Toward Human-Level Machine

Intelligence—Is it Achievable?

Lotfi A. Zadeh
Computer Science Division
Department of EECS
UC Berkeley

WSEAS AIKED’08, WSEAS SEPADS’08,

WSEAS EHAC’08, WSEAS ISPRA’08
University of Cambridge, UK
February 21, 2008

URL: http://www-bisc.cs.berkeley.edu
URL: http://zadeh.cs.berkeley.edu/
1 /90 Email: Zadeh@eecs.berkeley.edu LAZ 2/15/2008
2 /90 LAZ 2/15/2008
 IMPACT OF MACHINE INTELLIGENCE
z Achievement of human-level machine
intelligence will have a profound impact on
modern society—a society which is driven by
a quest for efficiency, convenience and
enhancement of quality of life.

z Human-level machine intelligence is likely to

play a pivotal role in mechanization of
natural language understanding, search,
decision-making, planning, control and, more
particularly, in information reuse and
integration.
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 CONTINUED

human-centric info-centric
problems
systems systems

hardware

software

brainware machine intelligence

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 PRINCIPAL PROBLEMS
MECHANIZATION
z Natural language z Knowledge
understanding management and
z Speech recognition organization
z Summarization z World knowledge
z Knowledge z Fusion
representation z Risk assessment and
z Search and question- decision making
answering z Planning
z Assessment of z Data mining and
relevance knowledge discovery
z Deduction z …
z How close are we to achievement of human-level
machine intelligence?
5 /90 LAZ 2/15/2008
 TURING TEST (1947)

z The Turing test is intended to differentiate

between a human and a machine. There is an
extensive literature.

z My contention is that Turing test is

unnecessary. No machine can pass the
following test. I talk for a few minutes and
ask the machine to summarize what I said.

z Problem: world knowledge

6 /90 LAZ 2/15/2008

 THE CURSE OF EFFICIENCY
z Far too often, we have to struggle with a
dumb automated customer service system
which we are forced to use. Such
experiences make us keenly aware that
human-level machine intelligence is an
objective rather than reality.

z When human-level machine intelligence is

achieved, we will not be able to tell the
difference between an automated customer
service system and one which is not.

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 TEST: DEDUCTIVE CAPABILITY
z Existing search engines have many
remarkable capabilities. But a capability
which they do not have is deduction
capability, that is, the capability to
synthesize an answer to a query by drawing
on information contained in various web
pages. As an illustration, Google—the most
advanced search engine—cannot come up
with an answer to the simple query:
Population of Obama’s birthplace?
z Deductive capability require world
knowledge.
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 TOP RANKING GOOGLE RESULTS
z bN : Hillary, your nose is growing.
Hawaii: February 19th, caucus, Obama's
birthplace ... one or more favorable traits for
Obama (caucus, reddish state, or large
African-American population).

z Obama Wins 3 Primaries, Leads Delegates -

AOL Money & Finance
She also declared herself the "underdog
candidate" in the Wisconsin primary next
Tuesday, the same day Obama's birthplace
Hawaii holds its primary. ...
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PRIORITY OF NATURAL LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING

z Solution of the problem of natural language understanding

is a prerequisite to solution of many other problems which
relate to achievement of human-level machine intelligence

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 CONTENTION
z Achievement of human-level machine
intelligence is beyond the reach of theories
based on classical, Aristotelian, bivalent
logic.

z The centerpiece of bivalent logic is the

principle of the excluded middle: every
proposition is either true or false, with no
shades of truth allowed. The problem is that
this principle is not a good fit to the real
world—a world in which imprecision,
uncertainty and partiality of truth are
pervasive phenomena.
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 WHAT CAN BE DONE?
z What can be done to advance our ability to achieve
human-level machine intelligence?
z Add new tools to the armamentarium of AI

1. Employ soft computing

2. FL-generalization. Upgrade bivalent-logic-based
methods through addition with concepts and
techniques drawn from fuzzy logic
Example: Probability theory
z Event + fuzzy event
z Probability + fuzzy probability
z Relation + fuzzy relation
z …
3. Computational theory of perceptions
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 SOFT COMPUTING (BISC 1991)
z Soft computing is a coalition of methodologies
which collectively serve as a platform for the
conception, design, construction and operation of
intelligent systems.

z The four cornerstones of soft computing are (1)

fuzzy logic; (2) neurocomputing; (3) evolutionary
computing; and (4) probabilistic computing. The
guiding principal of soft computing is: To achieve
superior performance employ the constituent
methodologies of soft computing in combination
rather than in a stand-alone mode. Examples:
neurofuzzy, neurogenetic, neuro-fuzzy-genetic.
Such combinations are in wide use in consumer
products, industrial control and fraud detection.
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 CONTINUED

z The genesis of soft computing has an

important side-effect; it stimulates inclusion
of courses on soft computing engineering
curricula, and thereby enlarges the cadre of
engineers trained in applying soft
computing to the design and construction of
high-performance intelligent systems.

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 COMPUTATIONAL THEORY OF PERCEPTIONS
(ZADEH 2001)
z Humans have a remarkable capability to perform a
wide variety of physical and mental tasks, e.g.,
driving a car in heavy city traffic, without any
measurements and any computations.
z In my 2001 paper “A new direction in AI—toward a
computational theory of perceptions,” published in
AI Magazine, I argued that mechanization of this
remarkable capability is beyond the reach of
methods based on bivalent logic. What is needed is
bivalent-logic-based computational theory of
perceptions. In this theory, the objects of
computation are not perceptions per se but their
descriptions in a natural language.

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 NEED FOR FUZZY LOGIC AS A BASIS FOR
HUMAN-LEVEL MACHINE INTELLIGENCE
z Achievement of human-level machine intelligence
require mechanization of two remarkable human
capabilities.
z The capability to reason and make decisions in
an environment of imprecision, uncertainty,
incompleteness of information and partiality of
truth.
z The capability to perform a wide variety of
physical and mental tasks based on perceptions,
without any measurements and any
computations. Example: driving a car in city
traffic.
z A nontraditional view of fuzzy logic serves this
purpose.
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17 /90 LAZ 2/15/2008
 FUZZY LOGIC MINUS MISCONCEPTIONS

z There are many misconceptions about fuzzy

logic. To begin with, fuzzy logic is not fuzzy.
Basically, fuzzy logic is a precise logic of
imprecision and approximate reasoning.
z Paradoxically, one of the principal
contributions of fuzzy logic is its high power
of precisiation.
z Example: The meaning of “Speed limit is 65
mph” can be precisiated more closely
through the use of fuzzy logic than through
the use of bivalent logic.
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 CONTINUED

z Another source of confusion is the duality of

meaning of fuzzy logic. In a narrow sense,
fuzzy logic is a logical system which is a
generalization of multivalued logic.

z In a wide sense, which is in dominant use

today, fuzzy logic, FL, is much more than a
logical system. FL has many facets. The
principal facets are: the logical facet, FLl; the
fuzzy set theoretic facet, FLs, the epistemic
facet, Fle; and the relational facet, FLr.
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 FACETS OF FUZZY LOGIC (FL)

FLIs logical (narrow sense)

relational FLr G/G FL fuzzy-set-theoretic

FLe epistemic

G/G: Graduation/Granulation

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 GRADUATION AND GRANULATION

z The basic concepts of graduation and

granulation form the core of FL and are the
principal distinguishing features of fuzzy
logic. More specifically, in fuzzy logic
everything is or is allowed to be graduated,
that is, be a matter of degree or, equivalently,
fuzzy.

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 CONTINUED

z Furthermore, in fuzzy logic everything is or is

allowed to be granulated, with a granule
being a clump of attribute-values drawn
together by indistinguishability, similarity,
proximity or functionality. Graduated
granulation, or equivalently fuzzy
granulation, is a unique feature of fuzzy
logic. Graduated granulation is inspired by
the way in which humans deal with
complexity and imprecision.

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 GRADUATION OF A VARIABLE
LINGUISTIC VARIABLE

µ middle
µ young -aged old
1
1

0 0 Age
quantized Age granulated

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 THE CORNERSTONES OF FUZZY LOGIC

graduation granulation

FUZZY LOGIC

generalized precisiation
constraint

z In the nontraditional view of fuzzy logic, precisiation

is elevated to the status of a cornerstone.

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 A BIT OF HISTORY

z Today, the concept of a linguistic variable is

used in almost all applications of fuzzy logic.
When I introduced this concept in my 1973
paper “Outline of a new approach to the
analysis of complex systems and decision
processes,” I was greeted with scorn and
derision rather than with accolades. Here is
an expert from a comment by R. Kalman, a
brilliant scientist.

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 CONTINUED
R.E. Kalman (1972)

I would like to comment briefly on

Professor Zadeh’s presentation. His
proposals could be severely,
ferociously, even brutally criticized
from a technical point of view. This
would be out of place here. But a blunt
question remains: Is Professor Zadeh
presenting important ideas or is he
indulging in wishful thinking?

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 CONTINUED
No doubt Professor Zadeh’s
enthusiasm for fuzziness has been
reinforced by the prevailing climate in
the U.S.—one of unprecedented
permissiveness. “Fuzzification” is a
kind of scientific pervasiveness; it
tends to result in socially appealing
slogans unaccompanied by the
discipline of hard scientific work and
patient observation.

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 CONTINUED

z The derisive comments reflected a

deep-seated tradition in science—a
tradition of according much more
respect to numbers than to words.
Thus, in science progress is equated to
progression from words to numbers.

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 CONTINUED
z In fuzzy logic, in moving from numerical to
linguistic variables, we are moving in a
counter traditional direction. What the critics
did not understand is that in moving in the
countertraditional direction, we are
sacrificing precision to achieve important
advantages down the line. This is what is
called “The fuzzy logic gambit.”

z A concept which plays a key role in fuzzy

logic is the concept of granular value.

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 SINGULAR AND GRANULAR VALUES
A
granular value of X
a singular value of X
universe of discourse

singular granular
unemployment 7.3% high
temperature 102.5 very high
blood pressure 160/80 high
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 GRANULATION OF A FUNCTION
GRANULATION=SUMMARIZATION
Y f *f (fuzzy graph)
L
large x small
M
S
0
0

S M L

granulation
f summarization *f : if X is small then Y is small
if X is medium then Y is large
if X is large then Y is small

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 INTERPOLATION OF A GRANULAR PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
P

g(u): probability density of X

p1 p2 p
pn
0 X

A1 A2 A An
pi is Pi : granular value of pi , i=1, …, n
(Pi , Ai) , i=1, …, n are given
A is given
(?P, A)
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 GRANULAR VS. GRANULE-VALUED
DISTRIBUTIONS

distribution

P g(u): probability
density of X p1 pn

…
P1 P2 P Pn
0 X granules
A1 A2 A An
possibility distribution of probability distribution of
probability distributions possibility distributions
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 GRANULATION OF A DYNAMICAL SYSTEM
YAMAKAWA’S INVERTED PENDULUM (1989)

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 MATHEMATICAL MODEL (v-PRECISE)

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 PERCEPTION-BASED (LINGUISTIC MODEL)
v-IMPRECISE, mm-PRECISE

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 GRANULATION OF A DYNAMICAL SYSTEM—
KEY IDEA

system of granulation system of

dynamical modeling
differential fuzzy if-then
system
equations rules

modeling via fuzzy if-then rules

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 HONDA FUZZY LOGIC TRANSMISSION
Fuzzy Set Not Very Low
High
1 1 Close 1
High Low High

Grade

Grade
Grade

Low
Not Low

0 30 130 180 0 54 0 5
Speed Throttle Shift

Control Rules:
1. If (speed is low) and (shift is high) then (-3)
2. If (speed is high) and (shift is low) then (+3)
3. If (throt is low) and (speed is high) then (+3)
4. If (throt is low) and (speed is low) then (+1)
5. If (throt is high) and (speed is high) then (-1)
6. If (throt is high) and (speed is low) then (-3)
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 MODALITIES OF VALUATION

valuation: assignment of a value to a variable

numerical: Vera is 48

linguistic: Vera is middle-aged

Computing with Words (CW): Vera is likely to be
middle-aged
NL-Computation: Vera has a teenager son and a
daughter in mid-twenties
world knowledge: child-bearing age
ranges from about 16 to about 42.
granular

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 NATURAL LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING
z As was noted earlier, the problem of
mechanization of natural language
understanding has a position of centrality in
machine intelligence. It plays a particularly
important role in representation of world
knowledge, assessment of relevance,
summarization, search, question-answering,
assessment of risk and decision-making. To
compute with information described in
natural language, it is necessary to precisiate
meaning. The issue of precisiation is
discussed in the following.
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41 /90 LAZ 2/15/2008
 PRECISION IN VALUE AND PRECISION
IN MEANING

z The concept of precision has a position of

centrality in scientific theories. And yet, there
are some important aspects of this concept
which have not been adequately treated in
the literature. One such aspect relates to the
distinction between precision in value (v-
precision) and precision in meaning (m-
precision).
z The same distinction applies to imprecision,
precisiation and imprecisiation.

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 CONTINUED

PRECISE

v-precise m-precise

precise value precise meaning

• p: X is in the interval [a, b]. a and b are precisely
defined real numbers
• p is v-imprecise and m-precise
•p: X is a Gaussian random variable with mean m and
variance σ2. m and σ2 are precisely defined real
numbers
• p is v-imprecise and m-precise
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 PRECISIATION AND IMPRECISIATION

z A proposition, predicate, query or command

may be precisiated or imprecisiated

Examples
young
1
young m-precisiation
0
v-imprecisiation
Lily is 25 Lily is young
m-imprecisiation

Lily is young v-precisiation Lily is 25

m-precisiation
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 MODALITIES OF m-PRECISIATION

m-precisiation

mh-precisiation mm-precisiation

human-oriented machine-oriented
(mathematically well-
Example: bear market defined)
mh-precisiation: declining stock market with expectation
of further decline

mm-precisiation: 30 percent decline after 50 days, or a 13

percent decline after 145 days. (Robert Shuster)
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 BASIC CONCEPTS
precisiation language
p: object of precisiation p*: result of precisiation

precisiend precisiation precisiand

cointension

• precisiand = model of meaning

• intension = attribute-based meaning
• cointension = measure of closeness of meanings
= measure of goodness of model
• A precisiend has many precisiands.

precisiation = translation into a precisiation language

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 v-IMPRECISIATION

v-imprecisiation

Imperative (forced) Intentional (deliberate)

imperative: value is not known precisely

intentional: value need not be known precisely

z data compression and summarization are

instances of v-imprecisiation

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 PRECISIATION AND IMPRECISIATION

z The concepts of precisiation and

imprecisiation have a position of centrality in
fuzzy logic.

z In particular, the concept of mm-precisiation

provides an answer to the question: Why use
fuzzy logic?—a question which has been an
object of great deal of discussion and
debate.

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 WHY USE FUZZY LOGIC?

z Upgrading of existing methodologies

through addition of concepts and
techniques drawn from fuzzy logic
opens the door to (a) a substantial
enhancement of our ability to model
reality and; (b) to progression toward
achievement of human-level machine
intelligence.

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 WHY USE FUZZY LOGIC?
PRINCIPAL RATIONALES

v-imprecise. Case 1 Rationale 1

variable or
system of
variables v-precise. Case 2 Rationale 2

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 RATIONALE 1
z Use of fuzzy logic greatly enlarges the number
and variety of ways in which the value of v-
imprecise variable or a system of v-imprecise
variables may be described and mm-
precisiated.
z One of the principal contributions of fuzzy
logic is its high power of mm-precisiation. A
concomitant of high power of mm-precisiation
is high ability of fuzzy logic to serve as
modeling language for complex, real-world
systems.
z Historical note: my 1965 paper on fuzzy sets
was motivated by Rationale 1.
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 RATIONALE 2
z Assumption: there is a tolerance for v-
imprecision. Precision carries a cost. To
exploit the tolerance for imprecision, v-
imprecisiate the variable or a system of
variables, reducing Case 2 to Case 1.
Case 2 Case 1

variable or variable or
system of v-imprecisiation system of
variables variables

z v-imprecisiation followed by mm-precisiation

is referred to as the “fuzzy logic gambit.”
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 CONTINUED

z Historical note: my 1973 paper “Outline of a

New Approach to the Analysis of Complex
Systems and Decision Processes,” was
motivated by Rationale 2.

z Today most applications of fuzzy logic in the

realm of consumer products and industrial
control are motivated by Rationale 2.

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 THE FUZZY LOGIC GAMBIT

v-imprecisiation mm-precisiation
p

reduction in cost achievement of computability

young
1
Lily is 25 Lily is young
0

Fuzzy logic gambit = v-imprecisiation followed by mm-

precisiation
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 CONTINUED
We achieve mm-precision by translation of
natural language into a precisiation
language. The fuzzy logic gambit opens the
door to computation with information
described in natural language and is the key
idea in NL-Computation. More generally, in
NL-Computation, the objects of computation
are not values of variables but states of
information about the values of variables.

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 IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS

z Perceptions are v-imprecise

z Natural language is both v-imprecise and mm-

imprecise

z A prerequisite to computation with information

described in natural language is mm-precisiation

z PNL (Precisiated Natural Language) may be viewed

as the result of mm-precisiation of natural language

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 SUMMARY
WHY USE FUZZY LOGIC?
PRINCIPAL RATIONALES
z Rationale 1: high power of precisiation

z Rationale 2: exploitation of tolerance

for imprecision. Fuzzy Logic Gambit.

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 NATURAL LANGUAGES AND DECISION-
MAKING
z Decisions are based on information. In
many realistic settings, decision-
relevant information is perception-
based. A natural language is basically a
system for describing perceptions.
Thus, perception-based information
can be described in natural language.
Decision-making, perceptions and
natural language are closely linked.

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 DECISION-MAKING IN THE REAL WORLD
THE CAB DRIVER PROBLEM
z I hail a cab and ask the driver to take me to
address A. Then I add: (a) the shortest way;
and (b) the fastest way. Based on his/her
experience, the driver chooses route (a) to
solve Problem (a); and route (b) to solve
Problem (b).
shortest route (a) A

fastest route (b)

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 CONTINUED

z Routes (a) and (b) will be referred to f-valid (fuzzily

valued) solutions. Generally, f-valid solutions are
based on perception-based information.

z Are there p-valued (provably valued) solutions?

z Problem (a) has a p-valid solution. A GPS system

can come up with this solution. Thus, in addition to
the drivers f-valid solution, there is a p-valid
solution.

z Problem (b) does not have a p-valid solution.

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 CLOSER LOOK
(S, P, M(S,P), Sol(P, M(S))

system problem model solution

Desiderata
1. M should be a good model
2. M should be precisiable/computable
z 1. and 2. are prerequisites to existence of a p-valid
solution
z Problem (b) violates 1.
z FL+ is needed to construct an f-valid solution if there
is no good precisiable/computable model. This is
what the cab driver does.
z In many realistic settings, there are no p-valid
solutions
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 CONTINUED

z More specifically, it is not possible to prove or

disprove that route (b) will be or has been the fastest
way to get to address A.

z If a p-valid solution does not exist, then how can an

f-valid solution be constructed?

z f-validity and related issues are the main concern of

the extended fuzzy logic (FL+).

z FL+ is of direct relevance to decision-making in

realistic settings

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63 /90 LAZ 2/15/2008
 EVOLUTION
fuzzy logic (FL)
FLs
bivalent multivalued FLl
FLr G/G
logic logic
FLe

• in this perspective, FL is a radical generalization of

multivalued logic
beyond FL

FL FL+

• FL+ is an extension of fuzzy logic

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 A CLOSER LOOK

z Over the years, fuzzy logic has been

enriched through introduction of a long list
of concepts, ideas and techniques. Included
in the list are the concepts of a linguistic
variable and fuzzy-if-then rules, Mamdani
rules, Takagi-Sugeno rules, L-fuzzy sets,
fuzzy sets of type 2, bipolar fuzzy sets,
intuitionistic fuzzy sets, possibility theory,
possibilistic logic, triangular norms, the
concept of a generalized constraint, fuzzy
probabilities, fuzzy arithmetic, OWA
operators and many others.
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 CONTINUED

z The concepts of extended fuzzy logic, FL+,

and f-validity which are sketched in the
following represent a more radical
development. In essence, extended fuzzy
logic may be viewed as an attempt at
legitimizing the concept of fuzzy theorem
(Zadeh 1975) and fuzzy validity. In large
measure, the move from fuzzy logic, FL, to
extended fuzzy logic, FL+, is a move into as
yet uncharted territory.

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 CONTINUED

z To clarify the meaning of f-validity and p-

validity consider a primitive world in which
figures are drawn with a spray can, with no
ruler or compass available. In this world, we
can envisage a fuzzified version of Euclidean
geometry, call it f-geometry. Note: f-geometry
is unrelated to Poston’s fuzzy geometry.

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 f-CONCEPTS IN f-GEOMETRY
z In f-geometry, drawing is done by hand with a
spray-pen

z f-point z f-perpendicular
z f-line z f-bisector
z f-triangle z f-altitude
z f-parallel z f-concurrence
z f-similar z f-tangent
z f-circle z …
z f-median z f-theorem

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 f-THEOREM

z The f-medians of an f-triangle are f-concurrent.

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 THE CONCEPT OF v-PROOF

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 EMPIRICAL f-PROOF

z Draw an f-triangle
z Draw the f-medians
z Look at the intersection of the f-medians
z F-asses the f-degree, *r, of f-similarity between the
intersection and an f-point
z Mark *r with a spray-pen on the scale [0, 1]
z Repeat the construct *n times
z Empirical f-proof: the f-points *r1, …, *rn form an f-
distance near 1

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 LOGICAL f-PROOF

z Assumed f-properties
ABC and A’B’C’ are f-similar A’
A

B C B’ C”

A’B’*= B’C’*= C’A’

AB BC CA

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 COROLLARY

z L, L’, L’’ are f-parallel f-lines

A A’

B B’

C C’

AB *= A’B’
AC A’C’

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 f-THEOREM
A

c b
r e

B C
a

z cb is f-parallel to BC
z dre is an f-line parallel to BC and passing through
the f-intersection, r, of Bb and Cc
z Dr*=re (by parallelism)
z Therefore Ba= aC

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 f-CONCEPTS

z f-maximum

z f-convexity

z f-separation

z f-causality

z f-subsethood

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 f-MAXIMUM

z PRECISIATION/IMPRECISIATION PRINCIPLE (Zadeh 2005)

a*: approximately a
z simple version

f(*a)*= *f(a)

Y Y

X X

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 p-MAXIMUM

level set

undominated

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 f-SEPARATION THEOREMS (ZADEH 1965)

z THEOREM 1

A B

A and B are f-disjoint f-convex sets

There exists an f-separating f-hg perplane

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 f-CAUSALITY

z In most realistic settings, problems relating to

causality do not have p-valid solutions. This applies,
in particularly, to reverse causality, that is, problems
in which the question is: What caused A? Here are a
few examples.

z I am a manufacturer of raincoats. I would like to

increase my sales. To this end, I increased the
advertising budget by 20%. Six moths later, sales
went up 10%. Was the increase in sales caused by
the increase in the advertising budget? If so, to what
degree?

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 CONTINUED

z I am listening to business news. The stock

market had a sharp drop. Analysts cite as
primary reasons for the drop: (a) 2% increase
in unemployment; and (b) 3 dollar-a-barrel
increase in the price of oil. To what degrees
did (a) and (b) cause the sharp drop?

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 CONTINUED

z A shot and killed B. Based on this

information, it can be concluded that A
caused B's death. Additional information: A
was hired by C to kill B. C wanted B to be
killed because B raped and murdered C's ten
year old daughter. To kill B, A borrowed a
gun from D. D suspected but was not sure
that the gun would be used to kill someone.
To what degrees was the death of B caused
by A, B, C and D? In this problem, the
concepts of causality and responsibility are
closely linked.
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 THE IMPOSSIBILITY PRINCIPLE

Point of departure (S, P, M(S,P), Sol(P,

M(S))
system problem model solution

z If a cointensive, mm-precisiable model of S can be

constricted, then P has a p-valid solution
z If a cointensive mm-precisiable model of S cannot be
constructed, then it is not possible to construct a p-
valid solution of P.
z The alternative is an f-valid solution

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 AN IMPORTANT CONCLUSION

z In many real-world settings, an f-valid

solution based on a realistic model may
be better than a p-valid solution based
on an unrealistic model.

z Warren Buffett said:

It is better to be approximately right
than precisely wrong

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 KEY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FL AND FL+

FL FL+

mm-precisiation mm-precisiation

mandatory optional

z FL+ is an extension of FL in the sense that in FL mm-

precisiation is mandatory, while in FL+ it is optional.

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 SUMMATION
z Achievement of human-level machine
intelligence has profound implications for
modern society and, more particularly, for
science and technology
z A view which is articulated in our
presentation is that human-level machine
intelligence cannot be achieved through the
use of theories based on bivalent logic. It is
argued that to achieve human-level machine
intelligence it is necessary to upgrade
existing theories through addition of
concepts and techniques drawn from fuzzy
logic.
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 CONTINUED

z Furthermore, it is expedient to employ

soft computing—a coalition of
methodologies which collectively
provide a platform for the conception,
design, construction and operation of
high-performance intelligent systems.

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 RELATED PAPERS BY L.A.Z IN REVERSE
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

z Generalized theory of uncertainty (GTU)—principal

concepts and ideas, Computational Statistics and Data
Analysis 51, 15-46, 2006.

z Precisiated natural language (PNL), AI Magazine, Vol.

25, No. 3, 74-91, 2004.

z Toward a perception-based theory of probabilistic

reasoning with imprecise probabilities, Journal of
Statistical Planning and Inference, Elsevier Science,
Vol. 105, 233-264, 2002.

z A new direction in AI—toward a computational theory

of perceptions, AI Magazine, Vol. 22, No. 1, 73-84, 2001.

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 CONTINUED
z From computing with numbers to computing with
words --from manipulation of measurements to
manipulation of perceptions, IEEE Transactions on
Circuits and Systems 45, 105-119, 1999.

z Some reflections on soft computing, granular

computing and their roles in the conception, design
and utilization of information/intelligent systems,
Soft Computing 2, 23-25, 1998.

z Toward a theory of fuzzy information granulation and

its centrality in human reasoning and fuzzy logic,
Fuzzy Sets and Systems 90, 111-127, 1997.

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 CONTINUED
z From computing with numbers to computing with
words --from manipulation of measurements to
manipulation of perceptions, IEEE Transactions on
Circuits and Systems 45, 105-119, 1999.

z Some reflections on soft computing, granular

computing and their roles in the conception, design
and utilization of information/intelligent systems,
Soft Computing 2, 23-25, 1998.

z Toward a theory of fuzzy information granulation and

its centrality in human reasoning and fuzzy logic,
Fuzzy Sets and Systems 90, 111-127, 1997.

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 CONTINUED

z The concept of a linguistic variable and its

application to approximate reasoning, Part I:
Information Sciences 8, 199-249, 1975; Part II: Inf.
Sci. 8, 301-357, 1975; Part III: Inf. Sci. 9, 43-80, 1975.

z Outline of a new approach to the analysis of complex

systems and decision processes, IEEE Trans. on
Systems, Man and Cybernetics SMC-3, 28-44, 1973.

z Fuzzy sets, Information and Control 8, 338-353, 1965.

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