l3ûcos(wt+~) (3.3.5c)
So, the interval considered a-i<wt<a can be divided into the

following two parts:
a-!! < Wt <a-!+~ with the equations (3.3.3) and

3 3
with the equations (3.3.5).
The transition point between the two parts can be found by using
(3.3.4).
The average value of the voltage u (see figure 3.1.1) can be found
g
by means of the expressions (3.3.3d), (3.3.5c), and (3.3.4):
a
U
gO
= f
~ u dwt = 1f~l3ûcosa
1fa-'!! g
- ~1 c I g
1f
(3.3.6)
3
93
An equivalent circuit of the convertor based on this expression is
shown in figure 3.3.2. The resistance in this figure is not a normal
Figure 3.3.2 An equivalent circuit for the convertor.
resistance: in this "resistance" no power is dissipated.

In figure 3.3.3 some quantities as functions of wt are given for
a~0.3. The solid curves correspond to lJ=0.6, whereas the dasbed
curves correspond to v;Q (1 =0). In figure 3.3.3a the phase voltages
c
ua' ~· and uc are s h own; t h e cons~'d ere d ~nterva
. 1 a-3<wt<a
1T •
~s
indicated by means of a thick line piece in this figure. The trigger

pulses of the thyristors, the phase current i and the voltage U
a g
are given in, respectively, the figures 3.3.3b, 3.3.3c, and 3.3.3d.
Being a periodic (continuous) function, i (wt) can be expressed as
a
a Fourier series:
i (wt)
a
f
n;1
{ancos(nwt) + b sin(nwt)}
n
(3.3.7a)
where Z'lT
a
n
= ! Ji a (wt)cos(nwt)dwt
1T
(3.3.7b)
0
21T
b
n
= .!'lTOJi a (wt)sin(nwt)dwt (3.3.7c)
Using (3.3.3a), (3.3.4), and (3.3.5a), the coefficients a and b can

n n
be computed; the result for the fundamental component is:
~3 r {cosa+
8
a1 = 13û 13
Zwl --;r s~n
. (2· ll+l-f )
. ( ll ) s~n (; cos(a+l-f)}) (3.3.8a)
c
13 13
b - û n {v- sin(l-!)cos(2a+u)} (3.3.8b)
1 - 2wl
c
94
Using (3.3.7), the fundamental component of the phase current i can
a
also be expressed in the following form:
(3.3.9a)
a
-
wt
d
n
Figure 3.3.3 Some quantities as functions of wt:

u=0.6
u=O
95
where
i = la 2 + b2 (3.3. 9b)
1 1 1 b
1 (3.3.9c)
a >0 : $ = arctan--
1 1 al
b1
a <o : $
1 1
= arctan-+ 11 (3.3.9d)
al
This fundamental component is depicted in figure 3.3.3e. As can be

seen in this figure the phase difference between the fundamental
component of a phase current and the corresponding phase voltage $
1
equals the delay angle u in the case of ~=0. Hence, to reduce the
fundamental reactive power absorbed by the convertor the delay angle
u should be chosen as small as possible in the case of rectifier
operation (u=O: diode bridge rectifier) and as large as possible
(u<TI) in the case of inverter operation. If, however, the angle of
overlap~ is notzero (positive), the phase difference $, is always
larger than the delay angle a. In figure 3.3.4a the difference $ -u
1
2
~$1-a
91T a=O
a=TI/9 l ·I l
W=21T/9
1T a=TI/3
6 a=41T/9
a=STI/9
1.09
a=21T/3
1 .oa
1T
i2 1.07
u=O
U=lT/18
1.06 u=231T/36
U=lT/6
t.os
0 1T
6
- ~
a=TI/3
1T
3
a b
Figure 3.3.4 The phase (a) and the amplitude (b)

characteristic for the fundamental
component of the phase current.
96
as a function of U is given for some values of a (according to
(3.3.9c), (3.3.9d), (3.3.8), and (3.3.4)). As may beseen in this
figure, there exists nogeneral simple relationshipbetween $ -a and
1
].l, as is sametimes suggested in literature (for example [Ost 63;
LeH 82]: $ =a+!J.l and [Wil 78]: $ =a+0.45u).

1 1
In the case of a diode bridge rectifier (a=O) the expression
2
<P, 3j.l a=O (3.3.10)
which is exact in the limit case of J.l-+ 0,

.
shows to be a good
approximation for other values of J.l (see 3.3.4a). In figure
3.3.4b the quotient of the amplitude of the fundamental wave of the
phase current and the direct current is depicted for some values of
the delay angle (according to (3.3.9b), (3.3.8), and (3.3.4)).
Because of the symmetry in the current i (wt), theeven harmonies
a
of this current are zero. Using (3.3.3a), (3.3.4), and (3.3.5) the
coefficients of the Fourier series for the odd components can be
expressed as:
13û
an - 2wl ~sin(~n) [~~os (na+nU) cos (a+ u) -cos (na) cos (a)} +
c
sin(na+n].l)sin(a+u)-sin(na)sin(a)] ; n=3,5,7, •.• (3.3.11a)
- 13û
bn - 2wl ~sin(~1T) [~{sin (na+n].l)cos (a+u)-sin(na)cos (a)} +
c
cos(na)sin(a)-cos(na+n].l)sin(a+u) J; n=3,5, 7, ••• (3.3.11b)
As can easily beseen in these expressions or in fig.ure 3.1.1, the

components with an order that is an integer multiple of three are
zero.
Subsequently the amplitude of the harmonie components can be
computed by means of:
t = /a2 + b2 (3.3.12)
n n n
In the figures 3.3.5 the results of these computations for the 5th,
7th, 11th, and 13th harmonie are given: in these figures the
amplitudes of the harmonie components related to the direct current as
a function of the direct current related to /3û/(2wl ) - the amplitude
c '
of the line-to-line short-circuit current - are given for some values
of the delay angle a. The curves are limited because the angle of
overlap U is limited to ~ in the model used here. As may be seen in
97
.24
.22
rs
I .
ga=8n/9
.24
.22 g:
.l. .z
-LB . 18
.1S . IS
-14 . 14
.i2 . 12
-1 . I
--;:;>
.os .os
.os .os
.04 .04 I
I
g
.oz
0
0 .2 4 6 8
""73"a
-
2Wlc
.02
.2 .4 .6 .s
*-
2WI"c
.i2
.11
gll g
. i2
.I) l~13
g
·I . I
.os .os
.os .os
.07 .07
.os .os
.os .os
.04 .04
.03 ~
k: .03
i!
.02 ;" -·~""':···
/ ~ .. , ~.... I .02 I
, .. ' ' g g
.01 \ \/
.... ,_,.,
' ,/
;
',, \. 73tf -01 7311
0
0 2 4
.......
.s .a -
2wl
c
0
0 .2 .4 .s .a
Figure 3.3.5 The relative amplitudes of the Sth, 7th,
11 th, and 13th harmonie component.
98
this figure, a small value of a in the rectifier operation mode or a
large value of a in the inverter operation mode has, in genera!, a
favourable influence on the harmonies in the phase currents (as it has
on the absorbed fundamental reactive power). Also an increase of the
relative direct current causes, in general, a decrease of the
relative harmonie amplitudes. Such an increase can be reached by
augmenring the commutation inductance 1 . This results in an increase
c
of the angle of overlap ~ and thus, an increase of the fundamental
reactive power absorbed by the convertor. In other words, in practical
cases, an optimum has to be found between the fundamental reactive
power absorbed by the convertor and the amplitudes of the harmonies in
the phase currents.
99
4 SIMPLE MODELS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR.
4.1 Introduetion
In the previous chapters the synchronous machine and the convertor

have been treated separately. In this chapter two simple models for
the computation of the steady-state performance of the combination of
a synchronous machine and a convertor will be given.
The computations in this chapter apply to the circuit as shown in
figure 4.1.1. In this figure Ub represents anideal direct voltage
T T
Figure 4.1.1 The base circuit for the description of the

simple models of the synchronous machine
with convertor.
source. The excitation winding is supplied by an ideal voltage source.

The rotor angular speed (w) is assumed to be constant and the phase
voltages are assumed to produce a symmetrical three-phase system with
sequentia! order of the phases a-b-c (w>O). Each ~ (electric) rad a
thyristor is triggered; the sequentia! order of triggering is -T -T -
1 6
-r3-r2-r5-r4-. The thyristors will be considered as ideal switches.
The quantities in this chapter are designated in per-unit values
according to sectien 1.5. The armature basic quantities, u, i ,
0 0
p0 =~u0 i 0 and t 0 will be used as basic quantities for the direct
current circuit (the value of an angle in the per-unit system equals
the value of this angle expressed in radians). The self-inductance of
the inductor 1 in the direct-eurrent circuit is assumed to be so
g
large that the direct current can be considered to be constant:
i I (4.1.1)
g g
100
As can beseen in figure 4.1.1, the homapolar componentsof the
armature currents are zero: i =0. Hence, it follows from (1.2.35)
0
and (1.2.40) that the homopalar componentsof the armature voltages
are also zero: u =0.
0
4.2 The synchronous machine with an ideal damper circuit in which

the armature leakage inductances and resistances are neglected
In this section the synchronous machine is supposed to have an

ideal damper circuit on the rotor: the flux density in the rotor is
constant in spite of any changes in the stator current space phasor
in the rotor coordinate system (the excitation winding is supplied
by anideal direct voltage source). It is assumed that, as a result,
the flux density in the air gap is also constant. Hence, the main
flux space phasor in the rotor coordinate system is constant:
w -~
-mdq--mdqo·
As a result, neglecting the armature leakage flux (1 =0) and
acr
using the equations (1.2.25), (1.2.36), and (1.2.43) designated in
the per-unit system results in:
~dq ~ ~ (4.2.1)
-dqO -mdqO
The voltage space phasor can be found by using r =0 dy =w and the
a ' dt
voltage equation (1.2.44) designated in the per-unit system:
u = u = -jw~ (4.2.2)
-dq -dqO -dqO
Like insection 1.7, the rotor position angle y is given by:
y = Wt + ~TI (4.2.3)
Using (4.2.2), (4.2.3), (1.2.41) and u =0, the armature phase

0
voltages may be expressed by:
u {
a = Re ~dqOe
jwt} = Re {~ue -jó e jwt} ûcos(wt-ó) (4.2.4a)
2
~
ûcos(wt - o- -n)
3
(4.2.4b)
4-n)
u
c
ûcos(wt - o- 3
(4.2.4c)
101
where
û \gdqol (4.2.4d)
Ö -arg{gdqO} (4.2.4e)
The phase angle ö is the laad angle introduced insection 1.7. Using
(4.2.4d), (4.2.4e), and (4.2.2), the voltagespace phasor in the
rotor coordinate system may be expressed as:
u
-dq
= u-dqO = ûe -·o
J (4.2.5)
As (4.2.4) describes a symmetrical three-phase system of

sinusoidal voltages, the convertor theory treated in section 3.3 in
the limit case of
=0 (4.2.6)
may be used bere. However, instead of Wt, Wt-ö should be used. Just
as in chapter 3 the description can be. restricted to an interval i
rad of length: the voltage u , the electric power withdrawn from
g
the armature p, and the electromagnetic torque m are periodic with
TI
angular period 3· Here the interval
ö + a - ~ < wt < o+ a (4.2.7)

3
which corresponds with the interval (3.1.2), is used.
During this interval the thyristor r and r are conducting, so
1 4
that:
i
a
= -ib (4.2.8a)
i
c =0 (4.2.8b)
Substituting (4.2.8) into (1.2.4) and using (1.2.7) and (4.2.3)

results in an expression for the current space phasor in the rotor
coordinate system for the interval (4.2.7):
(4.2.9)
In figure 4.2.1 this space phasor and the voltagespace phasor ud

- q
according to (4.2.5) are depicted for ö=0.4 and a=0.3. In the
TI
beginning of the interval (4.2.7) (wt=o+a-3), the end of the vector
corresponding to the current space phasor is in point B. During the
interval this end moves along the solid circular orbit; at the end
102
lm d
Figure 4.2.1 The current and the voltagespace phasor

for 6=0.4 and a=0.3.
of the interval (wt=o+a) it reaches point A. At this instant

thyristor T is triggered and the current distribution in the
6
armature - and also in the damper circuit - is changed suddenly (the
angle of overlap is zero); as seen from the rotor, the situation is
the sameasin the beginning of the interval (point B).
An expression for the electric power p for the interval (4.2.7)
can be found by substituting (4.2.5) and (4.2.9) into (1.2.62)
(designated in the per-unit system; i =0):
0
(4.2.10)
After substituting (4.2.1) with (4.2.2) and (4.2.5), and (4.2.9)

into (1.2.64b) (designated in the per-unit system), an expression
for the torque m follows:
2 û 1r
--=-I cos(wt+--c) (4.2.11)
v3 w g 6
In figure 4.2.2 the phase voltages u, R,and u, the power p, and
a o c
the torque m are given as functions of wt for 6=0.4 and a=0.3. The
interval considered (4.2.7) is indicated by means of a thick line
piece in figure 4.2.2a.
The average value of ug can be found by using (3.3.6) with lc=O
((4.2.6)):
U
gO = Tf~l3ûcos a (4.2.12)
103
u
"
''
b ' n -
Colt
c
/ " n -wt
Figure 4.2.2 Some quantities as functions of

Wt for o=0.4 and a=0.3.
This results in the following equation for the direct current circuit
in figure 4. 1 . 1 :
ub + r g I g = ugO ~/3ûcos a
'TT
(4.2.13)
The flux in the synchronous machine depends on the armature

currents, the excitation current, and the currents in the damper
circuit. As the damper circuit is ideal, the constant flux space
phasor ~dq is determined by the average value of the current space
phasor tdq according to (4.2.9) (with (1.2.9)):
I (4.2.14)
-dqO
and the constant excitation current IfO (the average values of the
104
currents in the damper circuit are assumed to be zero). Hence, the
flux and voltage equations given in sectien 1.7 can be used here
(with ra=O); the flux space phasor ~dq is given by (1.2.43) and
(1.7.10):
lji = 1jJ + jljid (4 .2. 15a)

-dq q
where
uf
ljid = 1jld0 = 1d1 dO + 1afd -rf (4.2.15b)
lj!q = 1jlqO 1 qI qO (4. 2. 15c)
The current space phasor !dqO according to (4.2.14) can also beseen
as the current space phasor corresponding to the fundamental
components of the armature phase currents (as ~=0, the phase angle ~
in sectien 1.7 equals the delay angle a). In figure 4.2.3 a phasor
diagram according to (4.2.2), (4.2.5), (4.2.14) and (4.2.15) is
given for o=0.4 and a=0.3 (compare with figure 1.7.2).
d tm
Re
q
Figure 4.2.3 A phasor diagram for the synchronous machine

with convertor for o=0.4 and a=0.3.
Using the simple model described in this section, the steady-state

performance of the synchronous machine with convertor can be
determined by solving thesetof equations (4.2.2),,(4.2.5), (4.2.13),
(4.2.14), and (4.2.15) (the (constant) rotor angular velocity w, the
delay angle a, the excitation voltage Uf, and the voltage Ub are
known quantities). After splittingup the complex equations into
their real and imaginary parts, the total set of equations can be.
summarized by:
105
2 3
ûcos o = wG:lafd - ld ~ rgsin(o+a)} (4 .2.16a)
ûsin o "' wl 213 r cos ( o+a) (4.2.16b)

q 1T g
(4. 2. 16c)
As an example of the application of the model described in this

section, the synchronous machine with a diode bridge rectifier is
considered (a=O). In figure 4.2.4 the direct current I is given as
g
a function of the angular velocity related to 1/ld with the
resistance rg' the voltage Ub' and the excitation current If(=Uf/rf)
as parameters for the case the rotor of the synchronous machine is
cylindrical (ld=lq=lafd). The influence of these parameters rg' Ub,
and If is indicated in, respectively, the figures 4.2.4a, 4.2.~b,
and 4.2.4c with rg=O, Ub=1, and If=1 as reference values. The
resistance r does not have to be a normal resistance. For example in
g
the case the voltage souree Ub consists of an inverter connected to
the utility grid, this resistance may represent the voltage drop
caused by the comrnutation in the inverter (see section 3.3: equation
(3.3.6) and figure 3.3.2). As can beseen in figure 4.2.4, a
property of the synchronóus machine with rectifier is that the direct
current is limited in the case of an increasing angular velocity.
This is an important difference between a direct-eurrent generator
and a synchronous machine with rectifier.
It follows from (4.2.16) that the direct current is also limited
for other values of the delay angle a:
(4.2.17)
The performance of the synchronous machine with convertor connected

to a direct voltage souree in the case of relatively high angular
veloeities is, as seen from the machine, similar to the steady-state
short-circuit performance of the synchronous machine: the short-
circuit armature current hardly depends on the angular velocity.
The character of the curves in figure 4.2.4 can easily be
understood by the following explanation. When the angular velocity
106
is increasing (slowly) from zero, the direct current starts to flow at
the instant on which the direct voltage generated by the synchronous
machine with rectifier equals the voltage of the direct voltage souree
Ub. If the resistance rg is zero, the amplitude of the armature phase
voltage will be constant from now. Hence, the flux in the machine will
be inversely proportional to the angular velocity. Immediately after
the starting instant the load angle Q is relatively small, so that the
average effect of the current space phasor acts mainly in the
direction of the quadrature axis (figure 4.2.3, a=O). Hence, the total
flux in the machine is hardly affected by the armature currents. As a
result the direct current increases (immediately after the starting
instant even infinitely) rapidly in relation to the angular velocity
(steep part of the curves). When the currents become larger, the load
angle will increase and the increase of the direct current in relation
to the angular velocity will decrease. If the resistance r is not
g
zero, the starting slope is less steep because of the voltage drop
over this resistance.
To show the difference between a cylindrical rotor machine and a
salient pole machine with diode rectifier, in figure 4.2.5 the direct
current I is given as a function of the angular velocity related to
g
1/ld for lq/ld=l and for lq/ld=O.S (rg=O; Ub=1; ). The curve for
the salient pole machine is steeper in the range of medium values
of the direct current than the curve Qf the cylindrical rotor machine,
I
g
.a
.s
.4
-
·2
1/ld
0
0 .a .a
Figure 4.2.5 The direct current as a function of w related to

1/ld for a salient pole machine and a cylindrical
rotor machine (r g =0·' Ub =1·' I f =1·' a=O) .
108
?ecause the quadrature-axis synchronous inductance, and hence the
quadrature-axis flux and the effect on the total flux, in the case of
the salient pole machine is smaller than in the case of the
cylindrical rotor machine for this direct current range.
4.3 A simple, practical model of the synchronous machine with

convertor
As has been mentioned in the introduetion of this chapter, the

rotor angular speed (w) is assumed to be constant and the armature
phase voltages are assumed to produce a symmetrical three-phase
system with sequentialorder of the phases a-b-c (W>O). Because of
the symmetry in the circuit in figure 4.1.1 and of the way of
triggering the thyristors (see section 4.1), the armature phase
currents also produce a symmetrical three-phase system. Hence, in
steady-state operation, the armature phase currents may be expressed
as Fourier series:
(4.3.1a)
(4.3.1b)
(4.3.1c)
Thanks to the property i(wt-rr)=-i(wt) all even harmonies are zero.

Moreover, as the star conneetion terminal of the machine is not used,
the armature phase currents do no.t contain harmonies with an angular
frequency which is an integer multiple of 3w. Hence, the expressions
(4.3.1) can be written as:
+ k~ 1 {i 6k-lcos((6k-1)wt-S 6 k-l)+
I 6k+lcos((6k+1)wt-S 6k+l)} (4.3.2a)
ib= i 1 cos(wt-~n-S 1 ) + k! 1 {i 6 k_ 1 cos((6k-l)wt+~n-S 6 k-l) +
(4.3.2b)
109
(4.3.2c)
Using y~t+!n «4.2.3)) and the Park transformation according to

(1.2.46), the fol1owing expressions for id, iq and i are found:
0
id=-i 1sin 131~!i -lf,k_1 sin (6kwt-B 6k_ 1)+i 6k+l sin(6kwt-B 6k+l )} (4 .3. 3a)
(4.3.3b)
i
0
=0 (4.3.3c)
As can be seen in these expressions the current id as well as the

current i consists of a constant and a changing part. The changing
q
parts are now assumed to change so fast (the minimum angular
frequency is 6w} that the theory described in section 1.9 ("The sub-
transient behaviour of the synchronous machine") may be applied bere.
In this section the sub-transient direct-axis and the sub-transient
quadrature-axis inductance are supposed to be equal:
1" .. 1"
d q
= 1" (4.3.4)
so that (1.9.10} can be used bere. With r =0, (1.9.10) changes into:
a
di
u e" - 1"~ (4.3.5a)
a a dt
di
= eub - 1"~ (4.3.5b)
~ dt
di
u = e"c - 1"~ (4.3.5c)
c dt
Using y~t+in ((4.2.3)), the expressions (1.9.11) can be written as:
e" e"cos(wt) ê"cos(wt-E) (4.3.6a)

a q
e"
b
= e"cos(wt-~n)
q 3
- e"sin(wt-~n)
d 3
(4.3.6b}
e~ = e~cos(wt-~n) - edsin(wt-~n) (4.3.6c)
where
ê" - ve"2d + en2'

q
(4.3.6d)
110
e"
e: = - arctan(e?.) (4.3.6e)
q
Using the phase angle ~

1 between the fundamental component of an
armature phase current and the corresponding internal phase voltage
{marked with e") according to:
(4.3.7)
the constant parts of id and iq according to (4.3.3) can be written

as:
-i sin(cJ> +e:) (4.3.8a)

1 1
i cos(<t> +e:) (4.3.8b)
1 1
Substituting these expressions into (1.9.12) results in:
e" (4.3.9a)
d
uf
- w(ld - l")i sin(~ +e:)
e" = w-1
q rf afd 1 1 (4.3.9b)
An expression for the electromagnetic torque can be found by using

(1.2.64a) designated in the per-unit system, (1.9.1), (1.9.2),
( 1. 9. 3) , ( 1. 9. 4) , and ( 1. 9. 5) :
m=-1/!i +1/Ji =-J(l-l")I +ufl }i +(1-l")I i (4.3.10)

d q q d l d dO rf afd q q qO d
Using (4.3.8) and (4.3.9), this expressionchanges into
e" e"
m = - _g_i d.
--1 (4.3.11)
w q w d
The model of the synchronous machine described in this section can

be seen as the combination of an idea1 synchronous machine described
in section 4.2 (with a symmetrical three-phase system of sinusoida1
phase voltages) and three self-inductances 1", as is i11ust.rated in
figure 4.3.1. The direct-axis and quadrature-axis synchronous
inductances of the "internal" machine are, respective1y, 1 -1" and
d
1 -1". The phase ang1e e: represents the 1oad angle of the "internal"
q
machine.
111
Figure 4.3.1 Schematic representation of the synchronous
machine model used in this section.
For the computations concerning the convertor and the direct

current circuit, the circuit shown in figure 4.3.2 is used. The
voltage sourees e" e" and e" in this figure are given by (4.3.6).
a' b' c
For this circuit the theory described in section 3.3 may be used;
the quantities û, wt, and lc in section 3.3 have to be replaced by
respectively, ê", wt-E: and 1" (û+ê; wt+wt-q 1 +1"). The description
c
is restricted to the interval corresponding with (3.1.2):
1T
E: + a - 3< wt < E: + a (4.3.12)

convertor and the direct current circuit.
112
During the first part of this interval the commutation of the
direct current from the arm with thyristor T to the arm with
5
thyristor T is proceeding (~+a-~<wt<~+a+~-~). During the
1
commutation the armature phase currents are given by (3.3.3) (û->ê";
1 + 1"; wt-+wt-t:) :
c
(4 .3. 13a)
-I g (4.3.13b)
i (4. 3. 13c)
c
The components of the current space phasor id in the commutation

- q
interval can be found by using the equations (4.3.13), (1.2.46), and
(4.2.3):
-u lT 2 2
id = ~{cos(oot-E+-)
wl 3 cos a} cos (wt-31T) - T3\;cos(wt) (4.3.14a)
ê"
cos a} sin(oot-~1T) - i:rigsin(wt)
ïf
i
q
= ---(cos(oot-E+-)
wl" 3 (4.3.14b)
Using the equations (4.3.11), (4.3.14), (4.3.6d), and (4.3.6e), the

following expression for the electromagnetic torque for the
commutation considered can be deduced:
ê"2 1T 2I e"
m=- 0021
u{cos(wt-E+3)- cosa} sin(wt-E:-~1T) + -k-sin(wt-E) (4.3.15)
During the second part of interval (4.3.12) (E+a.+~-'j<wt<s+a)- the

commutation has been finished ~ the armature phase currents are
expressed by (3.3.5):
I (4. 3. 16a)
g
(4.3.16b)
The components of the current space phasor id in the part of the

- q
interval considered bere can be found by using the equations
(4.3.16), (1.2.46) and (4.2.3):
2 1f
id = --=I cos (wt--) (4.3.17a)
v3 g 3
113
i "'-~I sin(wt-!!) (4.3.17b)
q v3 g 3
Using the equations (4.3.11), (4.3.17), (4.3.6d), and (4.3.6e), the

electromagnetic torque in this part of the interval can he written
as:
2!
m = ïl 00
sin(wt-E:-~) (4.3.18)
The current space phasor i can he expressed as a function of I ,

-dq g
a,~. E: and wt by using the equations (4.3.14), (4.3.17) and (3.3.4).
This phasor and the voltage space phasor
e"
-dq
= e"q + je''
d
(4.3.19)
are depicted in figure 4.3.3 for E:"'0.4, a=0.3 and ~-0.6. In the
TI
beginning of the interval (4.3.12) (wt,.E:+et-3), the end of the vector
corresponding to the curient space phasor is in point A. During the
commutation this end moves along the dasbed orbit; at the end of the
commutation (wt=E:+a+~-3> it reaches point B. In the next part of the
interval considered, it moves along the solid circular orbit in the
direction of A. This point is reached at the end of the interval
considered (wt=E+a). As seen from the rotor the situation is the
same as at the beginning of the interval considered: the current
space phasor !dq is periodic with angular period j.
d lm
Re
Figure 4.3.3 The current and the voltage space phasor

for E:=0.4, a=0.3 and ~=0.6.
114
As an example in figure 4.3.4 the phase voltages e",
a
e:•,
o
and e",
c
the triggering pulses, the phase current i and the electromagnetic
a
torque m are given as functions of wt for 8=0.4 and a=0.3. The solid
curves correspond to ~=0.6, whereas the dashed curves correspond to
11=0 (1"=0). In figure 4.3.4a the interval considered hereis
indicated by means of a thick line piece.
The average value of u can be found by using (3.3.6) (1 +1";
g c
û+ê"):
~13ê"cos a- TI~1 11 1 g
TI
(4.3.20)
d
n -
wt
Figure 4.3.4 Some quantities as functions of wt for

8=0.4 and a.=0.3:
u=0.6
J.l=û
115
Using this expression, the following equation for the direct current
circuit in figure 4.3.2 can be given:
~l3ê"cos a. =
1T (~1" + rg) I g+ ub
(4.3.21)
Using the simple model described in this section, the steady-state

performance of the synchronous machine with convertor can be
determined by solving thesetof equations (3.3.4), (3.3.8), (3.3.9)
(wt->-wt-q lc+l"; û+ê"), (4.3.6), (4.3.9) and (4.3.21). In this set
of equations the (constant) rotor angular velocity w, the delay
angle a., the excitation voltage Uf and the voltage Ub are known
quantities. This total set of equations may be summarized by:
(4.3.22a)
ê"sint: = w(lq-l")î 1cos(<P 1+E:) (4.3.22b)
u
ê"cos E: = wr;lafd-w(ld-l")i 1sin(<J> 1+E:) (4.3.22c)
11 {sin(]l)sin(2a.+]l) } (4.3.22d)
<1>1 =Ï - arctan ]l-sin(J.!)cos(2a.+J.!)
3ê"
= 2nwl" vsin2].l + ].l2 - 2\.lsin(J,J)cos(2a.+]l) (4.3.22e)
As an example of the application of the model described in this

section, the influence of the sub-transient inductance on the
relationship between the direct current and the angular velocity is
shown in figure 4.3.5 for a cylindrical rotor machine with diode
bridge rectifier. The constant parameters in this example are:
ld=lq=1.5; lafd=1.45; If=1; Ub=1; rg=O; a.=O. The values of the sub-
transient inductance are: 1"=0.1, 1""'0.2 (practical values), 1"=0.5,
and 1"=1.5 (equal to the synchronous inductances: no damping action in
the rotor tagether with a current souree supply for the excitation
winding). The curves for 1"=0.5 and 1"=1.5 are limited because the
angle of overlap ]l is limited to i in the model used bere. As can be
seen in figure 4.3.5 the influence of the sub-transient inductance on
the relationship between the direct current and the angular velocity
is similar to the influence of the resistance r (figure 4.2.4a). In
g
section 6.4 more attention will be paid to the practical application
116
.a
,.~~ToT•<ro-
•••••••'
.s
·1"=0.1
·······1"=0.2
1"=0.5
·2 -·-·-1"=1.5
0
0 .s .a
- w
Figure 4.3.5 The influence of the sub-transient inductance

on the relationship between the direct current
and the angular velocity of a synchronous
machine with rectifier (ld=lq=1.5; lafd=1.45;
If=1; Ub=1; rg=O; a=O). .
of the model described in this section for the case of a synchronous

machine with diode bridge rectifier.
117
5 COMPUTATION OF THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF A SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR BY MEANS OF OPERATIONAL INDUCTANCES
AND FOURIER ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduetion
In chapter 4 the way of computing the steady-state behaviour of a

synchronous machine with convertor has been given for two simple
models of the synchronous machine. The computations which are based on
those models are aften not accurate enough or even totally unusable,
for example when the losses because of harmonies in the armature
currents are essential or when the eperation of the machine with a low
angular velocity is considered (In this thesis only time harmonies are
considered; since the armature windings have sinusoirlal distributions,
the space harmonies arenotimportant bere). Another machine model has
to be used in those cases, for example a machine description with
operational inductances. Since the electrical and mechanica! phenomena
with the synchronous machine with convertor are periadie during
steady-state operation, the Fourier analysis can be very useful. The
Fourier analysis was used earlier for the computation of the steady-
state performance of a synchronous machine with convertor by Bolognani
and Indri [Bol 78]. They, however, used a model of the synchronous
machine with one damper winding on the direct axis and one damper
winding on the quadrature axis (with constant parameters) instead of
the model with operational inductances which is used bere. Besides
they used a star-connected instead of a bridge-connected convertor.
The computations in this chapter apply to the circuit as shown in
figure 5.1.1. In this figure Ub represents anideal direct voltage
source. The excitation winding is supplied by either an ideal direct
voltage or an ideal direct current source. The rotor angular speed (w)
is assumed to be constant and the phase voltages produce a symmetrical
three-phase system with sequentia! order of the phases a-b-c (w>O).
Each i (electric) rad a thyristor is triggered by means of a pulse ~TI
rad in length. The sequentia! order of triggering is T -T -T -T -T -T
1 6 3 2 5 4
as is shown schematically in figure 4.3.4b. In the first instanee the
thyristors will be considered as ideal switches. In section 5.8 a more
realistic, though simple model for the thyristors will be introduced~
All resistances are neglected, except those in the synchronous
118
+

synchronous machine with convertor in this chapter
machine. The quantities in this chapter are designated in per-unit

. quant1t1es.
. . 3
va 1ues. Th e armature b as1c u , 1. • p =2u 1. and t , w1'11
0 0 0 0 0 0
be used as basic quantities for the direct-eurrent circuit (the value
of an angle in the per-unit system equa1s the value of this angle
expressed in radians).
On the assumptions mentioned before, the performance of the
synchronous machine is known if its phase currents are known. Because
the phase currents form a symmetrica1 three-phase system, it is
sufficient to consider only one phase current (i in this chapter). This
a
current can be computed by using the combination of the machine
equations and the network equations. These network equations can be
formed with the help of figure 5.1.2. In this figure the threearmature
phases are represented by three voltage sources, the voltages of which
a1so depend on the phase currents (i). The expressions forthese
a
voltage sourees wi11 be given in section 5.2.
Ua
+ la
+ jb
Uc
+ ie
Figure 5.1.2 A network corresponding to the base circuit

in figure 5.1.1
119
The setting up of the (differential) equation for the phase current
i is simplified by splitting off a so-called external self-
a
inductance 1 from the self-inductances of the armature windings:
e
figure 5.1.2 changes into 5.1.3. The voltage sourees
e are given by the expressions:
c
di
e u + 1
a (5.1.1a)
a a e dt
dib
eb ~+ 1e (5 .1. 1b)
dt
di
u c (5. 1. 1c)
e + 1
c c e dt
Figure 5.1.3 The base netwerk for the description of the

synchreneus machine with convertor in this chapter
Section 5.3 will give the salution of the equation for the phase
current ia in case the smoothing ceil in the direct current circuit
has an infinite value of self-inductance, while sectien 5.7 will give
the salution in case of a finite value. In section 5.4 the influence
of the choice of the value of the external self-inductance 1 will be
e
discussed. The preferabie choice will cause the voltages ea' eb and
to be nearly sinusoidal, so that the external self-inductance le is
comparable with the commutation inductance. The truncation error of
the Fourier series will be dealt with in section 5.5. Section 5.6
contains some remarks on the model of the synchronous machine as
described in section 4.3.
120
5.2 Some machine quantities as functions of the armature currents
Consiclering the armature phase current i as a known quantity, in

a
this section expressions for the armature phase voltages, for the
electromagnetic torque, and for the power dissipation in the rotor
caused by the armature current harmonies will be deduced.
Because of the periodicity of the armature currents, the current i
a
may be expressed as a Fourier series:
i (n is an integer) (5.2.1a)
a
-1 f TI i a e -jnwt d(wt)
i-n = 1f_TI (5.2.1b)
The factor ! in (5. 2. 1a) (and the corresponding adaptation of (5. 2. 1b))
is introduced to obtain a simple expression for the current space
phasor id (expression (5.2.7)). Since is a real quantity, the
- q
following property follows from (5.2.1b):
i (5.2.2)
--n
As the armature phase currents produce a symmetrical three-phase
system, the armature phase currents ib and ie may be expressed as
(using (5.2.1a)):
jn(wt-~rr)
3
·b
1 ! i-ne
!n=-oo (5.2.3a)
jn(wt-~1f)
3
ic = ! !ie
n=-oo -n
(5.2.3b)
Thanks to the property i(wt-1f)=-i(wt) all even harmonies are zero.

Moreover, as the star conneetion terminal of the machine is not used,
the armature phase currents do not contain harmonies with an angular
frequency which is an integer multiple of 3w. Hence, the expressions
(5.2.1a) and (5.2.3) can be written as:
i 1 '{SI {"' j(6n-1)wt ..,. j(6n+1)wt} (5.2.4a)

1 n;."" !6n-1 e + !6n+ 1e
a
"" {"" j{(6n-Owt+~1f} .,. j{(6n+1)wt-~rr}}
!n~oo !6n-1e + !6n+1e (5.2.4b}
s> {... j{ (6n-1)wt+1n} .,. j{ (6n+Owt-~1T}}

i
c ! n=-oo
2. 1
-6n-1 e + 1
-6n+ 1e (5.2.4c)
121
The current space phasor in the stator coordinate system can be
found by using (1.2.4):
i 'f' ! ej(6n+1)Wt
n=-oo -6n+1 (5.2.5)
The terms in the series represent current space phasors which rotate
with an angular velocity (6n+1)w; the terms with n~O represent current
space phasors which rotate in the positive direction, whereas the terms
with n<O represent current space phasors which rotate in the negative
direct ion.
Using
1T
y Wt + Ï (5.2.6)
and (1.2.7), the current space phasor in the rotor coordinate system
can be expressed as:
i (5.2. 7)
-dq
On behalf of the computation of the armature flux, the direct-axis
and the quadrature-axis components of this current space phasor are
given:
Im{id } !j (i* _ i ) = 'f' ! ej6nwt · (5.2.8a)

- q -dq -dq n=-oo -d,6n
= Re{id } 'f' ! ej6nwt (5.2.8b)

- q + -id q >
i Hid*
q - q n=-oo -q,6n
where
(5.2.8c)
i-q,6n (5.2.8d)
The armature flux will be calculated by means of operational

inductances (section 1.3). In case the excitation winding is supplied
by an ideal direct voltage source: , the expressions (1.3.3b) and
(1.3.4) designated in the per-unit system may be used bere:
(5.2.9a)
1h (w') = 1 (w') i (w') (5.2.9b)

~q -q -q
When the excitation winding is supplied by an ideal direct current
122
source: if=If' in equation (5.2.9a) ld should be replaced by !do and
Uf/rf sould be replaced by If (see expression (1.3.5a). Because these
changes are not essential for the computations, only the case in which
the excitation winding is supplied by an ideal voltage souree will be
considered bere.
Using the Fourier transformation, (5.2.8), and (5.2.9), the flux
components
. Wd(t) and Wq (t) may be expressed as:
co -:- j6nwt uf
n~oo ld( 6nw)!d,6ne + 1afd rf (5.2.10a)
w = ! 1 (6nw)i ej 6nwt (5.2.10b)

q n=~ -q -q,6n
The following expression for the flux space phasor in the rotor
coordinate system can be found by using (1.2.43), (5.2.8c), (5.2.8d)
and (5.2. 10):
~dq wq+ j~d = nf-a{s{lq(6nw)+!d(6nw)li6n+1 +
Hl (6nw)-ld(6nw)}i>'< +l]ej 6nwt+jufl fd (5.2.11)

-q - 6
--n rfa
Substituting (5.2.6), (5.2.7), and (5.2.11) into the armature

voltage equation (1.2.44) expressed in the per-unit system results in:
(5.2.12)
As the armature phase voltages form a symmetrical three-phase system,

it is sufficient to consider only one armature phase voltage (u in
a
this chapter). As i =0, it follows from (1.2.35} and (1.2.40) that the
0
homapolar components of the armature voltages are also zero: u =0.
0
Hence, using (1.2.41a), (1.2.42), and (5.2.6) results in the
expression:
u Reu= R {ud ejwt} =Re{! û ej( 6n+l)wt}

a - e - q n=-<><> -6n+1
i ! {o
n-oo -6n+1
ej(6n+1)wt+ û*
-6n+1
e-j(6n+1)wt} (5. 2: 13a)
where
123
Q1 = ~Iafd [ra+ jw~{!q<o>+!d<o>H~ 1 - jw!{!q<o>-!d<o>}!t (5.2.13b)
~ 6 n+l -[ra+ j(6n+1)w~{!q(6nw)+!d(6nw)}]1 6 n+l

- j(6n+1)w~{!q(6nw)-!d(6nw)}!~ 6 n+l (5.2.13c)
An expression for the internal voltage ea can be found by using

(5.1.1a), (5.2.2), (5.2.4a) and (5.2.13):
e
a
I r {ê
n=-oo -6n+ 1
ej(6n+1)wt+
-6n+ 1
e-j(6n+1)Wt} ê* (5. 2. 14a)
where
(5.2.14b)
Subsequently, the quantities zs , zd and ê are introduced:

-n -n p
zs
-n
r + j(6n+1)w[~{ld(6nw)+l (6nw)}-l ] (5. 2. 15a)
a - -q e
zd j(6n+1)w!{!q(6nw)-!d(6nw)} (5.2.15b)
-n
uf
ê =w-1 (5.2.15c)
p rf afd
The quantities ~ and zd contain the machine impedances, whereas
0
ê (p: pole wheel) represents the amplitude of the open-circuit
p
armature phase voltage in case the rotor is rotating at an angular
velocity w. Using (5.2.13) and (5.2.15), expression (5.2.14) can be
written as:
~1 ê - zs i - zd Î* (5.2.16a)
p -0-1 -0-1
~6n+1 - zs i
--n-6n+1 zd 1*
- --n--6n+1 (5.2.16b)
An expression for the electromagnetic torque can be found by

substituting (5.2.8) and (5.2.10) with (5.2.15c) into (1.2.64a)
expressed in the per-unit system:
m (5.2.17a)
where
124
m = "1:
-6n k~ -q
(6kw>t{1 I
-q,6k-d, 6n- 6k -d
-1
(6kw>i i
-d, 6k-q, 6n- 6k}- ëpw i-q, 6n (5.2.17b)
The expression for the electric power withdrawn from the armature
(1.2.63) consistsof three terms. The second term corresponds to the
electromagnetic torque, whereas the third term represents the power
dissipated in the armature. The average value of the first term
corresponds, in this case, to the power dissipation in the rotor
caused by the armature-current harmonies. In the per-unit system this
term becomes (i =0):
0
(5.2.18)
lts average value is found by using (5.2.8), (5.2.10), and (5.2.18):
P ~ 1 (12nw)Im{ld(6nw)}lid
r = n- -
2 f 1(12nw)Im{l-q (6nw)"~~i
- , 6n j +n=
12
'1-q, 6n 1
(5.2.19)
In case the model of the synchronous machine as described in

section 4.3 is allowed to be used, the expressions for zs and zd
---n -n
((5.2.15)) become (!d(O)=ld; !q(O) !d(6nw)=!q(6nw)=l" with n*O;
r. =0):
a
~0 jw{l(ld + lq) .,.. 1e } (5.2.20a)

zs
-n
j(6n+l)w(l" -1 )
e n *0 (5.2.20b)
zdo jwH\ -ld) (5.2.20c)

zd
-n
0 n *0 (5.2.20d)
When the external self-inductance 1 is chosen according to

e
1 = 1" (5.2.21)
e
a special case occurs:
zs
-n
=0 n *0 (5.2.22)
Hence, in this case, the coefficients of the Fourier series for the
internal voltage e ((5.2.16)) become:
a
~~ êP - ~0I1 - zdoif (5 .2 .23a)
ê
-6n+1
= 0 n *0 (5.2.23b)
Using (5.2.8c), (5.2.8d), (5.2.20a), and (5.2.20c), (5.2.23a) can also
125
be written in the following form:
(5.2.24)
As the harmonies in the internal voltage ea (and also in eb and ec)

are zero in this case, the internal voltages ea, eb and ec are
changing sinusoidally in the case considered here (1 =1"). Hence, the
e
external self-inductance 1 corresponds with the commutation
e
inductance 1" insection 4.3 (1 insection 3.3).
c
In practice, a reasonable choice of the external self-inductance 1
e
will result in the internal voltages being nearly sinusoidal (see
section 5.4).
5.3 An infinitely large self-inductance in the direct-eurrent

circuit of the synchronous machine with convertor
In this section the coefficient of self-induction of the smoothing

coil 1 in figure 5.1.1 is supposed to be infinitely large, so that
g .
the current i is a constant direct current: i =I •
g g g
Insection 3.1 the delay angle a has been defined as the time in
electrical angular measure by which the triggering instant of a
thyristor is delayed with respect to the starting instant of the
conduction of this thyristor in the case all thyristors are
continuously triggered and the direct current has a constant value. In
the situation considered here, the voltages ea, eb, and ec do not have
to change sinusoidally and depend on the armature phase current. Hence,
there is little senseinusing the delay angle a. In this chapter the
delay angle a (p: pole wheel) will be used: this angle equals the time
p
in electrical angular measure by which the triggering instant of a
thyristor is delayed with respect to the starting instant of the
conduction of this thyristor in the case all thyristors are
continuously triggered and the direct current has a constant,
infinitely small value. In other words, the armature open-circuit
voltages, which are changing sinusoidally, are used as reference
voltages, so that in the limit case of open-circuit a=a may be used.
p
The difference between the delay angle a and the delay angle a
p
corresponds with the load angle ö in section 4.2 and the load angle €
126
in sectien 4.3. The delay angle a resembles the delay angle used in
p
certain combinations of synchronous machines" with convertor in which
the thyristors are triggered by means of pulses from a shaft position
sensor.
In case of an open armature circuit the voltages e , eb' and e
a c
according to (5.1.1) correspond with the voltages e", eb", and e" in
a c
sectien 4.3 if ê"=ê (compare (5.2.14) and (5.2.13b) with (4.3.6a);
p
i =ib=i =0 and s=O). Like in sectien 4.3 the reference angle for
a c
a (a =a+s) is: wt=-! • So, thyristor T is triggered at the instant
P P 3 n 1
corresponding to wt=ap-3' The total set of triggering pulses is
depicted in figure 5.3.1a. The delay angle a is supposed to be chosen
P n
in such a way that thyristor T actually starts conducting at wt=ap-3'
1
.the
Dur1ng .1nterval ap-3<wt<ap-3+U
n n (u '1s t h e angle of overlap ) the
current i =I transfers from the arm with thyristor T to the arm with
g g .5 u
thyristor T • The angle of overlap is supposed to besmaller than 3•
1
In the system considered here the quantities w, ê , a and Ub are
p p
normally known. The quantities I and U should be computed. However,
g
this would lead to a non-linear set of equations. To evade this,
the quantities w, êp, ap and U are considered to be the known
a Ts 11
I ~ I
ia•
lg
b 7C
-3
Figure 5.3.1 The trigger pulses (a), the armature

phase current i (wt) (b), and the pulse
a
function p(wt) (c).
127
quantities and the quantities Ig and Ub are computed. The desired
value of Ub can be reached after an iteration process.
For the computations intbis section the representative interval
ap-~<wt<ap-~+2~, one period, is considered. Table 5.3.1 can be
composed for this interval. As an example, the armature phase current
di
a
Interval Thyristors conducting i 2le
a
a. -'!!<wt<a -'!!+u
p 3 p 3
T5 and Tl and T4 ... e -e
a c
a -'!!+u<wt<a +!! T1 and (T4 or T6) I 0
p 3 p 3 g
~
a + <wt<a +IJ+-
p 3 p 3
1f
Tl and T3 and.T6 ... e -e
a b
1T 2
a +Jl+-<wt<o. +3n T3 and T6 0 0
p 3 p
p 3
2
p
2
a +-TI<wt<a +u+-TI
3
T6 and T2 and T3 ... e -e
a c
2 4
ap+J1+ 3n<wt<ap+37f T2 and (T3 or T5) -I g 0
4
p 3 p
4
a +-TI<wt<o. +JJ+-TI
3
T2 and T4 and T5 ... e -e
a b
Ct. +Jl+~TI<wt<o. +~n T4 and T5 0 0
p 3 p 3
di
Table 5.3.1 Thyristors conducting and dta in the
interval Ct. -'!!<wt<a -'!!+2n.
p 3 p 3
i is depicted in figure 5.3.1b for an arbitrary choice of Ct. and IJ.

a dia P
Using table 5.3.1, a simple expression for Cü: can be found.
In this expression the periadie pulse function p(wt) according to:
p(wt) TI < wt+k2n < o. -!!+u

Cl. -- k is an integer (5. 3. la)
p 3 p 3
p(wt) 0 a -'!!+u < wt+k2n < o. -'!!+zn k is an integer (5.3.1b)
p 3 p 3
will be used. The Fourier series of this function can be given by:
~ - jnwt
p(wt) '- p e (5.3.2a)
n=-co-n
where
5 1f
o. --+u
+-TICl.
p 3 .
P 3
~n = ZTI 1f
ap-3
I
p(Wt)e
-jnwt
d(Wt) I
a --
P 3
1T e-JnWtd(wt) (5.3.2b)
p = p* (5.3.2c)
--n -n
128
Using table 5.3.1 and the pulse function according to (5.3.1), the
following equation can be deduced:
di 2 5
21 d a= (e -e ){p(wt)+p(wt-'11)} + (e -eb){p(wt--n)+p(wt--n)} (5.3.3)
e t a c a 3 3
A differential equation with the armature phase current i as unknown
a
quantity can be set up by means of (5.3.3) and the expressions for the
internal armature phase voltages as given in sectien 5.2. The pulse
function p(wt) in this differential equation contains the delay angle
a and the angle of overlap ~.
p
After substituting
. 2
e (wt--n) (5.3.4a)
a 3
4
e (wt--7f) (5.3.4b).
a 3
into equation (5.3.3), substituting (5.2.14a) and (5.3.2a) into the
new equation results in:
• { f p ejnwt(1+ e -jn1T)} +
n=-«>-n
! {~* -j(6n+1)wt( j~1T) _ j(6n+1)wt( -j~1T\}l
+i [ n=-o::> ~6n+1e 1-e +~6n+1e \ 1-e J J•
• . 2 . 5
. J'tn=-co-n
r ~p e JUWt ( e -Jnj'ff+e -Jn-'IT)}
3 (5.3.5)
The multiplication of the series in the right-hand side of this

equations results in:
di jmwtr {( j~'IT)f
3 -j(m+6n+1)1T)
21 e dta = ! e
!m~ l n=-=-
f ê 6*n+.11?-m+6n+1 1-e \1+e . +
( j~'IT)f -j(m+6n+1)~7f -j(m+6n+1)~7f)}

+\1-e \e +e +
_ {( -j~'IT)f -j(m-6n-1)1T)
+nL6n+l~-6n-1 1-e \ l+e +
+( 1-e
.2 .( 6 )2
-Jj'IT)( -J m- n-1 31r -J m-6n-1 3
e +e
.( )5
n)}lJ (5.3.6)
129
If m is an integer multiple of 2 or 3, the corresponding
coefficients in the series are zero. For that reason the series is
divided into two series: one series with m=6k-1 and one with m=6k+1.
Besides, the derivative with respect to time of expression (5.2.4a) is
substituted into (5.3.6)
jwl r
e n=-oo
(6n-1)i
-6n-1
ej( 6n-l)wt + jwl
e n=-eo
r
(6n+1)i
-6n+ 1
ej( 6n+1)wt
.4 .2
211 I j(6k-1)wtoo rA A J31f J31f
!k,?:·cx{ e n.?a{ ~gn+1~6(k+n) { (1-e )2+(1-e )2}+
.4 .2 .4 .4
-J-1f -J-1f J-1f J-1f }]]
+~6n+1Ê6(k-n)-2 { (1-e 3 )2+(1-e 3 )(e 3+e 3 ) +
(5. 3. 7)
A coefficient in the series in the left-hand term of this equation bas

to equal the corresponding coefficient in the right-hand term. This
results in the following equations:
r
jwl e (6m-ni- 6m- 1=3n=-oo- fï 6. <m+n >+ê- 6n.+ 1i-> 6 <m-n ) - 2 <!-H/3)}
{ê *6n.+ 1·- (5.3.8a)
]: {ê *6n+lp- (m+n ) +2 <!+H/3)+ê- 6n + 1-fi ( m-n )}

jwl e (6m+1)i- 6m+!=3 n-~- (5.3.8b)
6 6
It can be seen that equation (5.3.8a) is the conjugate equation of

i ~i*
equation (5.3.8b) by replacing m by -m in (5.3.8b) and using --n -n
((5.2.2)) and p =p* ((5.3.2c)). In this section equation (5.3.8b)
--n -n
will be used. Substituting (5.2.16) into (5.3.8b) results in:
1
ê {p +p (!+ji/3) =- jwl (6m+1)i +
P -6m -6m+ 2 3 e - 6m+ 1
r i { zs fi +zd* s
n=-oo-6n+1 --n-6(m-n) ---nL6(m-n)+2
O+H/3)} +
ri* {zs*p
n=-=-6n+1 --n-6(m+n)+2
(!+j/3)+zd p
---n-6(m+n)
} (5.3.9)
The set of equations (5.3.9) consistsof an infinite number of

equations with an infinite number of unknowns. To solve (approximately)
this set of equations these numbers should be finite and equal. In
solving this set of equations the coefficients ! 6k+l (and I 6k_ 1) for
k<-N and k>N (N is a positive integer) are supposed to be so small
that they can be neglected (inductive character of the armature
130
windings. In section 5.5 more attention will be paid to the choice of
N. The values of n and m in (5.3.9) are limited according to: -N~n~N
and -N~~N. Hence, the set of equations (5.3.9) is restricted to a set

of 2N+1 (complex) equations with 2N+1 (complex) unknowns.
Introducing the quantities
1
a -3 jwl e (6m+1)+zs m=n (5 .3.10a)
-mn --n-p 6 ( m-n )+zd* p ( m-n ) +2 <!+HI3)
---n- 6
~mn zsn~6(m-n)+ zd~n~6(m-n)+2(!+j!/3 ) (5.3.10b)
~mn ~~~6(m+n)+2(!+j!/3 )+zd_nÊ6(m+n) (5.3.10c)
c ê p {p6 (5 .3 .10d)
-m - m+p6
- m+ 2(!+j!/3)}
this set of equations can be expressed as:
N
c
-m
= n=-N i 1
r (a-mn-6n+ + b i*
-mn-6n+ 1
) -N~n~N (5 .3. 11)
This set of complex equations can easily be solved when the equations
are divided into their real and imaginary parts. Using
i-6n+1 (5.3.12)
thesetof equations (5.3.11) can be written as:

N
Re 5:m = nJ=-N {(Re ~mn + Re ~mn) xn + (-Im ~mn+ Im ~mn) yn} -N~~N (5 .3. 13a)
N
Im !::m = nJ=-N{(Im ~mn + Im ~mn)xn +(Re !!mn-Re ~mn)yn} -N~~N (5.3.13b)
To solve this set of 4N+2 real equations (-N~~N) with 4N+2 real
unknowns (x and y with -N~n~N) by means of a computer, it is
n n
expressed as:
Re Sm Re ~m-N + Re 2m-N ••
Re SN Re ~N-N + Re !:!N-N ••
Im S-N Im ~-N-N+Im 2-N-N ••
Im Sm Im ~m-N + Im 2m-N ••
(5.3.14)
Since the voltage u (see figure 5.1.1) is periadie with angular

g
131
period ~· the computation of this voltage can be restricted to an
interval ~ rad of length. Here, the interval
(5.3.15)
will be used. According to table 5.3.1 and figure 5.3.1a, the

thyristors T and T are continuously conducting during this interval.
1 6
Using figure 5.1.1 and (5.2.13a), the following expression can be
deduced {u {wt)=u (wt-~n)):
c a 3
=u - u =Re{ ! û (~-J' 1 13)ej( 6 n+ 1 )wt} ·a. <wt<a. +:!! (5.3.16)
ug a c n=-6n+1 2 2 ' p p 3
The average value of u is given by:
1f g
a. +3 A
=~Lp u d(wt) = 313Re{! !:!6n+1ej(6n+1)et} (5.3.17)

UgO 1r g 1T n=-=6n+1 p
p
Using table 5.3.1 or figure 5.3.1b, it can beseen that I equals

g
the armature phase current i in the case of, for example, wt=a. :
a p
I = i (wt=a ) · (5.3.18)
g a . p
Using (5.2.4a) and (5.2.2), this expressionchanges into:
Ig = Re{n~~ 6 n+lej{ 6 n+ 1 )a.p} (5.3.19)
In practice the series in (5.3.16), (5.3.17), and (5.3.19) are

restricted to: -N~n~N.
In case the model of the synchronous machine as described in section

4.3 is allowed to be used, the harmonies in the internal voltages are
zero if le=l". Using zdn"'O with n*O and =0 with n*O according to,
respectively, (5.2.20d) and (5.2.22), (5.3.9) can, in this case, be
transformed into:
!jwl (6m+1)i = (ê - zs _i - zd i*)p +

3 e - 6m+ 1 p 0 1 --0-1 -6m
+ (êp - ~8!1 - zsö!~)~6m+2(i+j}/3) (5.3.20)
The value of ! 1 can be found by solving this equation for m=O (the
pulse function is known). Using this value, equation (5.3.20) can be
solved for other values of m. In this way, in the case considered bere,
the coefficients of the Fourier series of the armature phase current
1; 6n+l are found immediately (without solving a set of equations tike
(5.3.14)).
132
5.4 On the choice of the value of the external self-inductance
In the preceding sections only incidentally attention has been paid

to the choice of the external self-inductance 1 • In this section a
e
possible way of choosing this self-inductance wil1 be given.
For this purpose (5.3.9) is considered
ê {p +p (!+j!/3)}=-1jwl (6m+1)! +
P -6m -6m+2 3 e - 6m+ 1
! i {zs zs p +zd* p
n=-<»-6n+1 -6n+1-n.-6(m-n) --n-6(m-n)+2
(i+j/3)} +
!
n~-6n+1
i* { zs*p
--n-6(m+n)+2
U+ j!/3) +zd S
--nL6(m+n)
}
((5.3.9))
In practical computations the series in (5.3.9) have to be truncated:

only the terms with -N~n~N are considered. Hence, the contributions
of the terms with n<-N or n>N shou1d be as small as possib1e. As can
be seen in expression (5.2.15a)
zs r + j(6n+1)w[!{1d(6nw)+l (6nw)}-l ] ((5.2.15a))

-n a - -q e
these terms are affected by the external self-inductance 1 • Since 1
e e
is a real quantity, the modulus of zs is minimized by:
-n
(5.4.1}
In general,
6
j!
n+ll wi11 decrease when lnl increases. So, the term
with lni=N+1 is mostly the term with the largest contribution to the
truncation error. To minimize this contribution, the external se1f-
inductance 1 is chosen according to (n=N+1):
e
1 = iRe[1d{6(N+1)w} + 1 {6(N+1)w}] (5.4.2)
e - -q
Since 1d(w) and 1 (w) be1ong to rea1 pulse responses (section 1.2 and
- -q
1.3), n=-(N+l) would resu1t in the same expression (!d(-w)=!~(w);
1 (-w)=1*(w).
-q -q
To obtain an impression of the errors caused by different choices
of le, a simple computing example wi11 be given. In this example the
synchronous machine is supposed to meet the requirements of the simple
model as described in section 4.3. The following parameters are used
in the example: r =0; ld(O)=ld=1.5; 1 (0)=1 =1; ld(6nw)=1 (6nw)=l"=0.15
a - -q q - . -q
with n+O; N=10; w=1; ê =1; a =0.5; ~~0.5. In table 5.4.1 the Fourier
p p
series coefficients I are given for 1 =0.05, 1 =0.1, and 1e=0.15.
- 6n+ 1 e e
133
As has been mentioned in the last part of the preceding section, using
1 =1"=0.15 results in the right values. In genera!, if a larger value
e
of Nis used, the errors in the case of 1 =0.05 and 1 =0.1 will be
e e
smaller.
n i
-6n+1
1 =0.05 1 =0. 1 I =0.15

e e e
-10
-9
-0.00002-j0.00051
0.00004-j0.00066
-0.00023-j0.00049
-0.00013-j0.00063
-0.00035-j0.00043
-0.00022-j0.00059
I
-8 0.00019-j0.00082 0.00001-j0.00086 -0.00010-j0.00087
I
-7 0.00052-j0.00094 0. 00035-j 0. 00100 0.00025-j0.00102
-6 0.00097-j0.00121 0.00080-j0.00135 0.00069-j0.00143
-5 0.00180-j0.00112 0.00165-j0.00130 0.00156-j0.00139
-4 0.00336-j0.00149 0.00325-j0.00178 0.00317-j0.00195
-3 0.00608+j0.00015 0.00605-j0.00020 0.00602-j0.00040
-2 0.01691+j0.00129 0.01704+j0.00063 0.01710+j0.00025
-1 0.04068+j0.06942 0.04162+j0.06880 0.04216+j0.06842
0 0.32509-j0.35693 0.32512-j0.35506 0.32514-j0.35396
1 0.04400+j0.01817 0.04367+j0.01910 0.04347+j0.01964
2 o.00495+j0.00901 I 0.00450+j0.00928 o~oo423+j0.00943
3 0.00229+j0.00489 0.00199+j0.00503 0.00180+j0.00510

4 0.00004+j0.00288 -0.00025;j0.00288 -0.00042+j0.00287
5 0.00024+j0.00195 -0.00044+j0.00191 -0.00056+j0.00188
6 -0.00059+j0.00119 -0.00078+j0.00109 -0.00088+j0.00102
7 -0.00059+j0.00082 -0.00071+j0.00071 -0.00078+j0.00063
8 -0.00059+j0.00048 I -0.00070+j0.00033 -0.00074+j0.00022 I
9 -0.00054+j0.00030 l-0.00059+j0.00015 -0.00061+j0.00006
10 -0.00044+j0.00027 -0.00051+j0.00001 -0.00048-j0.00014 i
Table 5.4.1 The influence of different choices of the value
of the external self-inductance on the value of
the coefficient !6n+l'
134
5.5 The influence of the truncation of the armature-current
Fourier series on the computing results
To investigate the influence of the truncation of the armature-

current Fourier series, first the Fourier series of the armature
current i is considered. Using (5.2.4a) and (5.2.2) this series may
a
be expressed as:
i
a
r 1-6m+ 1ej(6m+1)wt1.f
Re{m=-oo (5.5.1)
When this series is limited to -N~mSN, the following expression can be

given for the error:
(5.5.2)
The coefficients in the series in (5.5.1) are expressed by (5,3.8b):
"f' - 3
!.6m+1- jw(6m+1)1
r {A* A
n-= ~6n+1f6(m+n)+2
(1+'1/3)+-
2
J
A
~6n+1E6(m-n)
} (5 5 3)
• •
e
As bas been shown in the last part of section 5.2, using the model
of the synchronous machine as described in section 4.3 and choosing
1 ;1" results in: ê ~o for n*O ((5.2.23b)), Although in practice
e ~6n+1
~ n+l
6 for n*O does not equal zero, a favourable choice of 1e will
6 0
result in: 1~ n+lln*0<<1! 1. In the following estimation of the error
!Ai
a
I the supposition
ê
-6n+1
11: 0 n *0 (5.5.4)
will be used. Because of this neglect, the expression for the maximum
error which has to be found might result in too small an error. It
should be borne in mind that this expression will give a maximum value
of the error. Since the real error will be smaller, it seems to be
reasonable to assume that this expression will give a fair impression
of the truncation error.
Using (5.5.3) and (5.5.4), the modulus of the coefficients of the
armature-current Fourier series can be expressed as:
(5.5.5)
135
lt follows from this expression that the moduli of the coefficients
of the Fourier series of the pulse function lP-n I affect the moduli of
the armature-current Fourier series strongly. Expressions for the
moduli lP-n I can be found by using (5.3.2b):
IÊol = i1T (5.5.6a)
IÊnl = ~~;sin(!n~)l n *0 (5.5.6b)

In figure 5.5.1 l2nl (=12-nl) is depicted for positive values of n in
the case of ~=0.1 and ~=0.5. lt can beseen from this figure that
-- • '!fn (n is changing continuously)

• : ).1=0.1
.. ).1=0.5
.
10-2
.. .
. . ... . .. ...............
.... .........~
.. -_ ..... _
• . ..
A
•• ..
··......
A A --....... __
.. ..
·~
--1""'z-
.. ..
.
..
.
..
.
•e.
•
11
'"•
.. "
.·
11
~ "' • •
..
..
... .. .
.
10
-s . 11
..!!....
0 tO 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 5.5.1 The modulus of the Fourier series of a pulse

function as a function of n.
l2nl with ~=0.5 is larger than l2nl with ~=0.1 for low values of
n (O~n~10): the influence of the lower harmonies in the case of a
relatively small pulse (small value of ~: "rapid conunutation") is
smaller than in the case of a relatively wide pulse (large value of
~: "slow conunutation"; see figure 5.3.1).
Using (5.5.5) and (5.5.6), (5.5.2) becomes:
136
(5.5.7)
This series is divided into two parts to find a reasonable

estimation of the error (A is a positive integer):
N+1 ~ m ~ A : this part of the series will be computed
by means of a computer
A+1 ::> m this part of the series will be estimated.
The following estimation will be use~:
m:Ï+1[6~- 1 {6~-2~sin((-6m+2)~)1 + 6~~sin(6m~)l} +
+ 6~+ 1 {6~+ 2 ,sin((6m+2)~)1+ 6~~sin(6m~)i}] < ~ 6~+ 1 (5.5.8)
Using this estimation, the following expression can be deduced from

(5.5.7):
IMal < ll\ialmax • ~~~~e ~ 6~+1 +
3~~~~ A
+ - - - I:
nwl m•N+1 2 1sin (<-6m+2)~)1 + 6~~sin (6m~) I}+
e
(5.5.9)
In practice, the value of N wiil never be larget than 1000 (this

corresponds to a set of 4002 equations with 4002 unknowns), so that
the investigation of the influence of N on the error is not important
for N>1000, In figure 5.5.2 l~i I related to lê- 1 l/(wl)
a max e
is
depicted as a function of N with A=1000 for ~-0.1 and ~-0.5.
To obtain an impression of the influence of the value of N, a
computing example will be given. As in section 5.4 the synchronous
machine in this example is supposed to meet the requirements of the
simple model as described in section 4.3. The following parameters
are used in the example: r •0; ld(O)=ld=1.5; 1 (0)•1 =1; ld(6nw)•
a -, -q q - .
=1 (6nw)=l"=l"=0.15 with n*O· w•1• ê =1· a. =0.5. Since 1 =1" tbe
-q e • ' p ' p e •
computed values of tbe fundamental componentsof the·synchronous
machine quantities (as for example IdO and IqO) are the correct
137
1
1Ö
tÖ
4
uf uf -N
Figure 5.5.2 The maximum error l~i I related to

a max
1~ 1/(wle) as a function of N,
1
values. The computed values of the average value of the direct
voltage UgO (according to (5.3.17)) and the value of the direct
current I (according to (5.3.19)) are given forsome values of N for
g
IJ=0.1 and for IJ=0.5 in table 5.5.1. In this table the corresponding
values of l~i a imax found by means of expression (5.5.9) are also
given. When applying this expression, A=1000 and the computed values
of 1~ 1 1 have been used (\.1=0.1: 1~ 1 1=0.9387764; )1=0.5: 1~ 1 1=0.5907831).
Inthelast row of table 5.5.1 the correct values of U and I are
g0 g
given. These values have been computed by using the simple model as
described insection 4.3 (according to (5.6.7) and (5.6.6); see
subsectien 5.6.1).
To give an impression of the influence of the value of N on u (wt)
ac
and i (wt), these functions are depicted for N=1, N=5, N=15, and
a
N=100, and according to the simple model as described in sectien 4.3
in figure 5.5.3 for \.1=0.1 and in figure 5.5.4 for \.1=0.5. These
examples correspond with the examples the results of which are given
in tab le 5. 5. 1 •
138
]1=0. 1 ]1=0.5
N
ugo I
g
IMa Imax i
ugo
I
I
g lt.i
'
1
a max
1 1.35106 0.19160 0.29834 0.91047 0.42839 0.15024

2 1.34641 0.18817 0.20393 0.91601 0.44244 0.11510
3 1.34245 0.18650 0.14595 0.91359 0.43708 0.07238
4 1.33932 0.18557 0.10719 0.91476 0.44009 0.06224
5 1. 33707 0. 18509 0.08065 0.91403 0.43840 0.04760
10 1. 33452 0.18531 0.03944 0.91424 0.43912 0.02566
15 1.33392 0.18531 0.02805 0.91424 0.43914 0.01740
20 1.33343 0.18529 0.02028 0.91418 0.43903 0.01290
25 1. 33328 0.18532 0.01714 0.91421 0.43912 0.01071
30 1 .33305 0.18529 0.01373 0.91419 0.43908 0.00888
40 1.33286 0.18529 0.01042 0.91419 0.43910 0.00673
50 1.33274 0.18530 0.00843 0.91418 0.43909 0.00545
60 1.33267 0.18530 0.00710 0.91418 0.43908 0.00453
80 1.33257 0.18530 0.00543 0.91418 0.43909 0.00346
100 1. 33252 0.18530 0.00442 0.91417 0.43909 0.00280
- 1. 33227 0.18530 0 0.91417 0.43909 0
I
Table 5.5.1 The influence of Non the computed

values of UgO and Ig.
139
.76
0
-.76
-1·5
N=l
ia \
.76
~
0 0
0 7f I
-.1 -.76
I
-.2 -1.5
N=5
la
0
0
'
7f
-
wt
-.1
-.2 -1·6
N=l5
ia I
·1
(~
0 '
0 n
-1·5
N=lOO
ia
.t .76
C-'4.
0 0
0 7l
-.1 -.75
-.2 -1.6
N= -
Figure 5.5.3 The functions i (wt) and u (wt) for N=1, N=5,
a ac
N=15, and N=100, and for N=- (which refers to the
simple model as described in section 4.3) for the
examples described in this section with ~=0.1.
140
.6
ha
·26 .6
0 0
-.26 -.5
-.5 -1
N=l
.6
ha
·26 .5
0 0
-.25 -.6
-.5 -1
N=5
.6
ha
·26
L \ ~
.5
\ 7
0 0
0
-·26 -.6
-.5 -1
N=l5
.6
Iia
.25
L \ .6
~
0 0
0
'
-.26 -.5
-.5 -1
N=IOO
.5
li8
·26
0 L \ .6
0
0
\
'
-.25 -.6
-.5 -1
N= -
Figure 5.5.4 The functions i (wt) and u (wt) for N=1, N=5,
a ac
N=15, and N=100, and for N=- (which refers to the
simple model as described in section 4.3) for the
examples described in this section with v=0.5.
141
5.6 Some remarks on the use of the simple model as
described in sectien 4.3
5.6.1 Introduetion
In practice the simple computation metbod as described in sectien

4.3 will usually be preferabie to the rather complicated metbod which
is described in this cbapter. For that reason, in this sectien
attention is paid to some aspects of the model which is the base of
this simple computation method.
In sectien 4.3 the synchronous machine is seen as tbe combination of
an "ideal" synchronous machine, with a symmetrical three-phase system
of sinusoidal (internal) phase voltages, and three self-inductances 1"
(see figure 4.3.1). Applying this model of the synchronous machine,
two important complications arise:
- In section 4.3 the quadrature-axis and the direct-axis sub-transient
inductance are assumed to be equal (l~"'l:i=l"). This condition is
usually not fulfilled (not even approximately). In subsectien 5.6.2
attention will be paid to this complication,
Furthermore, in sectien 4.3 the changing parts in id and iq are
assumed to change so fast that the sub-transient inductance is
allowed to be used•, In reality the operational inductances for the
distinct harmonies may be rather different. This is very clear in
the case of the quadrature-axis operational inductance of a solid
pole synchronous machine (see figure 2.4.7). In subsectien 5.6.3
attention will be paid to this complication.
On the other hand, in general the neglect of the armature resistance
will not cause inadmissible errors in the computations. This is
certainly the case with relatively large synchronous machines which
operate at a normal angular velocity.
If, in spite of the complications, the simple model as described in
sectien 4.3 is preferred, the parameters of the "ideal" machine and
the value of the commutation inductances have to be chosen. Since the
synchronous machine parameters are generally known for the case of the
synchronous machine with a symmetrical three-phase system of
sinusoidal armature currents (as described insection 1.7), it seems
to be reasonable that for this case the behaviour of the combination
of the "ideal" machine with the commutation inductances corresponds
142
with the behaviour of the "real" machine. Making use of this
presupposition, the choice has been reduced to the choice of the value
of the commutation inductances 1 , which corresponds with the value of
c
the sub-transient inductance 1" in section 4.3.
As has been mentioned insection 5.3,in this chapter the delay angle
a is used instead of the delay angle a in chapter 4. When the model
p
as described in section 4.3 can be used, the difference between those
angles is the load angle of the internal "ideal" machine:
a
p
=a + s (5. 6. 1)
Substituting the expression for the fundamental component of the

internal phase voltages ~
1 (5.2.24) with 1 =1 :
e c
ê = ê - jw(l -1 )I O + w(ld-1 )IdO (5.6.2)
-1 p q c q c
the expression for the coefficients of the Fourier series of the pulse
!
function ~n (5.3.2b), and 1=IqO+jidO (by using (5.2.8c) and (5.2.8d))
into (5.3.8b) results in the following equation for the simple model
(~ 6 n+l=O for n*O):
{êp-jw(lq -lc)IqO+W(ld-lc)Ido} ~+
. -j2a -j2)1
{ êp +jw(lq -lc)Iq 0 +W(l[lc)IdO } ~e P(e -1) = 5wlc ( j \ -IdO)
0
(5.6.3)
In the equation with the direct current I (3.3.4) and the
g
expression for the average value of the direct voltage UgO (4.3.20)
the amplitude of the internal phase voltage and the delay angle a are
~ n+l=O
used. Using (5.2.14a) with 6 for n*O, the internal phase voltage
ea may be expressed as:
e
a
= Re{ê-1 ejwt} (5.6.4)
1~ 1.
Hence, the amplitude of the internal phase voltage equals
1 The
delay angle a can be found by using (5.6.1). The value of the load
angle s in this equation can be found by camparing (5.6.4) with the
expression for e" insection 4.3 (4.3.6a):
a
s = -arg{~,} (5.6.5)
(5.6.6)
143
Using (4.3.20), (5.6.1), and (5.6.5) results in (ê"... l~
1 1):
UgO = 1T~13iê- 1 icos(a p+argê- 1)- 1T~wl c I g
(5.6. 7)
The value of lc can, for example be chosen with the help of the
computation methad as described in section 5.3. In this (rather
roundabout) way the values of IdO and IqO are computed by means of the
methad as described insection 5.3 (a and ~are known quantities).
p
After substituting these values into (5.6.3) a value of 1 can be
c
obtained from this equation. This complex va1ue wi11 be indicated by
the symbol lc'· The real part of 1 1 may be used as the value of the
-c
commutation inductance in the simple model as described in section 4.3
(1 corresponds with 1"):
{.} tê
c . -j2a. -j2]J
-jw1 I 0 +w1did0)~1T +(ê +jw1 I O+W1dido)i?re P(e -1)}
Re 1 1 =Re P q q P q q . .
-c { . -J20. -J2~ }
jw (I +ji )(1-~)+(I -ji )~ Pee -1)
qO dO 3 21T qO dO 41T
(5.6.8)
5.6.2 Unequa1 values of the quadrature-axis and the

direct-axis sub-transient inductances
For the discussion in this subsection a synchronous machine with

the following (rather realistic) machine parameters wi11 be used:
r =0· 1 (0)-=1 .. 1.5· 1 (0)=1 =1· 1 (6nw)=l"=0.1 with n*O; 1 (6nw)=l"=
a ' -? d ' -q q ' -d d -q q
=0.2 with n*O. Further choices of va1ues are: ê =1 and w=1.
p
Besides the choice of the commutation inductance as described in the
preceding subsection (according to (5.6.8)), other choices are
possib1e, One of these possibilities will be described with the help
of figure 5.6.1. In figure 5.6.1a the space phasor Id , which
- qo
corresponds to the fundamental components of the armature phase
currents, and the orbit of the end of the current space phasor id are
- q
depicted for a =0.6 and v=0.1. As can beseen in this figure, the
p
change of id is approximately perpendicular with respect to the
- q
phasor Id • In other words, the phasor id might be seen as the
- q0 - q
addition of the (constant) phasor ld and the phasor óid , the
- q 0 - q
modulus of which is rapidly changing (see figure 5.6.1b). This rapidly
changing phasor can be divided into its direct-axis and quadrature-
144
d
- ·1
- ·1
-.3
a b
Figure 5.6.1 The varying current space phasor id •

- q
axis components: M l\i +jllid where lli =!Md lcos\3and b.id=laid lsinf3
-dq= q q - q - q
(the angle Bis specified in figure 5.6.1b). llence, the rapidly
changing part of the flux space phasor might be expressed as:
lllJ!. dq = Alj! q +jAlj!d = l"Ai

q q
+jl"Ai
d d q d
I -dq I
= (l"cos 13 +jl"sin \3) ai
Hence, its modulus may be written as:
ló~dql = Y(l"cos
q
B ) 2 + (l"sin
d B PI Ai-dq I
The quotientof ja~dql and lllfdql might be used as a coefficient of

self-induction, which can be .seen as a commutation inductance. Using
cos B sin 13
v'12 +12
dO qO
this inductance, which is indicated by lh' may be expressed as:
. I (l"I )2 +(l"I )2
1 = ~ d qO q dO (5.6.9)
h Iào + r~o
In literature, for example [Bue 77], [Mau 75], and [Ste 78], the
commutation inductance
1
c
= Hl"d + 1")
q
(5.6.10)
is frequently advised.
In order to evaluate these various choices of the commutation
inductances, table 5.6.1 has been composed. In the first pair of
colums the values of, respectively, a p and Jl are given. In the s.econd
145
pair of columns the values of respectively, 1' (expression (5.6.8))
-c
and lh (expression (5.6.9)) can he found. The values needed in the
expressions(5.6.8) and (5.6.9) have been computed by means of the
method as described in section 5.3 with N=50. Subsequently for each of
the quantitiés UgO' 1 , IqO' and IdO four values have been given. The
8
first value of each quantity has been found by means of the methad as
described insection 5.3 (N=50). The remaining three values have been
computed by means of equation (5.6.3) and the expressions (5.6.2),
(5.6.6), and (5.6.7). In case of the first value of those remaining
values the commutation inductance Re{l'} according to the table has
-c
been used in these formulae. The second one has been computed by using
the commutation inductance lh according to the table, whereas the last
one has been computed by using the commutation inductance according to
expression (5.6.10) (1 =0.15).
c
It can beseen in table 5.6.1 that the computation results in the
case of using the expressions for the commutation inductance (5.6.8)
and (5.6.9) are rather good. In genera!, expression (5.6.8) leads to
better results than expression (5.6.9) does. However, distinct
differences in the values of UgO may be found when the angle of
overlap ~ is larger than 0.5 rad. Besides, it appears from this table
that the choice of the commutation inductance is not very critical.
Hence, the choice of lc according to (5.6.9) with a rough estimate of
the angle Sin figure 5.6.1b (or of IdO and IqO) might be very useful.
This choice, the physical background of which is rather clear, is
particularly valuable in the case of relatively small values of the
angle of overlap ~. Even the choice 1 =Hl"+l") appears to be rather
c d q
good in many situations. If, however, the current space phasor !dqO'
which corresponds to the fundamental components of the armature phase
currents, is close to either the direct axis or the quadrature axis,
the errors may be rather large in the case of relatively small values
of the angle of overlap ~.
It appears from table 5.6.1 that particularly in the case of

relatively large values of the angle of overlap ~. the difference
between the results obtained by the computation method as described in
section 5.3 and the results obtained by means of the simple model as
described in section 4.3 may be rather clear. In order to get an
impression of the cause of this phenomenon,the current space phasor
146
ugo lg I go 1do
a j1 1' lh
p -c (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) ( 3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4)
0.05 0.05 0.1010-jO.OOOO 0.1009 1.647 1.647 1.647 1.64 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.017 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.019 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001
0.1 0.1 0.1020-j0.0001 0.1037 1.622 1.622 1.623 1.62 0.069 0.069 o.o68 0.055 0.075 0.075 0.074 0.061 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012
0.5 0.1 0.1272- j0.0002 0.1350 1.325 1.325 1.328 1.33 0.202 0.202 0.196 0.185 0.190 0.190 0.184 0.174 -0.117 -0.117 -0.113 -0.107
0.5 0.3 0.1368-j0.0016 0.1468 1.133 1.126 1.130 1.13 1 0.360 0.359 0.353 0.352 0.310 0.308 0.303 0.302 -0.245 -0.247 -0.243 -0.242
1 0.1 0.1750-j0.0001 0.1805 0.720 0.720 0.721 0.71 1 0.259 0.259 0.255 0.281 0.142 0.142 0.140 0.154 -0.248 -0.248 -0.244 -0.269
1 0.3 0.1836- jO.OO 12 0.1872 0.519 0.515 0.515 0.50 6 0.442 0.442 0.440 0.463 0.197 0.195 0.194 0.204 -0.444 -0.445 -0.442 -0.466
1 0.5 0.1888-j0.0030 0.1929 0.362 0.353 0.354 0. 0.522 0.521 0.520 0.535 0.173 0.168 0.168 0.171 -0.542 -0.543 -0.542 -0.559
1 0.7 0.1877-j0.0051 0.1971 0.222 0.213 0.214 o. 0.571 0.570 0.568 0.577 0:121 0.116 0.116 0.114 -0.604 -û.605 -0.603 -0.614
1 I 0.1386-j0.0131 0.1998 0.055 0.047 0.053 0.( 0.622 0.621 0.617 0.6ZO 0.034 0.029 0.032 0.030 -0.657 -0.657 -0.653 -0.656
1.5 0.1 0.1994-jO.OOOO 0.2000 0.030 0.029 0.029 0.028 0.268 0.268 0.2&7 0.310 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 -0.295 -0.295 -0.294 -0.342
1.5 0.3 0.1997+j0.0003 0.1995 -0.097 -0.096 -0.096 -0.094 0.454 0.454 0.454 0.484 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.041 -0.497 -0.497 -0.497 -0.530
1,5 0.5 0.1951 +jO.OO 18 0,1978 -0.201 -0.197 -0.197 -0.19 1 0.528 0.528 0.527 0.544 -0.099 -0.097 -0.097 -0.098 -0.568 -0.568 -0.567 -0.586
1.5 0.7 0.1862+j0.0062 0.1954 -0.281 -0.269 -0.271 ·0 0.567 0.566 0.564 0.573 -0.151 -0.145 -0.145 -0.142 -0.594 -0.595 -0.593 -0.604
1.5 0.9 0.1813+j0.0161 0.1937 -0.323 -0.308 -0.313 -0 0.585 0.583 0.582 0.585 -0.180 -0.171 -0.174 -0.163 -0.600 -0.601 -0.599 -0.607
2 0.1 0.1784+j0.0001 0.1834 -0.663 -0.664 -0.666 -0 0.261 0.261 0.257 0.286 -0.133 -0.132 -0.131 -0.145 -0.255 -0.255 -0.251 -0.280
2 0.3 0.1703+j0.0015 0.1765 -0.716 -0.710 -0.712 -0.704 0.428 0.428 0.424 0.440 -0.255 -0.253 -0.251 -0.260 -0.395 -0.396 -0.393 -D.408
2 0.5 0.1620+j0.0047 0.1713 -0.771 -0.756 -0.760 -0.750 10-476 0.475 0.472 0.479 -0.310 -0.303 -0.302 -0.305 -0.418 -0.421 -0.418 -0.426
2.5 0.1 0.1312+j0.000 1 0.1391 -1.280 -1.281 -1.284 -1.288 0.211 0.211 0.204 0.196 -0.193 -0.193 -0.187 -0.179 -0.130 -0.130 -0.126 -0.121
2.5 0.3 0.1226+j0.0014 0.1325 -1.306 -1.301 -1.305 -1.311 0.301 0.301 0.296 0.287 -0.286: -0.285 -0.280 -0.273 -0.166 -0.168 -0.165 -0.159
i
'----·
Tab1e 5.6.1 The inf1uence of various choices of the commutation inductance:

(1): method as described in sectien 5.3;
-c according to (5.6.8);
(2): 1c =Re{1'}
(3): 1c=1h according to (5.6.9); (4): 1 =H1"+1").
c d q
d d d
q q
-.2 -.2 .2 -.2 ·2 -.2 ·2
-.2 -.2 -·2 -.2
Îdq 0
-.4 -.4
Îdq
-.a -.8
Îdq
-.a -.a -.a -.a
a =1,52; w=O.I a =1,47; ].1=0.2 a •1,37; ].1=0.4 a =1.27; ].1=0.6
p p p p
d d d
q
-.2 .2 -.2 ·2
-.2 -.2
-.4 -.4
•.a ldqO -.6 ldqo

Îdq +!dq
-.a -.a
a =1.17; ].1=0.8 o: =I , 07; ]J•I 0: =1,05; ].1=1.04
p p p
Figure 5.6.2 The orbits of the end of

i for some values of lJ for the case in which
-dq
!dqO lies on the (negative) direct •axis.
!dqO and the orbit of the end of the current space phasor idq is
depicted in figure 5.6.2 for some values of the angle of overlap ].l.
The delay angle a has been chosen in such a way that the space phasor
p
!dqO lies on the (negative) direct axis (The diagrams have been
computed by means of the metbod as described in section 5.3 with N=50).
As can be seen in these figures, the change of -id q is approximately
parallel to the quadrature axis in the case of relatively small values
of 1J and approximately parallel to the direct axis for values of ].l
near to 1T
3 rad. Th~s
•
ph enomenon may also be found ~n
. the values of
which have been computed by means of (5.6.8). The values of 1 1

-c
corresponding to figure 5.6.2 are shown in table 5.6.2 (In this case
the values of lh according to (5.6.9) is 0.2).
Because the orbits as depicted in figure 5.6.2 correspond to an
148
Ct ~ 1'
p I ' -c
1.52 0. 1 0.1994-jO.OOOO
1.47 0.2 0.2003-jO.OOOO
1.37 0.4 0.1996-jO.OOOO
1.27 0.6 0.1952-jO.OOOO
1 • 17 0.8 0.1825-jO.OOOO
1.07 1 0.1356-j0.0002
1.05 1.04 0.1085-j0.0003
Tab1e 5.6.2 The va1ues of !~ corresponding to figure 5.6.2.
exeptional condition (!dqO is on the quadrature axis) • the computations

have been repeated for the case in which !dqO lies in another
direction. The resu1ts are shown in figure 5.6.3 and table 5.6.3 (In
this case the va1ue of lh according to (5.6.9) is 0.195).
Ct \.1 1'
p -c
1.26 0.1 0.1929-j0.0001

1.21 0.2 0.1936-j0.0003
1. 11 0.4 0.1931-j0.0015
0.99 0.6 0.1890-j0.0041
0.87 0.8 0.1818-j0.0100
0.7 1 0.1837-j0.0220
Tab1e 5.6.3 The va1ues of 1 1 corresponding to figure 5.6.3.

-c
149
d d d
!I q
-.2 -.2 .2 -.2
-.2
-.4 -. -.4
-.s -.s -.6
-.a -.a -.a

a p =1.26; ]J=O,I a =1,21; ]J=0,2 a =1.11; ].1=0.4
p p
d d d
q q q
-.2 -.2 -.2
-.2 -.2 -.2
-.4 -.4 -.4
-.s -.s -.s

ldq
-.a -.a -.a
ap =0,99; ].1=0.6 a =0,87; ]J=l'l,8 a =0.7; ]J=l
p p
Figure 5.6.3 The orbits of the end of i for some values of ]J

-dq
for the case in which I lies in an arbitrary
-dqO
direction
150
5,6,3 The frequency dependency of the "commutation inductance"
Although the condition for the model of the synchronous machine as

described in section 4.3 ld(6nw)=l (6nw) with n*O is sametimes
- -q
(approximately) fulfil1ed, in general the condition that ld(6nw}=
=1 (6nw) with n*O equals 111 is not satisfied (even not approximately),
-q
The main cause of this can often be found in eddy-current phenomena
(for example the skin-effect in a damper cage winding and the eddy
currents in solid steel),
In order to give an impression of the resulting effect of the eddy-
current phenomena in a coil without resistance, the simp1e circuit as
shown in figure 5.6.4 wi11 be used. The (operationa1) impedance
Figure 5.6.4 A circuit to show the resu1ting effect of the

eddy-current phenomena in a coil without
resistance.
of this circuit may be expressed as:
Z_(w) = u(w) = jwljJ(w) = ·w(1 + 12 )

(5.6.11)
i(w) i(w) J 1 .w1 2
1 + Jr-
e
This circuit behaves like a coi1 with coefficient of self-inductance
1 +1 in case of very slow phenom~na (w~), whereas it behaves like a
1 2
coil with coefficient of self-inductance 1 in case of very rapid
1
phenomena. Using (5.6.11), the operational inductance for the circuit
as shown in figure 5.6.4 may be written as:
~(w) 12
1(W} = I<w) = r, + _ __;;.;_w.....l-2 (5.6.12)
+ j--
re
In figure 5.6.5 Re{l(w)} and Im{l(w}} according tot (5.6.12} are
1 =0.1~
depicted for the rather realistic parameters:
2 1 1 =0.05, and
r =0.5 (These parameters have been chosen in such a way that l(6nw}
e -
151
with n*O is in the region of the operational inductances of the two
synchronous machines as mentioned in chapter 2). In practice the value
of may be quite different. When figure 5.6.5 is compared with the
Re 1
.16 tIm ;b
·12
.t
.os
.os
.04
.02
-.04
Figure 5.6.5 The operational inductance corresponding
to figure 5.6.4.
figures 2.4.4, 2.4.5, 2.4.6, and 2.4.7 attention should be paid to the
facts that in this chapter the (angular) frequency is expressed in
per-unit values, whereas it is expressed in Hz in chapter 2 (in Europe
usually: 50 Hz corresponds with 1 p.u.) and that in this chapter
Im{l(w)} is depicted, whereas -wim{l(w)} is depicted in chapter 2.
In order to obtain an impression of the influence of the frequency
dependency of the operational inductance on the commutation, the
circuit shown in figure 5.6.6 is considered. At the instant t=O
the switch S is closed, so that the circuit with the direct voltage

influence of the operational inductance on
the commutation.
152
souree U and the coil (the combination of the elements 1 , 1 , and re)
1 2
is closed. This action may be compared with a commutation, in which
two phase terminals are temporarilyshort-circuited. However, in case
of a commutation the voltage souree is an alternating voltage source,
so that the phenomena described bere may only be compared with a
commutation which is so fast that the alternating voltage souree may
be seen as a direct voltage source. The current i in the network as
shown in figure 5.6.6 may be expressed as:
(5.6.13)
This current as a function of time is depicted in figure 5.6.7a for:

1 1=0.1; 12=0.05; re=0.5.
A commutation is finished when the current i equals the direct
current I . In the process described here, this happens at the instant
g
t=lJ. In this case the following apparent self-inductance may be
defined:
(5.6.14)
This inductance has been chosen in such a way that if the direct
voltage souree U is loaded by a coil (without resistance) with
coefficient of self-induction 1 at the instant t=O, the current in
a
this circuit equals the current i in the circuit shown in figure 5.6.6
at the instant t=lJ, In other words, the apparent self-inductance la
may be considered as a commutation inductance. The inductance 1 as a
a
function of the angle \.1 is depicted in figure 5.6.7b for: 1 =0.1;
1
12=0.05; re=0.5.
Besides the choice of the commutation inductance as described in
subsection 5.6.1 (according to (5.6.8)), another possible choice will
be given bere with the help of the figures 5.6.5 and 5.6.7b. It can be
seen in figure 5.6.7b that the apparent commutation inductance 1
a
increases when \.1 increases. This increase of 1 corresponds to an
a
increase of Re{!} and toa decrease of w (see figure 5.6.5). Hence, a
relatively rapid commutation (relatively small value of \.!) corresponds
to an operational inductance for a relatively high value of the
angular frequency w, whereas a relatively slow commutation (relatively
high value of \.!) corresponds to an operational inductance for a
153
5 .ts
ti I tla
4.5
4
I ·14
.t2
3.6 I
3 ·1
2.6
I .oa
2 I .os
1.6
.Q4
.02
J!:....
0
.s 0 .1 ·2 .3 .4 .6
a b
Figure 5.6.7 The current i as a function of time (a) and the
apparent se1f-inductance 1 (b) as a function of
a
~ for the circuit shown in figure 5.6.6 with
1 =0.1, 1 =0.05, and re=O.S.
1 2
relatively low value of w (This phenomenon fits in with the remark in

sectien 5.5 that the influence of the lower harmonies in the armature
phase currents is larger in case of a re1atively slow commutation than
in case of a relatively rapid commutation; see figure 5.5.1). The
angle of overlap~ is larger than 0.1 rad in many interesting cases,
so that the apparent commutation inductance is larger than 0.12
(see figure 5.6.7b). As can beseen in 5.6.5, la>0.12
corresponds with Re{!(w)} for w<12. When the operational inductances
!(6nw)are known, Re{!(6w)} and Re{!(12w)} may be considered to be used
as a commutation inductance. It will be shown by means of numerical
"experiments" that
1 Re{!(12w)} (5.6.15)
c
is a fairly good choice.
In the numerical "experiments" a .synchronous machine with the
following (rather realistic) machine parameters will be used (with
1 =0.1, 1 =0.05 and re=0.5):
1 2
154
r = 0
a
1.5
1 (0) 1
-q q 1
2 0.05
!d(6nw) = !q(6nw) = !(6nw) = 1
1 + 6nwl = 0 • 1 + -:-1-+J-i-:.0~.:.;6:....nw-
2
n *0
1+j-r--
e
Further choices of values are: ê =1 and w=1.
p
In order to obtain a better impression of the influence of the
frequency dependency of the "commutation inductance" on the computing
results, table 5.6.4 has been composed. In the first three columns the
values of, respectively, a , ~. and 1' according to (5.6.8) can be
P -c
found. The values needed in expression (5.6.8) have been computed by
means of the metbod as described in section 5.3 with N=50. Subsequently
for each of the values UgO' Ig' IqO' and IdO three values have been
given. The first value of each quantity bas been found by means of the
metbod as described insection 5.3 (N=50). The remaining two values
have been computed by means of equation (5.6.3) and the expressions
(5.6.2), (5.6.6), and (5.6.7). In case of the first value of those
two remaining values the commutation inductance Re{l'} according to
-c
the table bas been used in these formulae, whereas the second (last)
one has been computed by using 1 =Re{ld(12w)} according to (5.6.15).
c -
It can be seen in table 5.6.4 that the choice of the commutation
inductance according to (5.6.8) (Re{l'}) as well as according to
-c
(5.6.15) (Re{!(12w)}) lead to rather good computing results. In case
of relatively small values of the angle of overlap (~<0.2), the choice
according to (5.6.8) results in a smaller error than the choice
according to (5.6.15). However, since the absolute error is fairly
small, (5.6.15) is often allowed to be used despite the rather large
relative error. If, nevertheless, this error is too large, the
apparent self-inductance la as described in this subsectien might be
used as commutation inductance.
In order to obtain an impression of the value of this choice, the
values of Re{l'} according to table 5.6.4 have been depicted in figure
-c
5.6.7b (cross-marks). As can beseen in this figure, the approximàtion
of Re{l'}
-c by the apparent self-inductance is rather .,POOd for
relatively small values of the angle of overlap v. The rather bad
approximation for relatively large values of the angle of overlap ~
155
ugo 1
u
lg 'qo do
"p
(2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) ! (1) (2) (3)
I
1.647 1,647 0.022 0.022 0.020 0.024 0.024 0.022 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
0.1 1,636 1,637 0,036 0.036 0.033 0.039 0.039 0.036 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005
0.1 0.1 1.623 1.623 0,065 0.065 0.063 0.071 0.071 0.069 -0.011 -0.011 -0.011
0.5 1.376 1,380 0.138 0.138 0.129 0.132 0.132 0.123 -0.076 -0,076 -0.071
0.5 0.1 1.321 1.323 0.213 0.213 0.208 0.200 0.200 0.196 -0.123 -0.123 -0.121
0.5 0.2 1.222 1.221 0.306 0.306 0.307 0.276 0.275 0.276 -0.192 -0.193 -0.194
0.5 0.3 1.120 1,118 0,368 0.367 0.369 0.316 0.314 0.315 -0.252 -0.253 -0.255
0.5 0.5 0.1211- j0.0034 0.905 0.894 0.893 0.450 0.448 0.449 0.333' 0.327 0.327 -0.363 -0.367 -0.367
0.05 0.1089-j0.0001 0.765 0.770 0.775 0.219 0.219 0.206 0.126 0.125 0.118 -0.206 -0.207 -0.194
0.1 0.1156-j0.0003 0.692 0.696 0.698 0.318 0.318 0.313 0.175 0.174 0.171 -0.304 -0.304 -0.299
0.2 0.1235-jO.OOOB 0.589 0.589 0.588 0.421 0.421 0.424 0.211 0.209 0.210 -0.413 -0.414 -0.417
0.3 0.1271-j0.0014 0,503 0.500 0.4";2 0.478 0.478 0.483 0.214 0.210 0.212 -0,480 -0.481 -0.486
0.5 0.1287-j0.0026 0.347 0.339 0.336 0.544 0.543 0.546 0.177' 0.172 U.172 -0.566 -0.568 -0.571
0.7 0.1269-j0.0050 0.210 0.198 0.196 0.583 0.582 0.583 0.119 0.112 0.111 -0.619 -0.620 -0.621
0.9 0.1237-j0.0095 0.098 0.087 0.086 0.611 0.610 0.610 0.059 0.052 0.052 -0.649 -0.649 -0.650
0.1245-j0.0114 0.052 0.045 0,044 0.622 0.622 0.622 0.033 0.028 0.027 -0.658 -0.658 -0.658
1.5 0.05 0.1090-j0.0001 0.060 0.065 0.012 0.012 -0.272 -0.272 -0.256
1.5 0.1 0.1159-j0,0003 0.023 0.028 0.008 0.008 -0.385 -0.385 -0.379
1.5 0.2 0.1247-j0.0009 -0.036 -0,036 -0.036 0.447 0.447 0.452 -0.014 -0.014 -0.492 -0.492 -0.497
1.5 0.3 0.1294- j0.0016 -0.088 -0.093 -0.092 0.498 0.498 0.504 -0.042 -0.546 -0.545 -0.552
1,5 0.5 0.1340-j0.0031 -0.179 -0.189 -0.187 0.550 0.550 0.556 -0.593 -0.593 -0.599
1.5 0.7 0.1362-j0.0057 -0.243 -0.255 -0.249 0.576 0.576 0. -0.141 -0.608 -0.607 -0.611
1.5 0.9 0.1354-j0.0102 -0.272 -0.283 -0.271 0.586 0.586 o. -0.159 -0.153 -0,610 -0.610 -0.613
0.05 0.1091-j0.0001 -0.649 -0.644 -0.648 0.228 0.228 0.

0.1 0.1162-j0.0003 -0.645 -0.641 -0.643 0,323 0.323 0. -0.162 -0.164 -0.161 -0.316 -0.316 -0.311
0.2 0.1258-jO.OOlO -0.664 -0.665 -0.663 0.411 0.411 0.4 -0.224 -0.227 -0.229 -0.393 -0.391 -0.397
0.3 0.1320-j0.0019 -0.691 -0.698 -0.693 0.451 0.452 0.4 -0.261 -0.266 -0.270 -0.421 -0.419 -0.427
2.5 0.05 0.1092-j0.0001 -1.285 -1.281 -1.286 0.157 0.157 0.147 -0.141 -0.141 -0.132 -0.100 -0.100 -0.094
2.5 0.1 0.1167- j0.0004 -1.278 -1.276 -1.277 0.224 0.224 0.221 ·0.204 -0.204 -0.202 -0.138 -0.138 -0.136
2.5 0.2 0.1282-j0.0013 -1.288 -1.291 -1.288 0.278 0.279 0.284 -0.259 -0.261 -0.266 -0.163 -0.161. -0.165
2.5 0.3 0.1373-j0.0029 -1.297 -1.307 -1.299 0.293 0.293 0.302 -0.275: -0.286 -0.167 -0.163 -0.169
Table 5.6.4 The influence of two choices of the commutation

inductance on the computed values of UgO' Ig' IqO'
and !dO:
(1): method as described insection 5.3
(2): =Rel' according to (5.6.8)
-c
(3): =Re{1(12w)} according to (5.6,15)
156
may be caused by the fact that the commutating voltage in the first
part of this subsectien is supposed to be a direct voltage instead of
an alternating voltage.
5.6.4 Conclusions
Some important conclusions can be drawn from this section:

The determination of the commutation inductance as it is used in the
simple model as described in sectien 4.3 does not ha"e to be very
accurate.
- In case of unequal values of the quadrature-axis and the direct-axis
sub-transient inductances the choice 1 =!0"+1") may often be very
c d q
useful. Only when the current space phasor which corresponds with
the fundamental components of the armature phase currents (!dqO)
lies near to the direct or the quadrature axis and the angle of
overlap U is relatively small, the choice lc=lh according to (5.6.9)
seems to be preferable. This situation occurs, for example, when a
synchronous generator with a diode bridge rectifier is supplying a
relatively small current. In this case the choice lc=ld might be
preferred.
- In case of a frequency dependent "commutation inductance", the
choice 1 =Re{l(12w)} leads to fairly good results.
c -
- If the computation method as described in section 5.3 is applied to
a given state, the value which fellows from expression (5.6.8) gives
a good impression of the "commutation inductance".
5.7 A finitely large self-inductance in the direct-eurrent circuit

of the synchronous machine with convertor
In section 5.3 the coefficient of self-inductance of the smoothing

coil in figure 5.1.1 was supposed to be infinitely large, so that
the direct current was always continuously flowing. In this section,
however, this coefficient of self-induction is supposed to have a·
finite value (no computation metbod by means of operational
inductances and Fourier analysis which allows fora resistance in the
direct-eurrent circuit has been developed yet). Hence other eperation
157
modes are also possible. Sirree the thyristors have been supposed to be
2
triggered by means of long pulses <3~ rad of length}, like in sub-
sectien 3.2.3 the following operatien modes can occur:
- "normal" intermittent flow (this is also possible when short pulses
are used),
- delayed
refiring in the rectifier operatien mode,
refiring in the inverter operatien mode,
- continuous flow of the direct current.
Like in subsectien 3.2.3, these eperation modes will be considered for
the interval in which thyristor T as well as thyristor T is
1 4
triggered (see 5.3.1):
~
etp - wt < ap (5.7.1)
3<
In contrast with the treatise in subsectien 3.2.3 the angle of
overlap ~ will not be neglected bere. The various operatien modes will
be considered with the help of figure 5.7.1. The figures 5.7.1a, 5.7.1b;
5.7.1c, and 5.7.1d correspond to respectively, the figures 3.2.2a,
3.2.5b, 3.2.7a and 3.2.7b. However, in the (detailed) versions of
figure 5.7.1 the commutation has been taken into account. It should be
noted that figure 5.7.1 has been stylized (the internal voltages do
nothave to vary sinusoidally). In this figure the conduction of the
thyristors during the interval considered ((5.7.1)) are indicated by
means of a thick line piece and the angles S1, S2 , s3 , and S4 are
introduced on behalf of the computations in this section.
As can beseen in figure 5.7.1, the following situations may be
distinguished in the interval considered (in this sectien the current
space phasor i will be used as the unknown quantity instead of the
armature phase current i which is used in sectien 5.3.):
a
- the thyristors T , T , and are conducting; using figure 5.1.3
1 4
and the expression for the current space phasor! (1.2.4), the
following expression may be deduced:
di
dt= (5.7.2a)
- the thyristors T and T are conducting; using figure 5.1.3 and

1 4
expression (1.2.4), the following expression may be deduced:
158
di
(5.7.2b)
- no thyristor is conducting; using figure 5.1.3 and expression

(1.2.4), the following expression may be deduced:
db = 0 (5.7.2c)
dt
di
In order to find a relatively simple expression for dt' the pulse
functionsp(wt) and h(wt) will be used. The pulse function p(wt) is
related to the case in which three thyristors are conducting
(commutation), whereas the pulse function h(wt) is related to the case
in which two thyristors are conducting in the interval considered here
((5.7.1)). The pulse function p(wt) has been introduced insection 5.3
(the expressions (5,3.1) and (5.3.2) and figure 5.3.1); the pulse
function h(wt) is defined by:
Tf
h(wt)=O a
p-3
< wt+k21! < s, (5.7.3a)
h(wt)=1 s, < wt+k21l < Sz (5.7.3b)
h(wt)=O Sz < wt+k2n < s3 (5.7.3c)
h(wt)=1 s3 < wt+k21T < s4 (5.7.3d)
h(wt)=O 84 < wt+k2n < a (5. 7 .3e)

p
5
h(wt)=O a < wt+k21T < a +-1! (5. 7 .3f)
p p 3
where k is an integer. The Fourier series of this function can be
given by:
h(wt)
00
l: fi ejnwt (5.7.4a)
n=-oo-n
where
5
a
ap +31T
. 1 ·2 - •nwt 1 J4 - . nwt
f3
~
h =-
-n 21T
1
I
a --
1T
P ~
- nwt
h(wt)e J d(wt)=- Je J d(wt)+-
2n
131
e J d(wt)
2n
B3
(5.7.4b)
fi--n h*
-n
(5.7.4c)
The value of U needed in the expressions (5.3.1) and (5.3.2) and the
values of 8 , 8 , 8 , and 8 needed in the expressions (5.7.3) and
1 2 3 4
(5.7.4) have been summarized for the operation modes considered here
in table 5.7.1.
159
eab eac
·f
---:::::tlllllllllll fDTrrrn,..... _....-::::::=---
1
I~
~
________________________.,________ I
T1
T4---------------------------------
Ts
'B I '(3
4 wt
ap --3
1T
a _:!!+E; ap
p 3
Figure 5.7.la "Normal" intermittent flow
~~~"'""''''-
··f I
!
~ I ,
T1----~--------------------_. _______
T4---------------------------------
Ts-----------------------------------
wt
a -1I
p 3
Figure 5.7.lb Delayed firing
~-----------------------------------
Ts--~-------------------------------
I BI 132 'B3 s'4
Figure 5.7.1c Refiring in the rectifier eperation mode
160
.r
81
2 wt
Figure 5.7.Jd Refiring in the inverter operation mode
wt
1T
o.P--3
Figure S.7.Je Continuous flow of the direct current
Figure 5.7.1 The various operation modes considered

in this section
161
operatien mode )l s, 13 2 ; (33 134 I
I I
"normal" intermittent flow a

1T
a _'!!+~
p-3
0 !32=(33 p 3
delayed firing 0 13 z=i33 l; _'!!+~
l;p p 3
1f
refiring ].l Ct --+"(] !32<(33 Ct
p 3 p
1f
continuous flow of the direct current "(] a --+u 13 z=i33 a
p 3 p
I I
Table 5.7.1 The value of"(] needed in the expressLons (5.3.1)

and the values of 13 , 13 , 13 , and 13 needed in
1 2 3 4
the expressions (5.7.3) and (5.7.4).
Using figure 5.7.1, table 5.7.1, and the expressions (5.7.2) and
(5.7.3), the following expression may be deduced:
+ :;-:b2~ub(1-jl3)}p(wt) +
e g
a -!!<wt<a (5.7.5)
p 3 p
di
Using (1 .2.7) and y=wt+!TI ((5.2.6)), dt may be expressedas a
function of the current space phasor in the rotor coordinate system
i :
-dq d'
di f !:dq . . } jwt (5. 7 .6)
dt = 1~ + JW:!:dq e
Since the internal armature phase voltages are known as functions of
the armature phase currents, the substitution of expression (5.7.6)
into equation (5.7.5) results in a differentLal equation with id as
- q
the unknown quantity. Using the initial condition that the armature
phase current ia is zero at the instant of triggering thyristor T :
1
i (a _;;) = 0 (5. 7. 7)
a p 3
this differential equation may be solved (the pulse functions p(wt)
and h(wt) are supposed to be known).
Since the current space phasor id is periodic with angular period
- q
~· the function f(t):
162
. . did
f(t) "' d ~ -]Wt = ~ + J'Wi (5 7 8)
- ~ dt -dq ..
is also periodic with angular period ~· Hence, the function f(t) may
be expressed as a Fourier series:
f(t) "'
-
f ej6mwt
. m=-w-m
r (5. 7. 9a)
where (using (5.7.8))
~ = 1T
3~~ f(t)e- j6mWt d(wt) __ ~~Cfp~-j(6n+1)wtd(wt)
'IT'!Teil::~ (5.7.9b)
a·-~ a--
P 3 . p 3
•
S ~nee an express~on
• d~ ~s
f or dt • k nown f or t h e ~nterva
• 1 ap-3<wt<ap
'IT
((5.7.5)), this interval has been used for the integrals in (5.7.9b).
Using (5.3.4) and (5.2.14a), the substitution of (5.7.5) into
(5.7.9b) results in:
f
-m =
3 r
n=-co~-6n+1
A
t 61 +21
e g .l.
a.
l (31 +21 ) 2'1f 'Jf
JP
p(wt)e-jG(m-n)wtd(wt) +
e e g aP--3
a
+ -- 2-
21 +1
e g
.l.
2'1f
/P
a. _lt
h(wt)e-j 6(m-n)wtd(wt)} t
p 3
1 (l+j/3) 1 Ja.p
l:
QC)
A* T
+ 3n=-w ~6n+1 131 +21 ) 2'1f
{
( )
'lfp wt e
(6(m+n)+2)wtd(wt) +
e e g ap --3
a
+ ;;j:t 2~ J:h(wt)e-j(6(m+n)+2)wtd(wt)} +
e g a--
p 3
_ 6U { 1-j/3
b 31 +21
J_f_a (
2'1f
t) -j(6m+1)wtd( t)
'lfp w e w +
e g p-3
(5.7.10)
Si nee
13 .
a. +~'Jf
Z'1IT
p
p(wt)e-Jnw t d(wt) =0 (5.7.11a)
according to (5.3.1b) (the angle of overlap~ has been supposed to be
163
'1T
smaller than 3 rad), and
5
a +-'lT
1/·P h(wt)e-JnWtd(wt)
Zu 3 · =0 (5.7.11b)
Ct
p
according to (5.7.3f), expression (5.7.10) is transformed into the
following expression by using the expression p (5.3.2b) and the
-n
expression for h-n (5.7.4b):
61 +21
f•3'fê
-m t
n=-co-6n+1 1 (31 +21 )-6(m-n)
e
e
e
gp~
g
+ 2 h
21 +1 -6(m-n)
e g
} +
+ 3 'f.
ê*
t 1 ( 1+ j 13)
~ + 1-j/311
}
+
n~-6n+1 131 +21 )E6(m+n)+2
A
21 +1 -6(m+n)+2
e e g e g
2.
2 -~
2-j2/3A + 13 }
- 3Ub { 31 +21 ~6m+1
(5.7.12)
21 +1 fi6m+1
e g e g
Using the expression for id (5.2.7) and equating the expressions for
- q
f(t) (5.7.8) and (5.7.9a), the fol1owing expression for f may be
- -m
found:
f
-m
• j ( 6m+ 1)w!- 6m+ 1 (5.7.13)
Equating (5.7.12) and (5.7.13), and using i--n=i*

-n
((5.2.2)) and the
~ n+l
expressions for
6 (5.2.16) results in:
(61 +21 >i> +1 (1+jl3>i> 2&6 +(1-jl3)n6 2} 1

A e g-mg6 6 2 -m
-m+ -m+ "( ) ..
ep{ 1 (31 +21 ) + 21 +1 "'3J 6m+l W:!;6m+1 +
e e g e g
(61 +21 )zs p ( )+1 (1+jl3)zd* p ( )

+ 'f i e g -n-6 m-n g --n- 6 m-n +2 +
n="""" -6n+1 { · 1 01 +21 )
e e g
1 (1+j/3)p zs*+(61 +21 )p zd

+ 'f i* g -6 (m+n) +2-n e g -6 (m+n) --n +
n~ -6n+1 { 1 (31 +21 )
e e g
(1-j/3)zs*~
-n-6(m+n)+2 +2zd h
--n-6(m+n) l
+ 21 +1
e g
I +
164
(5.7.14)
Like equation (5.3.9) in section 5.3, this equation represents a set

of an infinite number of equations with an infinite number of unknowns.
Just as in section 5.3, the coefficients ! k+l (and ! 6k_ ) for k<-N
6 1
and k>N (N is a positive integer) are supposed to be so sma11 that
they can be neg1ected, so that n and min (5.7.14) are restricted
according to: -N~n~N and -N~~N. Introducing the quantities:
1 -n-p6 ( m-n )+1 g (1+j/3)zd*

(61 e +21 g)zs --n-p6 ( m-n ) +2 .
a jj(6m+1)w + 1 (31 +21 ) +
-mn
e e g
m=n (5. 7 .15a)
(61 e +21 g )zs n ( )+1 g (1+j/3)nL ( m-n ) +2---n

zd*
'
- n L 6 m-n 6
a 1 (31 +21 ) +
-mn
e e g
(5. 7 .15b)
1g (l+j/3)~~ ( m+n ) +2 --n

b
6 zs*+(61 e +21 g )SL 6 ( m+n )zd
---n
-mn 1 (31 +21 ) +
e e g
( 1 -j/J):!~fi6(m+n)+2+ 2 zd~nli6(m+n)
+ --------~~2~1~+~1~--~~~~~ (5. 7 .15c)
e g
-
(61 +21 >i> +1 (1+jiJ>ï>
e g-mg6 6 2
-m+ 6
-m
zn
+<1-jl3>n6 2}
-m+
c ep{ 1 (31 +21 ) + 21 +1 (5.7 .15d)
-m e e g e g
2.
2-j2/3 p 2 -~
d 31 +21 6m+l + 21 +1 E6m+1 (5. 7 .15e)
-m
e g e g
this set of equations may be expressed as:
(5.7.16)
After dividing these equations into their real and imaginary parts and
using t =x +jy according to (5.3.12), thesetof equations
- 6n+ 1 n n
(5.7.16) may be written as:
~N{(Rea-mn+Re b-mn )xn+(-Ima-mn +Imb-mn )y}

Ree-m = n=- n +Red-m Ub
(5.7.17a)
165
~N{<rma-mn+IMb-mn )xn +(Rea-mn-Reb-mn )yn
Imc-m = n=- + Imd_mub} (5.7.17b)
with -N~m~N.
After using the expression for the armature phase current i

a
(5.2.4a), i =i*
--n -n
((5.2.2)), and !6n+ 1=x0
+jyn ((5.3.12)) and neglecting
the coefficients !6k+ 1 for k<-N and k>N, the initial condition (5.7.7)
may be expressed as:
(5.7.18)
Tbe total set of equations wbich bas to be solved consists of tbe

equations (5.7.17) and (5.7.18). This set of 4N+3 real equations
((~7.17) witb -N~~N and (5.7.18)) witb 4N+3 real unknowns (x and y
0 0
with -N~n~N and Ub) can easily be solved by means of a computer. Tbe
number of equations and unknowns has been enlarged by one with respect
to the number of equations and unknowns in section 5.3 (in case of the
same value of N). The crigin of tbis can be found inthefact that the
unknown voltage Ub appears in the differential equation (5. 7 .5),
wbereas it does not appear in tbe differential equation (5.3.3). Since
the voltage Ub is computed by means of an added expression ((5.3.17);
Ub=u ), the total number of equations insection 5.3 corresponds with
80
the total number of equations in this section.
During the interval (5.7.1), tbyristor T is the only thyristor in
4
the lower part of the bridge (see figure 5.1.1) which may conduct.
Hence, the current in tbe direct-eurrent circuit for tbis interval may
be expressed by:
1T
a. --<wt<a. (5.7.19)
p 3 p
Since i is periadie with angular period ~' the average value of the
8
direct current may be found by using expression (5.7.19), tbe
expression for tbe pbase current ib (5.2.4b), and 1_0 =!n
~ ~*
((5.2.2)):
ap 3 J (i6 1 j (6n+1)a. \}
I gO = 1T
J ib d(wt) = -:;rRe1 0-j !13) nJ: oo\ 60:+1 p} (5. 7. 20)
1T
a.p-3
The expression for the voltage u g which has
.
been deduced in section
5.3 (5.3.16) is not always allowed to be used bere, because tbe
intermitt~nt flow operatien mode is possible intbis section (5.7).
However, tbe following expression may always be used (see figure
5.1.1):
166
di
u = 1 ~+u (5. 7. 21)
g g dt b
Using (5.7.19), the expression for the current ib (5.2.4b), and
~
i =i
A* ((5.2.2)), this expressionchanges into:
--n -n
~
j ((6n+1)wt-~7T)}]
u
g
" U + wl Im
b g
f (6n+1)!- 6n+ 1e
n=-co{
(5. 7 .22)
5.8 A simple thyristor model
For reasans of simplicity the thyristors have been considered as

ideal switches in the preceding sections. In this section, however, a
more realistic thyristor model,which can easily be incorporated in the
computation methods as described in this chapter, will be given.
In this model the thyristor in the on-state is represented by a
voltage souree U(TO) and a resistance rF as recommended in IEC
Recommendation 146: "Semiconductor convertors". So, the "ideal switch"
model is extended by a voltage souree and a resistance (see figure
5.8.1). Since the values of U(TO) and rF are generally given by the
Figure 5.8.1 A simple thyristor model.
manufacturer, the parameters of the model can be considered to be

known.
Using the model as shown in figure 5.8.1, the base circuit as
depicted in figure 5.1.1 is transformed into the circuit as depicted
in figure 5.8.2. Since the angle of overlap ~ has been supposed to be
smaller than ~ rad, any phase terminal of the synchronous machine .is
not connected to more than one conducting thyristor (see figure
5.8.2). Hence, the resistance rF (after being designated in per-unit
values) may be added to the armature resistance r . As can be seen in
a
167
Figure 5.8.2 The base circuit as shown in figure 5.1.1 with
the thyristor model according to figure 5.8.1.
figure 5.8.2, the voltage sourees U(TO) may be incorporated in the

voltage souree Ub by replacing this voltage souree by a voltage souree
with the voltage Ub+2U(TO)' When these measures have been taken, the
computation methods described in this chapter may be used in the
normal way.
168
6 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
6.1 Introduetion
In theory, the synchronous generator with diode bridge rectifier may

be seen as a special case of the synchronous machine with thyristor
bridge convertor by considering a diode to be a thyristor which is
continuously triggered. The circuit as shown in figure 6.1.1 will be
used as the base circuit for the description of the synchronous
+
D
I
Ug
D D
I
synchronous generator with diode bridge rectifier.
generator with diode bridge rectifier. In this figure Ub represents an

ideal direct voltage source. The excitation winding is supplied by an
ideal direct voltage souree Uf. The rotor angular speed (w) is assumed
to be constant and the phase voltages are assumed to produce a
symmetrical three-phase system with sequantial order of the phases
a-b-c (w>O). The quantities in this chapter are designated in per-unit
values according to section 1.5. The armature basic quantities, u , i ,
0 0
3 ~.
p =-u and t will be used as basic quantities for the direct
o 2 o o' o
current circuit (The value of an angle in the per-unit system equals
the value of this angle expressed in radians),
In section 6.2 attention will be paid to the adaptation of the theory
as described in chapter 5 to the use of a diode bridge, whereas this
theory is compared with experimental results in section 6.3. The last
section (6.4) contains some practical remarks on the computation of
the steady-state performance.
169
6.2 Computation of the steady-state performance by means of
operational inductances and Fourier analysis
As contrasted witha thyristor, the conduction of a diode always

begins as soon as the forward voltage over the diode becomes positive.
This is similar to a converter operatien with the delay angle a being
zero and with long triggering pulses as described in sectien 3.2.3. As
can be seen in figure 3.2.6, three kinds of eperation modes may occur
in this case: delayed firing, refiring, and continuous flow of the
direct current (It is assumed that no other eperation modes occur in
spi~e of the distartion of the internal voltages). The theory of
chapter 5 bas been applied to the delayed firing and the continuous
flow of the direct current; a practical computation metbod for the
refiring operatien mode bas not been developed yet.
The representative interval considered in this sectien is the
interval j in length which begins at the instant at wbicb tbe voltage
ua reaches the same (positive) value as the voltage uc. Tbis interval
corresponds to the interval considered in the preceding chapters.
Although tbe thyristor model as described in sectien 5.8 may be used
here, the diodes are considered as ideal switches for reasans of
simplicity. It should be noted. that the resistance r in the direct
g
current circuit (see figure 6.1.1) bas to be zero wben the computation
metbod as described in chapter 5 is used.
When tbe diode bridge rectifier works in tbe mode of continuous flow
of tbe direct current, just befare tbe beginning of tbe considered
interval tbe diodes D and D are conducting. At the beginning of tbe
5 4
interval tbe voltage u ac becomes positive, diode D starts to conduct
1
and the current ig begins to transfer from tbe arm witb diode D to
5
tbe arm witb diode D • After the commutation being finisbed, the
1
diodes D1 and D are tbe only conducting diodes during tbe remaining
4
part of tbe interval considered bere.
When applying the computation metbod described in cbapter 5, tbe
angle of overlap ~ and tbe delay angle a should be known. However,
p
normally the rotational frequency w, the amplitude of the open-circuit
armature phase voltage êp and the voltage Ub are given and the
currents and the angle of overlap ~ should be computed. In the metbod
170
proposed bere, the quantities u, w, and ê
p
are considered to be the
known quantities in tbe first instance. Subsequently, the computation
metbod is used iteratively with different values of a in order to
p
find the value of a (witha chosenaccuracy) wbich corresponds with
p
the commutation starting at the beginning of the considered interval
(u becomes positive). When the value of Ub whicb corresponds to the
ac .
resulting value of a does not equal the desired value, tbe value of u
p
is adjusted and the process is repeated. After finisbing tbe wbole
computation process, the direct current i has to be examined in order
g
to find out whetber the direct current is continuously flowing or not.
In tbis process the voltage uac is used as a reference voltage for
tbe beginning of tbe interval considered. However, this voltage is .
d~a
zero during tbe wbole commutation. In practice the criterion that (ft;
is zero at tbe beginning of the commutation turns out to be better.
Since ia:Re{~} (according to (1.2.32a) with i =0) and the diodes D ,
0 1
n4 ,and o
5
are conducting during tbe commutation considered here, the
real part of expression (5.7.2a) may be used for this criterion.
When the diode bridge operates with an intermittent flow of tbe

direct current, two cases may be distinguished: tbe diode o is
5
conducting at the beginning of the representative interval considered
bere (u becomes positive), or it is not conducting. As already
ac
stated, the first case, wbich corresponds with tbe refiring operation
mode, will not be considered bere. During the interval considered, tbe
diodes D and D will begin to conduct as soon as the voltage uab
1 4
attains the same (positive) value as tbe voltage of the direct voltage
souree Ub. This instant corresponds witb the angle çp-~ insection 5.7
(see figure 5.7.tb; delayed firing). The diodes o1 and o4 are
conducting until wt:Çp-~+~.
In tbe metbod proposed bere, the quantities ~. w, and ê are
p
considered to be the known quantities in the first instance.
Subsequently, tbe computation metbod is used iteratively witb
different values of Ç in order to find the value of ç (with a cbosen
p p
accuracy) wbicb results in the conduction starting at tbe instant at
whicb the voltage uab-Ub becomes positive. When the resulting valtie of
Ub does not equal tbe desired value, the value of tbe conduction angle
~ is adjusted and tbe computation process is repeated. After finishing
171
the whole computation process (the desired value of Ub has been
reached), the value of the voltage ubc at the end of the subject
conduction interval should be examinetl; this value should be negative.
If,however, this value is zero or positive, the commutation of the
direct current from the arm with diode D to the arm with diode o
4 6
began before the end of this conduction interval. In other words, the
convertor works in the refiring operation mode, which was not
considered here.
6.3 Experimental results
In this section four experiments based on the circuit as shown in

figure 6.1.1 are described. In order to obtain an impression of the
value of the computation of the steady-state performance of a
synchronous machine with convertor by means of operational inductances
and Fourier analysis (chapter 5 and section 6.2), the results from
these experiments are compared with the results obtained by means of
this computation method. In the first experiment (table 6.3.1 and
figure 6.3.1) the direct current was flowing intermittently, whereas
the relatively small direct current in the second experiment (table
6.3.2 and figure 6.3.2) was flowing continuously. In the third (table
6.3.3 and figure 6.3.3) and fourth (table 6.3.4 and figure 6.3.4)
experiment the values of the armature phase current were about,
respectively, half the rated and the rated value of the armature phase
current.
In the experimentalset-up (see figure 6.1.1) the Siemens
synchronous machine as described in chapter 2 has been used. This
machine was driven at rated angular velocity. This velocity was
verified by means of a stroboscope. The excitation winding of the
synchronous machine was supplied by a controllable direct voltage
souree (Uf in figure 6.1.1). The armature of an excited, rotating
direct-eurrent machine was used as the direct voltage souree Ub in
figure 6.1.1. This voltage was controlled by adjusting the excitation
current of the direct current machine. In order to accentuate the
ripple of the direct current, in the first two experiments a rather
small smoothing ·coil (lg=0.186 p.u.; Lg=3.9 mH) has been used. In the
172
third and fourth experiment, the coefficient of self-induction of the
smooting coil was 2.05 p.u. (43 mH).
During the experiments the voltage u and the current i have been
ac a
recorded by means of a digital waveform analyzer. This analyzer was
triggered by means of a shaft position sensor in such a way that the
recording started at the instant corresponding with wtaO. Each of the
recordings contained 512 samples and the sample period was 39 ~s.
The results of these recordings are shown in the figures 6.3.1-4.
Besides the average values of the direct voltage (UgO) and the direct
current (IgO) have been measured (tables 6.3.1-4).
The augles Ç and ~ (experiment 1) or the angles a. and ~
p p
(experiments 2, 3,and 4) have been determined from these recordings
(tables 6.3.1-4). The values of ! n+l and û 1 (=UqO+jUdO) have been
6
deduced from these recordings by means of the Fast Fourier Transfarm
algorithm. The main error in these values is caused by the recording
length (512•39 ~s=19.968 ms) not being equal to the period (20 ms).
This error is in the neighbourhood of one per cent of the amplitude of
the fundamental component.
In order to be able to leave saturation effects out of account, the
voltage Ub has been chosen in such a way that the flux level in the
machine is rather low. It is, however, not possible to eliminate the
hysteresis effect. This effect is especially important in the case of
rather low values of the flux level (see figure 2.3.1). For that
reasou the synchronous inductances ld and lq needed in the computations
were determined from the (measured) fundamental components of the
armature phase current and voltage. The determination of the
operational inductances ld(6nw) and 1 (6nw) with n*O has been
- -q
described insection 2.4 (see figure 2.4.4 and 2.4.6). The following
approximations were used in the computations:
} 3750 ( 0.045 )
Re{!/6nw)} Re{!d<- 6nw) = 1160+55.4TnW+nw\1+1ii.W-0.0377 n>O
Im{!d(6nw)} -rm{l (-6nw)} = 0.0387- 0.127(nw)0.32 n>o

-d nw
Re{l (6nw)} - 3583 ( 0.0505 ') n>O

-q Re{ !q ( -6nw)} - 1026+56 .6/ii.W+nw \ 1+lii.W+O .0146
Im{l (6nw)}
-q
-Im{l-q (-6nw)} = - 0 •nw
097
-0.165 (nw) 0 •
28
. n>O
The model as described in section 5.8 bas been applied to the diodes.
The electrical behaviour of the slip rings of the (inverted)
173
measured calculated
quantity
value value
ugo 1.076 1.070
I gO 0.008 0.009
udo -0.008 • -0.008
uqo 0.647 0.646
-:-
.!:-29 -0.0001-jO.OOOO -0.0001+j0.0002
... -0.0003+j0.0001 -0-0003+j0.0002
.!:-23
.
.!:-17 -0.0007+j0.0003 -0.0008+j0.0004
... -0.0015+j0.0004 -0 .oo 18+j0. 0010
L11
Ls -0.0037-j0.0062 -0.0040-j0.0066
.,.
.!:1 0.0101-j0.0017 0.0099-j0.0020
... -0.0007+j0.0053 -0.0005+j0.0057
.!:7
!13 -0.0007+j0.0009 -0.0009+j0.0005

.,.
.!:19 -0.0006+j0.0003 -0.0006+j0.0002
... -0.0003+j0.0001 -0.0003+j0.0001
.!2s
... -0.0002+j0.0002 -0.0002+j0.0000
.!:31
r,:p 0.28 0.28
~ 0.75 0.75
p 0.0000078
r
p 0.0000067
r, 1
p 0.0000007
r,2
Table 6.3.1 Results betonging to experiment 1.
174
measured curve
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.1 The current ia and the voltage uac with experiment
(intermittent flow of the direct current)
175
measured calculated
quantity
value value I
ugo I 1.076 1. 071
I gO 0.025 0.027
u do -0.021 -0.021
uqo 0.658 0.658
L29 0.0004-j0.0004 0.0005-j0.0003

... 0.0003-j0.0007 0.0003-j0.0007
.!-23
L17 O.OOOO-j0.0012 -0.0001-j0.0012
L,1 -0.0009-j0.0026 -0.0011-j0.0023
Ls -0.0041-j0.0150 -0.0043-j0.0162
~
!, 0.0306-j0.0070 0.0296-j0.0070
i7 0.0042+j0.0078 0.0047+j0.0086
I13 0.0021+j0.0011 0.0021+j0.0008
i,g 0.0009-j0.0003 0.0009-j0.0004

... 0.0003-j0.0005 0.0002-jO.OOOS
.!z5
~
!31 -0.0001-j0.0003 -0.0001-j0.0004
(l 0.05 0.05
p
ll 0.05 0.06
p 0.0000291
r
p 0.0000264
r. 1
p 0.0000014
r,2
Table 6.3.2 Results belonging to experiment 2.
176
-().05
measured curve
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.2 The current i and the voltage u with experiment 2
a ac
(a relatively small direct current flowing continuously)
177
I measured calculated
quantity
value value
ugo 1.076 1.078
I gO 0.509 0.509
udO -0.283 -0.277
uqo 0.630 0.625
~-29 0.002-jO.OOO 0.002-jO.OOO

-!-23 0.001+j0.003 0.001+j0.004
I
I
A
!_17 -0.006+j0.001 -0.006+j0.001

A
!_11 -0.010-j0.014 -0.010-j0.015

A
L5 0.092+j0.003 0.094+j0.005
!, 0.449-j0.324 0.451-j0.327
i7 -0.018+j0.048 -0.017+j0.050
A
in -0.008-j0.007 -0.009-j0.007
-
!19 -0.002"-j0.006 0.002-j0.006
i2s 0.003-jO.OOl 0.003+j0.001

-
~31 -O.OOO+j0.002 -O.OOO+j0.002
(l 0.28 0.29
p
1J 0.52 0.51
p 0.000747
r
0.000660
•1
p 0.000053
r,2
l
178
measured curve
la
o.s&..------
-Q.5
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.3 The current i and the voltage u with experiment 3
a ac
(the armature current is about half its rated value)
179
measured calculated
quantity
value value
ugo 1.283 1 .290
I gO 1.002 1.002
udo -0.364 -0.359
uqo 0. 748 0.741
I
--29
-0 .003+j0.003 -0.003+j0.002
I
--23 -0.005-j0.001 -0.005-j0.003
.,.,
.!-17 -0.005-j0.01 t -0.003-jO.Ott
L11 0.010-j0.019 0.012-j0.017
i 0.156+j0.046 0.153+j0.051
--5
it 0.849-j0.676 0.850-j0.685
~
!.7 0.007+j0.081 0.010+j0.081

~
i13 -0.01 t +jO.Ot 1 -O.OtO+jO.Ot2
!.19 -0.009-j0.003 -0.008-j0.002
izs -0.002-j0.005 -0.003-j0.004

~
!.31 o.ooz-Jo.oo2 0.001-j0.003
a 0.25 0.25
p
l1 0.64 0.65
p 0.00209
r
p 0.00191
r, 1
p 0.00009
r,2
180
la
1~----------,
measured curve
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.4 The current ia and the voltage uac with experiment 4
(the armature current is about its rated value)
181
synchronous machine were represented in the computations by constant
voltage drops. These voltage drops were added to the voltage drops of
the corresponding diodes (in the computations the voltage U(TO) was
2.5 V). The computing results arealso shown in the tables 6.3.1-4
and figures 6.3.1-4. In order to simplify the camparing of the
computing and the experimental results in these figures, the current
and voltage seales belonging to the eomputing results have been
adjusted in such a way that they are equal to the scales belonging to
the eorresponding experimental results.
As can beseen in the tables 6.3.1-4 and the figures 6.3.1-4, the
agreement between the experimental and the calculated results is
rather good for the experiments 3 and 4, whereas it.is less good for the
experiments 1 and 2. The following explanation may be given for this
phenomenon. Because the synchronous machine is not exactlysymmetrical,
the voltage over the smoothing eoil lg (figure 6.1.1) is also not
exactly periodic with angular period ~ • Hence, the direct eurrent
(with its ripple) is not exactly periodic with period ~· Since the
ripple on the direct current is relatively large in the experiments
and 2, these experiments are affeeted rather strongly by this
disturbance. The reason why the ripple on the direct current is
relatively large with the experiments 1 and 2 originates from the
relatively low average value of the direct current on the one hand and
the relatively small coeffieient of self-induetion on the other hand.
As eomputing examples, the power dissipstion in the rotor eaused by
the armature-eurrent harmonies P according to (5.2.19) is also given
r
in the tables 6.3.1-4. In order to show the contribution of the lower
harmonies to this dissipstion the termsof (5.2.19) with n=l (5th and
7th harmonies in the armature phase current; P ) and n=2 (11th and
r, 1
13th harmonies in the armature phase eurrent; P
r, 2 ) are shown
separately. As may be seen in these ta~les, the contribution of the
5th and the 7th harmonie isby far the largest.
182
6.4 Some practical remarks on the computation of
the steady-state performance
2~~~1--Q~_!h~-~~~E~!!!!~~-~l-~~!~~-~É-~E~!!!i~~!!_i~~~~!!g~~!
!g2_~~~!i~!_!g!lï!!!_ig_!h~-~!!~-!h~-!~!i!!!g~~-!g
!h~-~!!~~!:s~!!~g!_~irs~!!_i!_~~!-~~!~
When the coefficient of self-induction of the smoothing coil is

infinitely large (see section 5.3), the current in the direct-eurrent
circuit is constant. Hence the voltage drop over the resistance in
this circuit is constant, so that the addition of this voltage drop,
whicb depends on the direct-eurrent I , to tbe direct voltage Ub
. g
results in anotber constant direct voltage. Tbe computation metbod as
described insection 5.3 is not changed essentially by tbis addition.
As a matter of fact, only the iteration proces for finding the values
of ~ and ~ has to be cbanged.
p
When the coefficient of self-induction of the smootbing coil has a
finite value, this metbod may also give rather good results, because
tbe alternating voltage drop over the self-inductance 1 is mucb
g
larger than the alternating voltage drop over the resistance in many
practical situations (the direct voltage drop over the self-inductance
1 is zero).
g
~~~~~--~~~~-!~!!g!~!g!!-~f_th~!!~E!!_~~!!_!!_~!!S!i~~~
!~_!!S!i~g-~~~
When the simple model as described in section 4.3 is used and the
convertor is a diode bridge, the set of equations (4.3.22) witb a=O
may be used for the computation of the steady-state performance. This
set of equations may be simplified by using the approximation for the
phase difference between tbe fundamental component of an armature
phase current and the corresponding internal phase voltage ~l
according to (3.3.10): ~ =~~. It is even possible to reduce this new

1
set of equations to one (rather complicated) equation with one
unknown.
183
The model of the diodes, which have been considered as ideal
switches, may be extended by a constant voltage drop U(TO) (see
section 5.8). In the computation of tbe steady-state performance,
twice this voltage drop should be added to the direct voltage Ub.
Although in many cases the àrmature resistance r is all~wed to be

a
neglected, this neglect might sometimes result in too large errors. It
may shown, that in the case r is much smaller than wl", the addition
a
of 2r to the resistance in the direct-eurrent circuit r is an
a g
improverneut of the computation model (the resistance rF of a diode may
be incorporated in a similar way; see section 5.8).
~~!~~--~-~~~~E1~_!ll~~!E~!!~S}È~-~!!!~E~2~~-2~!~~~2-~-!i2i!~!l_!~~-!~
!g!!~!!~!X_l!!S~-~~!!:!g~~~!~2~~iE_!h~-~!!~~!:~~E!~g!_~!!~~!!
In order to obtain an impression of the difference between a finitely

and an infinitely large self-inductance in the direct-eurrent
circuit, a computation example will be given bere. This example
concerns the mean value of the direct current as a function of the
angular speed. This function is, for example, of interest for wind-
energy applications and motor-car battery chargers.
The following parameters have been chosen for this example: ld=1.5;
1 =1· 1 =1.45· r =0· 1 (6nw)=l"=1 (6nw)=l"=0.15· r =0· I =1·
q ' afd ' a ' -d d -q q ' g ' f '
Ub=1 (a=O).In the example, the results of which are depicted in
figure 6. 4. 1, two va lues of the self-inductance 1 have been used: .an
g
infinitely large self-inductance (1 =~) and a rather small self-
g
inductance (lg=0.2).
The curve in figure 6.4.1 with 1 =~ has been computed by means of
g
the simple model as described in section 4.3, whereas the curve with
1 =0.2 bas been computed by means of the metbod described in sectien
g
6.2 (by means of operational inductances and Fourier analysis). The
left-hand curve piece for 1 =0.2 corresponds with a "normal"
g
intermittent flow of the direct current, while the right-hand curve
piece belongs to a continuous flow of the direct current. As has been
mehtioned in sectien 6.2, a practical computation metbod for the
refiring operatien mode has not been developed yet. For that reason, a
184
·25
.2
.15
·1
.os
rigO
0
.a .39 .4 .41 .42 .43 .44 .45
.s
.4
.2
0
0
Figure 6.4.1
.2 .4 .s .a 1 .2
-
w
An example to give an impression of the influence

1 •4
of the value of the self-inductance 1 in the

g
direct-eurrent circuit (ld=1.5; lq=l; lafd=1.45;
1"=1"=0.15·
dq 'ar =0·' g
r =0·' f
I "'1'
'b U =1· a.=O).
'
part of the curve for

.
1g =0.2 is missing in figure 6.4.1 (In reality
the curve for 1 =0.2 is continuous).
g
As examples, the armature currents as functions of wt for three
values of the average value of the direct current corresponding to the
example in figure 6.4.1 are shown in figure 6.4.2.
It should be noted that the influence of the self-inductance on the
performance is much larger when the ideal direct voltage souree Ub is
replaced by an inverter (with a relatively large ripple on its direct
voltage) connected to the utility grid.
185
.os tia .os tla
.o2S ·02S
0
-.02S
I I
0 7l
-wt
0
-.02S
-
wt
-.os -.os
l g=oo•• IgO=O.OIS 1 =0.2; IgO=O.OI8
g
.t fia .t
.os
-.os
0 I
0
J
1 7l
I
J
-wt
.os
0 -
wt
-·1
" 1 =co· Ig 0=0.055
-.os
-.1
1 ..0.2; Igo=O.OSS
g ' g
.a .a
·4 ·4
0 0
-.4 -.4
-.a -.a
=co'" rg 0=0.72 1 =0.2; rg =0.72
' g 0
Figure 6.4.2 Some examples of i (wt) corresponding

a
to figure 6.4.1.
Since the reaiatanee r is normally relatively small, the amplitudes

g
of the fundamental components of the armature voltages are normally
rather constant. Hence, the flux in the machine is about inversely
proportional to the angular velocity of the rotor (the direct current
is assumed not to be zero).
In practice, this will often mean that the flux level in the machine
is chosen in such a way that the machine is saturated at the starting-
point of a I -w curve such as shown in figure 6.4.1. Since the
g
186
quadrature-axis flux is relatively small in the neighbourhood of this
starting-point, the direct-axis saturation characteristic may be used
for the computation of the starting-point. For that purpose, an
approximation of the no-load saturation characteristic (such as curve
2 in figure 2.3.1) might be used.
Because of the hysteresis effect, the flux level in the machine
depends on its history. This dependenee is relatively strong in the
case of a low flux level in the machine (see figure 2.3.1). This
phenomenon may cause considerable differences between the computed and
the measured performance for relatively high angular veloeities (low
flux level), because the flux in the machine does not only"depend on
the currents, but also on its history.
187
SUMMARY
In the description given in this dissertation of the steady-state

performance of the (internal pole) synchronous machine with convertor,
the electrical behaviour of the rotor of the synchronous machine is
not represented by a finite number of rotor circuits (as is done
frequently), but is considered as a linear time-invariant system with
!
the armature-current distribution as Îts input quantity and the flux

linked with the armature windings as its output quantity. In this way,
eddy-currents in the rotor can be represented easily. The consideration
of the linear time-invariant system can be simplified by using the
Fourier transformation and the corresponding operational inductances.
In order to show the relation to the existing literature, adescription
of the rotor with a finite number of rotor circuits is also given. In
view of the commutation in the convertor, a simple model of the
synchronous machine for very rapidly changing currents is considered;
it is possible to describe the sub-transient behaviour of the
synchronous machine by means of this model.
Standstill tests may be used to determine the parameters of a
synchronous machine which are of interest for the use of the machine
in combination with a convertor. The results of the tests on two
quite different synchronous machines are given; the first one has a
cage damper winding in laminated iron, while the secend one has solid
poles without a damper cage. The influence of these different
constructions on the operational inductances is discussed, and it is
noted that the influence of hysteresis phenomena on the test results
is not negligible.
In the description of the three-phase bridge convertor, special
attention is paid to the triggering of the thyristors by means of
short and long pulses, and to the various intermittent flow operatien
modes which may occur when the thyristors are triggered by means of
long pulses. Furthermore, the operatien of the convertor with a
constant direct current is considered. It follows from this
consideration that a small value of the delay angle in the rectifier
eperation mode (diode bridge) or a large value of the delay angle
(smaller, however, than 180°) in the inverter operatien mode bas, in
general, a favourable influence on the harmonies in the phase currents
and on the absorbed fundamental reactive power.
188
The combination of a synchronous machine with convertor is
described, in the first instance, by means of a very simple model of
the machine. Subsequently, a less simple, yet practical model of
this combination is given, In this model, which is used frequently,
the sub-transient behaviour of the synchronous machine is used,
However, this model is unusable when, for example, the losses
because of harmonies in the armature currents are essential, or when
the operatien of the combination.with a low angular velocity is
considered. For these computations, a metbod has been developed which
uses operational inductances and Fourier analysis. After being
described for a constant current in the direct current-circuit, this
metbod is used to test the simple and practical model mentioned
before, and to show how to determine the parameters needed in this
model, It fellows from these considerations that the results
obtained by means of this simple model are often rather good,
although the conditions for this model are (sometimes even
manifestly) unfulfilled. Subsequently, the computation metbod with
operational inductances and Fourier analysis is extended to the case
where the current in the direct-eurrent circuit is not constant,
In the last part of this dissertation, the special case of a
synchronous generator with diode bridge rectifier is described. The
results obtained by means of the computation metbod with operational
inductances and Fourier analysis are compared with experimental
results for this case, It fellows from these comparisons that the
results obtained by means of this computation metbod are good, It is
furthermore noted that the extra losses, which are sometimes
dreaded, are relatively low. Finally, some practical remarks
concernins saturation and hysteresis phenomena in the machine are
given.
189
SAMENVATTING
Bij de in dit proefschrift gegeven beschouwing van het quasi-

stationaire gedrag van de synchrone (binnenpool-) machine met mutator
wordt de synchrone machine niet voorgesteld met een eindig aantal
rotorcircuits - zoals dit vaak wordt gedaan -, maar wordt het
elektrische gedrag van de rotor voorgesteld als een lineair
tijdinvariant systeem met de statorstroomverdeling als ingangs- en de
met de statorwikkelingen gekoppelde flux als uitgangsgrootheid.
Hierdoor wordt het in rekening brengen van wervelstromen in de rotor
sterk vergemakkelijkt. Door het toepassen van de Fourier-
transformatie, en de daaraan verwante operationele inductanties, kan
het lineaire, tijdinvariante systeem op eenvoudige wijze worden
behandeld. Om een verband te leggen met de bestaande vakliteratuur
wordt ook de synchrone machine met een eindig aantal rotorcircuits
beschreven. Voorts wordt, in verband met de commutatie in de mutator,
een eenvoudig model van de synchrone machine voor zeer snelle stroom-
variaties gegeven; met dit model kan het subtransiënte gedrag van de
synchrone machine worden beschreven.
Voor de meting van de machineparameters die van belang zijn voor het
gebruik van de machine in combinatie met een mutator, kan gebruik
worden gemaakt van proeven bij een stilstaande machine. De resultaten
van de metingen aan twee machines worden gegeven; de ene machine is
uitgerust met een demperkooi in gelamelleerd ijzer, terwijl de
andere is uitgevoerd met massieve polen zonder demperkooi. De invloed
van deze verschillende uitvoeringen op de operationele inductanties
wordt besproken. Hierbij wordt geconstateerd dat men bij de metingen
rekening dient te houden met hysteresisverschijnselen.
Bij de beschrijving van de beginselen van de driefasenbrugmutator
wordt nader ingegaan op het gebruik van korte en lange pulsen voor de
ontsteking van de thyristoren en de verschillende vormen van leemte-
bedrijf bij het gebruik van lange pulsen. Voorts wordt het mutator-
bedrijf met een constante gelijkstroom behandeld. Hieruit blijkt dat
het zowel voor het blindvermogen als voor de harmonischeninhoud van de
fasestromen, in het algemeen, gunstig is als de mutator in gelijk-
richterbedrijf werkt met een zo klein mogelijke ontsteekhoek (dioden-
brug) en in wisselbedrijf met een ontsteekhoek die zo weinig mogelijk
van 180° afwijkt.
190
De combinatie van een· synchrone machine met een mutator wordt in
eerste instantie beschreven voor een zeer eenvoudig model van de
synchrone machine. Vervolgens wordt een vaker gebruikt, eenvoudig en
praktisch model van de synchrone machine met mutator beschreven.
Hierbij wordt gebruik gemaakt van het subtransiënte gedrag van de
synchrone machine.
Dit model kan men echter niet gebruiken om bijvoorbeeld de verliezen
in de machine ten gevolge van de hogere harmonischen in de
statorstromen te berekenen of om het gedrag van de machine met
mutator bij zeer lage toerentallen te berekenen. Voor deze
berekeningen is een methode ontwikkeld, die gebruik maakt van
operationele inductanties en Fourier-reeksen. Na een beschrijving van
deze methode voor het geval dat de gelijkstroom ideaal is, wordt de
methode gebruikt om het eerder genoemde eenvoudige, praktische model
te toetsen en aan te geven hoe men de voor dit model benodigde
parameters kan bepalen. Hieruit blijkt dat, ondanks het feitdat (soms
duidelijk) niet aan de veronderstellingen van dit model wordt voldaan,
dit eenvoudige model toch vaak goede resultaten oplevert. Verv~lgens
wordt de berekeningsmethode met operationele inductanties en Fourier-

analyse uitgebreid voor het geval dat de gelijkstroom niet constant
is.
In het laatste deel van dit proefschrift wordt het bijzondere geval
van een synchrone generator met een diodenbrug beschreven. Voor dit
geval worden de resultaten verkregen met de berekeningsmethode met
operationele inductanties en Fourier-analyse vergeleken met
meetresultaten. Hieruit blijkt dat de berekeningsmethode goede
resultaten oplevert en dat de soms gevreesde extra verliezen ten
gevolge van de gelijkrichterbelasting van de synchrone generator·erg
meevallen. Ten slotte worden nog enkele praktische opmerkingen gemaakt
betreffende verzadiging en hysteresisverschijnselen in de machine.
191
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Quant i ties
A area (swept by the rotor blades of a wind turbine;

introduction)
A current distribution (chapter 1)
A integer (section 5.5)
a auxiliary (complex) quantity in the sections 5.3 and 5.1
-mn
a Fourier series coefficient (section 3.3)
n
B magnetic flux density (magnetic induction)
Bdn coefficient in a Fourier series of the magnetic induction
(section 1.2)
b auxiliary (complex) quantity in the sections 5.3 and 5.7
-mn
b Fourier series coefficient (section 3.3)
n
B coefficient in a Fourier series of the magnetic induction
qn
(section 1.2)
~m auxiliary (complex)quantity in the sections 5.3 arid 5.7
CP power coefficient (wind turbine; introduction)
~m auxiliary (complex) quantity insection 5.7
e internal voltage
f frequency
f pulse response (sections 1.2 and 1.3)
f (complex) auxiliary function in sectien 5.7
G(w) transfer function (section 1.3)
h pulse response (section 1.2 and 1.3)
h pulse function (section 5.7)
i current
j current density
k pulse response (section 1.2 and 1.3)
k integer (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
1 inductance designated in per-unit va lues
L inductance designated in H
!(W) operatierral inductance designated in per-unit va lues
b(w} operational inductance designated in H
1 apparent commutation inductance (section 5.6)
a
Laoo leakage self-inductance (section 1.2)
192
Labocr: leakage mutual inductance (section 1.2)
Ia0 (w): direct-axis operational inductance withopen excitation
circuit
external self-inductance (chapters 5 and 6)
lh possib1e choice of the commutation inductance (section 5.6)
1 auxi1iary inductance (section 1.6)
x
1 self-inductance in the circuits in the figures 5.6.4 and 5.6.6
1
1 se1f-inductance in the circuits in the figures 5.6.4 and 5.6.6
2
m torque
m integer (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
n integer
n pu1se response (sections 1.2 and 1.3)
n rotational frequency (introduction)
N positive integer expressing the truncation index of the
armature-phase-current Fourier series (chapter 5)
p instantaneous value of power
p pulse response (sections 1.2 and 1.3)
p pulse function (chapter 5)
active power
kinetic power (introduction)
shaft power of a wind turbine (introduction)
radius (chapter 1)
r resistance designated in per-unit values
R resistance designated in Q
resistance in the circuits in the'figures 5.6.4 and 5.6.6
forward slope resistance of a thyristor or a diode
time
u voltage
constant (direct) voltage
Une voltage
threshold voltage of a thyristor or a diode
wind velocity (introduction)
x
n
real part of !6n+ 1 (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
Yn imaginary part of I 6n+l (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
z winding distribution (chapter 1)
z (complex) impedance
193
zd
-n
quantity containing the machine impedances (chapte.r 5)
!!n quantity containing the machine impedances (chapter 5)
a coordinate angle (chapter 1)
a delay angle
a critica! delay angle (section 3.2)
er
a'er critical delay angle (section 3.2)
a0 coordinate angle for the axis of an arbitrary armature
winding (section 1.2)
13 angle in section 5.6
13 1-4 auxiliary angles for the computations in section 5.7
y angle measured in the direction of rotation from phase a
to the direct axis
o load angle
E load angle of the "internal machine"
ç angle indicating the instant at which the line voltage
equals the direct voltage
U overlap angle or commutation angle
~ conduction angle
p air density (introduction)
T time constant
$ phase difference
$ power factor angle
$ angle between the fundamental component of a phase current
1
and the corresponding phase voltage
~ flux linkage
w angular frequency
w angular velocity
Some mathematica! signs and symbols

.2
J-1T
~ rotative operator: aae 3
C Park transform matrix (section 1.2)
d ordinary differential sign
e base of natural logarithms
j imaginary unity
o unit pulse or Dirac function
à increment sign
E summation sign
194
Representation of complex quantities
! complex quantity (!•Re !+ j Im ?f)

Rex real part of x
Imx imaginary part of !
I2f I modulus of x
arg! argument of ~
x* conjugate !
Time-dependent quantities
x • instantaneous value of a time-dependent quantity

x0 constant part of the quantity (equals the arithmetic mean
value)
~ space phasor in the stator coordinate system
~dq space phasor in the rotor coordinate system
~(w) Fourier transfarm
~(w) Fourier transfarm
Periadie quantities
x periadie quantity
X root-rnean-square value
xn amplitude of the n-th harmonie
Bn phase angle corresponding to the n-th harmonie
gn complex amplitude of the n-th harmonie
Representation of sinusoirlal quantities
a instantaneous value of the sinusoirlal quantitie a•acos(wt+~)·
a amplitude
! complex amplitude !•aej~
195
Subscripts
a armature winding
a armature phase a
b armature phase b
c armature phase c
c commutation
d direct axis
f excitation (field) winding
g direct-eurrent circuit
j integer indicating a damper circuit (section 1.5)
k integer indicating a damper circuit (section 1.5)
m main field
m number of quadrature-axis damper circuits (sections 1.4
and 1.5)
n number of direct-axis damper ciruits (sections 1.4 and 1.5)
N rated
o base quantity for per-unit values
p pole wheel
q quadrature axis
r rotor
s stator
cr leakage circuit
0 homopalar component
Superscripts
transient
indicates that this symbol is used in another way (sections
5.2 and 5.6)
11
sub-transient
T transpose
196
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204
STELLINGEN
behorende bij het
proefschrift van
M,J, Hoeijmakers
10 Bestuurders dienen zich te hoeden voor het invoeren van
bezuinigingen die boekhoudkundig gezien terecht lijken,
maar in werkelijkheid averechts uitwerken,
11 Hoewel windsurfers, in tegenstelling tot zeilers, zelf

hun mast rechtop houden, behoeven zij toch niet als tuig
te worden beschouwd,
Eindhoven, 30 maart 1984 M.J. Hoeijmakers

On The Steady-State Performance of A Synchronous Machine With Convertor: With Special Attention To Wind Energy Conversion Systems

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On The Steady-State Performance of A Synchronous Machine With Convertor: With Special Attention To Wind Energy Conversion Systems

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On the steady-state performance of a synchronous

machine with convertor : with special attention to wind

Citation for published version (APA):

Download date: 15. Dec. 2015

TER VERKRIJGING VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE

MARTIN JACOBUS HOEIJMAKERS

Druk: Dissertatie Drukkerij Wibro. Helmond. Telefoon 04920-23981 ..

Het in dit proefschrift beschreven onderzoek is verricht in de

THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

2 EXPERIMENTAL DETE~~INATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE QUANTITIES

3 THE THREE-PHASE BRIDGE CONVERTOR

5 COMPUTATION OF THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF A

6 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

LIST OF SYMBOLS 192

Wind enePgy as stimulus foP PeseaPoh on eleotPomeohanios

where CP is the so-called power coefficient, which depends on the

Figure 0.2 An example of the wind velocity as a

may, for example, result in a cheaper, smaller gearbox with a better

Figure 0.3 The combination of a synchronous generator,

On the history of the synahronous machine with aanvertor

Figure 0.4 Elementary "commutatorless" motor

Figure 0.5 The three-phase star-connected synchronous

Figure 0.6 The synchronous machine connected to a three-

Figure 0.7 The system preferred by Stöhr

comparison of the systems as depicted in the figures 0.6 and 0.7,

The synchronous generator ~th reatifier in a wind energy conversion

Figure 0.8 The parallel conneetion on a direct-voltage grid

As a matter of fact, this results in a kind of direct-voltage grid. In

Figure 0.9 The power supplied to a constant voltage souree

Furthermore, as may be seen in this figure, the power is limited in a

A shoPt deaa~iption of the ahapte~a in this disae~tation

In chapter 1 a description of the synchronous machine, the part of

In this chapter a description of the synchronous machine will be

focused on the use of the machine with a convertor, are defined in

zc îsin(a. - ~'IT) (1.1.1c)

In this section the general equations of the synchronous machine

Using the complex representation of sinusoidal quantities, this

When time is used as the independent variable for a sinusoidal

This current distribution acts as a sinusoidally distributed winding,

Figure 1.2.1 The resulting current distribution

in the complex plane with the positive real semi-axis corresponding to

-j (y- !n) -ja

The current space phasor is divided into two parts:

where iq =Re ~q and id=Im ~q • The first part (iq) represents a

The current distribution corresponding with id results in an

Bècause of the rotor symmetry the induction distribution along the

n=1 ,3,5, .• (1.2. 12)

Changes in the currents id and if cause changes in the magnetic

The contributions to the air-gap induction (1.2.11), (1.2.12), and

The current distribution corresponding with i results in an

Changes in the current iq cause changes in the induction in the

The contributions to the air-gap induction (1.2.15) and (1.2.16)

Next, the flux associated with a sinusoidally distributed armature

will be considered (figure 1.2.2). The fluxlinkinga turn whose

The flux associated with the complete winding considered is:

W = r2Zln{Bq 1cosa0 + Bd 1cos(a0 - in)} (1.2.Z1)

As can be seen in this expression, only the fundamental harmonie

The main flux space phasor can be represented by a vector in the

1jJma Re~ ( 1.2.26a)

The armsture winding voltage equations are:

ljla "'1jl ma + Laoa i a - La boa (ib+ i c ) (1.2.28a)

ljlb =ljlmb +L aoa ib- Lab oa (i a + i c ) (1.2.28b)

ljlc =ljlme +L aoa ic- Laboa (i a + ib) (1.2.28c)

mq = 1 mqiq+ mq(jq) (1.2.58)