What is Statistics

Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models,

representations and synopses for a given set of experimental data or real-life
studies. Statistics studies methodologies to gather, review, analyze and draw
conclusions from data. Some statistical measures include mean, regression
analysis, skewness, kurtosis, variance and analysis of analysis of variance.
(http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp)

Importance of Statistics
In this age of information technology, it is important to know how raw
data are processed and translated into useful information through
understanding the concepts, calues, scales ratings, percentage, market shares,
etc.
Application
In education, statistical tools are used to get information on enrolment,
finance, facilities and even grading system.
In government, statistics are gathered to guide the officials in managing
the affairs of the state.
In business and economics, statistics plays an important role in the
financial transactions and marketing of new products, forecasting of business
trends, controlling of the quality of goods produced and improving personnel
relations.
In sports, statistics are taken and recorded. These records help to keep
track of succeeding performances for comparison. Also, sports officials use them
for the declaration of the best athletes in their respective fields.

Statistical Theory
This is a mathematical approach to describe something, predict events, or
analyze the relationship between things. "Statistics" is a broader concept that
also includes the collection, analysis and presentation of numerical data.
Statistical analysis can, for example, describe the average income of a
population, test whether two groups have the same average income, or
analyze factors that might explain the income level for a particular group.
Statistics theory is used in a very wide variety of fields. For example,
statistics is used to develop and analyze psychological tests and public opinion
surveys, in program evaluation to determine whether a program works or how it
can be improved, in medicine with clinical trials to test the safety and
effectiveness of new drugs, in engineering to look for outliers and anomalies and
to test underlying assumptions and in many other areas.

Types of Statistical Methods

Descriptive Statistics – concerned with describing the properties and
characteristics of a set of data. It involves data gathering, organizing, describing
and presenting these information.
Inferential Statistics – concerned with the analysis of a sample data
leading to prediction, inferences, interpretation, or conclusion about the entire
population (based on the finding of the study). 1. Estimation of Parameters and
hypothesis testing

(Definition of Terms)
Population – totality of observations with which we are concerned.
(should set a criteria)
Sample – part/representative of a population
Variable – characteristic of phenomenon which may be taken differently.
Age, sex, educational attainment, grades in subject
,blood type, Civil Status, body temperature, weight, height.
Constant – values do not change; Citizenship – All Filipino
Parameter – numerical value derived from a population.
Statistic – numerical value derived from a sample.
Classification of Variables
Functional Relationship – ( independent) - and dependent
Nature of Values (quantitative) – discrete obtained through counting and
continuous; qualitative - Nominal
Continuity of values
Level of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
Methods of organization and presentation of data
One of the most important aspects in any statistical investigation is the
manner by which the researcher presents the data.

a. Textual - the data are presented in the form of texts, phrases or

paragraphs. Common among newspaper reports depicting
specifically the salient or important findings.
b. Tabular - a more reliable and effective way of showing relationships or
comparisons of data through the use of tables. The tables must be
 accompanied by a short narrative explanation to make the facts
clearer and more understandable.
c. Graphic Displays - the most effective way of presenting data through
the use of statistical graph. These can easily attract the attention as
well as the interest of the reader, e.g. bar graph, histogram, pie graph.

Measures of Central Tendency

Central Tendency is a single value about which the set of observation

tend to cluster.

1. Mean (Average) – most efficient measures of central tendency

2. Median – value that divides an array of observations into 2 equal parts
such that 50% fall above it.
3. Mode- Value which occurs most frequent in the data set.

Classification of variables

Acc. To level or scale of measurement

a. Nominal – classified and categorized

b. Ordinal
Classification of variables can dictate what we’re gonna do with the
data.

Rel bet. A major field of specialization and grades in a certain subject –

nominal vs. interval the measure of the relationhip is chi-square
No-correlation – mean grades of the students – one way analysis of
variance

Sex – nominal dicotonous (M, F)

Population mean – N (symbol)

Sample Mean – n (symbol)
Directional – predicts the degree of relationship Example: There is a
significant positive relationship
and Non-directional Hypothesis – do not specify the degree of
relationship. Example: there is a significant relationship

Two-tailed is used when Ha is non-directional

One tailed is used when Ha is directional

Type I error – incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis

Type II error – accepting a false null hypothesis

For Pearson r, Spearman rho, point-biserial and phi coefficient – df=n-2

T-Test – df+ (n1+n2) – 2

Pearson r – used when testing a (linear) relationship of 2 variables.

Example: Is there a significant relationship between student’s grade
in English and Math?

Spearman rank/rho – used when the variables are in ordinal scale/

variables are being ranked
Example: Is there a significant agreement between the ranks given
by the principaland the Dep’t Head to the 10 applicants to a vacant
position?

Point-Biserial – one variables is nominal dichotomous (categorized into

two like sex-frmale and male) and the other variable is an interval or a
ratio.
Example: is there a significant relationship between sex (nominal
dichotomous) and math achievement (ratio)

Phi-coefficient – two variables are directional

Example: is there a significant relationship between Gender (F/M) and
Attitude on Divorce (In favour or not)

Chi square – testing the dependence or independence between the two

variables.
 To analyse:
Reject if Computed value > tabular value
Or
Reject if p value < assigned alpha/level of significant usually .05

T-test- significant difference

Kaj12/08/17