Particle Physics

Higher
1. This question is about nuclear reactions.
(a) Complete the table below, by placing a tick ( ) in the relevant columns, to show how
an increase in each of the following properties affects the rate of decay of a sample of
radioactive material.
Property Effect on rate of decay
increase decrease stays the same
temperature of
sample
pressure on
sample
amount of sample
(2)
226
Radium-226 ( Ra) undergoes natural radioactive decay to disintegrate spontaneously with
88

the emission of an alpha particle (α-particle) to form radon (Rn). The decay constant for this
reaction is 4.30 × 10–4 yr–1. The masses of the particles involved in the reaction are
radium: 226.0254 u
radon: 222.0176 u
α-particle: 4.0026 u
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by the statement that the decay constant is 4.30 × 10–4 yr–
1.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) Calculate the energy released in the reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) The radium nucleus was stationary before the reaction.
(i) Explain, in terms of the momentum of the particles, why the radon nucleus and
the α-particle move off in opposite directions after the reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) The speed of the radon nucleus after the reaction is vR and that of the α-particle is
v
vα. Determine the ratio .
vR
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................(3)
A college has been using a sample of radium-226 as an α-particle source for 30 years.
Initially, the mass of radium was 15.0 μg.
(d) Determine
(i) the initial number of atoms of radium-226 in the sample;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(ii) the number of atoms of radium-226 in the sample after 30 years;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
 (iii) the average activity of the sample during the 30 year period.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(6)
(e) The α-particle is composed of protons and neutrons. Describe, by reference to the
structure of the proton and the neutron, why they are not classed as fundamental
particles.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
Another type of nuclear reaction is a fusion reaction. This reaction is the main source of the
Sun’s radiant energy.
(f) (i) State what is meant by a fusion reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain why the temperature and pressure of the gases in the Sun’s core must
both be very high for it to produce its radiant energy.
High temperature: ............................................................................................
............................................................................................
High pressure: ............................................................................................
............................................................................................
(5)
(Total 30 marks)
2. This question is about radioactive decay.
The decay process of a neutron is given by the following equation.
n  p  e  ve
(a) Complete the table below.
particle n p e– ve

baryon
number
lepton
number
(2)
(b) Baryon number and lepton number are both conserved in this decay process. State one
other property that is conserved.
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 3 marks)
3. This question is about fundamental particles.
Particle production and annihilation are subject to conservation laws. Two of these laws are
conservation of mass-energy and conservation of momentum.
(a) State the names of three other conservation laws.
1. .........................................................................................................................
2. .........................................................................................................................
3. .........................................................................................................................
(3)
(b) Free neutrons are unstable. A neutron may decay to become a proton with the emission
of an electron. A student represents the decay by the following equation.
0 n 1 p  10e
1 1

(i) State, by reference to conservation laws, why the student’s equation is not correct.
 .........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Write down the correct decay equation.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 5 marks)
4. This question is about fundamental interactions.
(a) The Feynman diagram below represents a – decay via the weak interaction process.

The exchange particle in this weak interaction is a virtual particle.

(i) State what is meant by a virtual particle.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Detemine whether the virtual particle in the process represented by the Feynman
diagram is a W+, a W– or a Z0 boson.
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) The order of magnitude of the mass of the W and Z0 bosons is 100 GeV c–2.
Estimate the range of the weak interaction.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 6 marks)
5. This question is about a proton.
The proton particle is made out of three quarks.
(a) Explain why the three quarks in the proton do not violate the Pauli exclusion principle.
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) Quarks have spin . Explain how it is possible for the proton to also have spin
1
2
1
2
.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 4 marks)
6. This question is about the synchrotron and particle production.
(a) In a synchrotron ring, a beam of protons and another beam of antiprotons move in
opposite directions through regions of electric and magnetic fields as they circle the
ring.
Describe the purpose of the
(i) electric fields.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) magnetic fields.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Explain why the magnitudes of the magnetic fields in a synchrotron must be increased
 as the energy of the accelerated particles increases.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) The neutral lambda baryon  and its antiparticle may be produced in proton-
antiproton collisions according to the following reaction.
p p
The minimum energy required to produce the  and the  is 2240 MeV. The rest
mass of the proton is 938 MeV c–2.
Calculate the minimum kinetic energy, EK, of the antiproton, in order to produce the
 and  particles when
(i) the proton and the antiproton are each accelerated to a kinetic energy EK;
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) the antiproton is accelerated to a kinetic energy EK and collides with a stationary
proton.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(d) By reference to your answers to (c), state an advantage of collisions between protons
and antiprotons in a synchrotron compared with collisions between stationary protons
and moving antiprotons.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 10 marks)
7. (a) Outline
(i) what is meant by a deep inelastic scattering experiment.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) how deep inelastic scattering experiments give evidence in support of the
existence of quarks and gluons.
quarks: .......................................................................................................
gluons: .......................................................................................................

(4)
(b) Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicate that the quarks inside hadrons behave as
free particles. Suggest a reason for this.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c) State two fundamental differences between the standard model for quarks and leptons
and the theory of strings.
...................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................... (2)
(Total 10 marks)
Standard
8. This question is about particle physics.
 (a) Possible particle reactions are given below. They cannot take place because they
violate one or more conservation laws. For each reaction identify one conservation law
that is violated.
(i) μ–  e– + γ
Conservation law: .....................................................(1)
(ii) p + n  p + π0
Conservation law: .....................................................(1)
(iii) p  π+ + π–
Conservation law: ..................................................... (1)
(b) State the name of the exchange particle(s) involved in the strong interaction.
.....................................................................................................................................(1)
(Total 4 marks)
9. This question is about particle physics.
A neutron can decay into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino according to the reaction
n  p + e + ve .
(a) Deduce the value of the electric charge of the antineutrino.
.....................................................................................................................................(1)
(b) State the name of the fundamental interaction (force) that is responsible for this decay.
(1)
.....................................................................................................................................
(c) State how an antineutrino differs from a neutrino.
.....................................................................................................................................(1)
(Total 3 marks)
10. This question is about fundamental interactions.
(a) The Feynman diagram below represents a – decay via the weak interaction process.

The exchange particle in this weak interaction is a virtual particle.

(i) State what is meant by a virtual particle.
......................................................................................................................... (1)
(ii) Determine whether the virtual particle in the process represented by the Feynman
diagram is a W+, a W– or a Z0 boson.
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) The order of magnitude of the mass of the W and Z0 bosons is 100 GeV c–2.
Estimate the range of the weak interaction.
................................................................................................................................... (3)
(Total 6 marks)
11. This question is about a proton.
The proton is made out of three quarks.
(a) Explain why the three quarks in the proton do not violate the Pauli exclusion principle.
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) Quarks have spin 2 . Explain how it is possible for the proton to also have spin 2 .
1 1

................................................................................................................................... (2)
(Total 4 marks)
MARKSCHEME
1. (a) Deduct [1] for each error or omission, stop at zero 2 max
Property Effect on rate of decay
increase decrease stays the same
temperature of sample
pressure on sample
amount of sample
(b) (i) the probability of decay (of a nucleus);
is 4.3 × 10–4 (1 in 2326) in each year; 2
(ii) mass defect = 5.2 × 10–3 u;
energy = mc2
= 5.2 × 10–3 × 1.661 × 10–27 × 9.00 × 1016 / 1 u = 930 MeV;
= 7.77 × 10–13 J / 4.86 MeV; 3 max
(c) (i) (linear) momentum must be conserved;
momentum before reaction is zero;
so equal and opposite after (to maintain zero total); 3
(ii) 0 = mv + mRnvRn;
v m 
  Rn 
v Rn  m 
222
=– = –55.5; 3
4
Ignore absence of minus sign.
(15.0  10 6  6.02  10 23 )
(d) (i) N0 = ;
226
= 4.0 × 1016 (3.996 × 1016);
(ii) N = 3.996 × 1016 exp (–4.30 × 10–4 × 30);
= 3.95 × 1016 (3.945 × 1016);
(N0  N )
(iii) mean activity =
t
(3.996  1016  3.945  1016 )
= ;
(30  365  24  3600 )
= 5.4 × 105 Bq; 6 max
Allow activity in yr–1.
(e) neutrons and protons are composed of quarks;
proton is up, up, down;
neutron is up, down, down; 3
(f) (i) two (light) nuclei;
combine to form a more massive nucleus;
with the release of energy / with greater total binding energy; 3

(ii) high temperature means high kinetic energy for nuclei;

so can overcome (electrostatic) repulsion (between nuclei);
to come close together / collide;
high pressure so that there are many nuclei (per unit volume);
so that chance of two nuclei coming close together is greater; 5 [30]
2. (a) baryon numbers +1 +1 0 0;
lepton numbers 0 0 +1 1; 2
(b) mass-energy / charge / spin / momentum / parity / time conjugation; 1
Do not allow either “mass” or “energy”. [3]
3. (a) (electric) charge;
strangeness;
lepton number;
parity;
baryon number;
angular momentum;
isotopic spin; 3
(b) (i) lepton number / angular momentum is not conserved; 1
(ii) 1
0 n  11p  10e  v ; 1 [5]
4. (a) (i) a particle that appears as an intermediate particle in a Feynman
diagram / a particle that is not observed and may violate energy
 and momentum conservation at a vertex; 1
(ii) W;
applying charge conservation at either vertex;
eg  13  23  x  x   1 or x = 1 + 0 = 1 2
(b) conversion of mass into kg
2 100 10 9 1.6 10 19
100 GeVc  1.78 10 25 kg ;
9 10 16

6.6310 34
correct substitution in R 
 
4 1.78 10 25 3108
;

to get 9.9  1019 m  1018 m; 3 [6]
5. (a) (The Pauli exclusion principle states:) it is impossible for two identical
fermions / half integral spin particles to occupy the same quantum state / it
is impossible for two fermions with the same quantum numbers to be in
the same quantum state;
the three quarks are distinguished by an additional quantum number, colour; 2
(b) there are two states of spin;
and so one can make a spin 12 particle out of three spin 12 objects by
having two parallel and one opposite / up + up + down / + 12 + 12  12 ; 2 [4]
6. (a) (i) the electric fields are used to accelerate the protons; 1
(ii) the magnetic fields are used to bend the protons into circular paths; 1
(b) the radius of the circular path increases as the speed increases;
mv
since R  ;
qB
to keep the protons in the same circular path B has to increase; 3
(c) (i) so each beam must have a kinetic energy of 1120  938 = 182MeV; 1
(ii) hence total energy E of accelerated particle is given by
22402 = 2(938)E + 2(938)2
 E = 1740 MeV
to give EK = 1740  938 = 802 MeV; 3
(d) the energy needed is much less in collisions between moving particles; 1 [10]
7. (a) (i) an experiment in which leptons scatter off hadrons;
imparting / transferring large amounts of energy / momentum
(compared to rest masses) to the hadrons; 2
(ii) quarks: [2 max]
scattering pattern is different from that expected from a single
individual particle;
and consistent with three constituents inside baryons;
also accept:
deep inelastic scattering experiments measure the momentum carried
by charged constituents inside hadrons;
the momentum carried by a constituent is about 13  12  of the total
momentum indicating that there are 3 (2) constituents in baryons
(mesons);
gluons: [2 max]
the total momentum carried by the charged constituents does not add
up to that of the hadron;
indicating that there must exist other neutral constituents inside
the hadron; 4
(b) in deep inelastic scattering experiments the energy transferred is very large;
the strength of the interaction between quarks decreases as the energy of
the interaction increases (due to a property called asymptotic freedom)
hence quarks behave as almost free particles; 2
(c) in the standard model the fundamental building blocks of matter are point
particles but in strings they are extended objects;
the standard model is formulated in four dimensions (accept three)  strings
require many extra dimensions / OWTTE; 2 [10]
8. (a) (i) muon lepton number / electron lepton number; 1
(ii) Baryon number; 1
(iii) Baryon number / electric charge; 1
(b) there are eight gluons involved in the strong interaction; 1
 Accept just the name gluons or just mesons. [4]
9. (a) zero; 1
(b) weak / electroweak interaction (force); 1
(c) they have opposite lepton number; 1 [3]
10. (a) (i) a particle that appears as an intermediate particle in a Feynman
diagram / a particle that is not observed and may violate energy
and momentum conservation at a vertex; 1
(ii) W;
applying charge conservation at either vertex;
eg  13  23  x  x   1 or x = 1 + 0 = 1 2
(b) conversion of mass into kg
2 100 10 9 1.6 10 19
100 GeVc  1.78 10 25 kg ;
9 10 16

6.6310 34
correct substitution in R 
 
4 1.78 10 25 3108
;

to get 9.9  1019 m  1018 m; 3 [6]
11. (a) (The Pauli exclusion principle states:) it is impossible for two identical
fermions / half integral spin particles to occupy the same quantum state / it
is impossible for two fermions with the same quantum numbers to be in
the same quantum state;
the three quarks are distinguished by an additional quantum number, colour; 2
(b) there are two states of spin;
and so one can make a spin 12 particle out of three spin 12 objects by
having two parallel and one opposite / up + up + down / + 1
2 + 1
2  1
2 ; 2 [4]
REPORT
1. HL only
Very rarely was it appreciated that changes in temperature and pressure do not affect rate of decay.
Approximately 50% of candidates could relate decay constant to a probability of decay.
However, many seemed to be unsure as to what would decay and in what length of time.
The calculation was usually correct, but some candidates did not calculate the mass defect first. As a result, they got
into difficulties with the complexities of the equation and an inability to use index notation.
This simple momentum problem was explained satisfactorily by the more able candidates. Weaker candidates appear
to learn their physics in ‘compartments’ and consequently were unable to give an explanation despite being told to
consider momentum. Most succeeded in obtaining the ratio in (ii) even when their earlier explanations were
unsatisfactory.
The calculations based on radioactive decay proved to be accessible to most candidates although a significant
number did not understand how to determine the average activity of the sample.
The concept of fusion was generally well understood. However, the conditions required for it to occur, in terms of
overcoming proton repulsion, were not well understood by weaker candidates.
2. Radioactive Decay
(a) Clearly, some candidates had learned their work carefully. It was apparent that others had either not studied
the topic or had not committed the work to memory. These should have been easy marks for candidates. Any
relevant property was accepted (e.g. charge) whether or not it is actually included in the Guide.
3. Fundamental particles
As is usually the case with such questions, candidates were divided into two groups. There were those who could
recall the relevant factual knowledge and they scored high marks. The remainder scored very few marks. Amongst
this group, it was common to find that, in (a), mass-energy and momentum were quoted for the conservation laws.
4. No Report available for this question.
5. No Report available for this question.
6. No Report available for this question.
7. No Report available for this question.
8. SL only
The answers to this question were rather disappointing. It was clear that the majority of candidates had no real
understanding of the conservation laws being asked for, and most answers included permutations of the laws of
conservation of mass, momentum and energy. Lepton number, baryon number and charge were seldom mentioned.
9. SL only
This was not well answered. Most could deduce (or recall) the charge of an antineutrino. A few candidates may have
found the term electron antineutrino instead of plain antineutrino confusing. The name of the interaction was beyond
the majority of the candidates.
10. No Report available for this question.
11. No Report available for this question.