AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF A VEGETATED ROOF ON THE

THERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF A CONCRETE DWELLING IN TRINIDAD AND

TOBAGO

A Research Paper

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science in Production Management

of

The University of the West Indies

Joel Le Gendre

2015

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

St. Augustine Campus

 ABSTRACT

In Trinidad and Tobago's commercial and industrial sectors, sustainable and "green" or

environmentally friendly practices are being advocated by bodies such as the Trinidad and

Tobago Energy Chamber (Annual Energy Conference), the Trinidad and Tobago Green

Building Council (LEED Green Building Rating System), and The Chamber of Industry and

Commerce (Bi Annual Facilities Management Conference). Topics such as waste reduction,

energy efficiency, sustainable design, cost savings, are all presented, however, the

residential applications of same, are not as widely promoted. This study focuses on the

benefits of sustainable design in terms of passive cooling techniques (vegetated roof) and

the impact on human comfort in a living space, while reducing reliance on mechanical

cooling devices (air conditioning) in the aim of saving costs on energy. A literature review of

the relevant information, as well as practical research in the form of a case study of an

actual vegetated roof design/build were completed to meet these aims. It was found that

factors of human comfort include ambient temperature, relative humidity, and air flow.

However, the presence of the vegetated roof, influenced only two of these: temperature

and relative humidity. Air flow was not affected, thus exhibiting the limitation of this

particular passive cooling device on internal environment. In conclusion, the vegetated roof

decreased maximum temperatures attained within the space during the day, which led to an

slight increase in the relative humidity, causing the internal environment to be more

favourable than before the installation. The air flow of the dwelling was very poor and

played a major factor in the discomfort levels experienced. The installation was quite

feasible as a Do-Yourself-Project, in terms of finances and labour requirement. Based on the

above, improvement in the design of the green roof should lead to improved passive cooling

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results within the home. It is also recommended that any other home renovation projects

need to address the issue of ventilation, so as to increase air flow. in addition, emphasis

should be placed on increasing the green spaces around the house as a form of passive

cooling.

Keywords: Green Roof, Passive Cooling, Do-it-Yourself, Thermal Comfort

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to those who have made this endeavour

possible. Firstly, Jesus, my Creator and the Author and Finisher of my faith. Without Him, I

would be nowhere. The Drakes family, who permitted the temporary modification of their

home, as well as, tolerated the subsequent disruption that accompanied the data gathering

activities. Their cooperation played a pivotal role in the execution of the project. Professor

Lewis, my project supervisor, whose exercise of patience, wisdom and experience, guided

and motivated the author towards executing quality research and reporting. I am greatly

appreciative for the technical and equipment support that were crucially and timely

delivered by Mr Oswald Lawrence and Mrs Sherry Mangal. My thanks also goes to Mrs. June

Charles-Noray, Secretary, Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering for all

the administrative support and general encouragement. Mr Daren Maynard and Dr Keston

Pierre for their professional review and guidance on compiling the material. Many thanks, I

also extend to my co-workers, friends and family who have contributed along the way.

Lastly, but far from least, I say thanks to my wife and son for their love, commitment,

patience, sacrifice and support throughout this journey in pursuit of my Master's Degree.

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 DEDICATIONS

This finished work is dedicated to my mother, my wife Tiffany, and sons Nathanael and

Mikha'el. After God, you are the main source of inspiration and motivation for what I do.

Thank you for being there for me.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... iii

DEDICATIONS .................................................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................... v

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. ix

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... xii

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Background ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Research Focus ................................................................................................................ 4

1.3. Research Aim and Objectives .......................................................................................... 6

1.4. Value of the Research ...................................................................................................... 7

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 9

2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 9

2.2. Definition ....................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.1. Extensive green roofs............................................................................................. 11

2.2.2. Intensive green roof ............................................................................................... 12

2.3. Application ..................................................................................................................... 13

2.3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13

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 Industrial or Commercial Applications................................................................................... 16

Institutional Applications ....................................................................................................... 18

Residential and Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Applications.................................................................. 19

Other Applications ................................................................................................................. 20

2.3.2 Design - Guidelines and standards................................................................................ 21

2.4. Performance Metrics ..................................................................................................... 31

2.4.1. Internal Variables ................................................................................................... 32

2.4.2. External Variables .................................................................................................. 35

2.5. Thermal Comfort ............................................................................................................ 35

2.6. Summary ........................................................................................................................ 36

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... 37

3.1. Research Strategy .......................................................................................................... 39

3.1.1. Design of Experiment ............................................................................................. 41

3.1.2. Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 48

3.2. Frame work for Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 51

3.3. Limitations and Concerns............................................................................................... 56

4. CASE FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... 62

4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 62

4.2. Description of Results and Analysis ............................................................................... 63

4.2.1. Before Green Roof Installation .............................................................................. 63

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 4.2.2. Green Roof Installation .......................................................................................... 68

4.2.3. After Green Roof Installation ................................................................................. 69

4.2.4. Comparison: Before vs After Readings .................................................................. 72

4.2.5. Thermal Comfort: Before vs After ......................................................................... 76

5. CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 80

5.1. Research Objectives: Summary of Findings and Conclusions ........................................ 80

5.1.1 Objective 1: Suitable Green Roof Design ............................................................... 80

5.1.2 Objective 2: Evaluate Existing Thermal Behaviour ................................................ 81

5.1.3 Objective 3: Assess Green Roof Impact on Thermal Behaviour ............................ 83

5.1.4 Objective 4: Recommendations for further green applications ............................ 84

6. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 90

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 94

8. APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 95

APPENDIX I - Green Roof Build (Photos) .................................................................................... 95

APPENDIX II - Instrument Technical Specifications .................................................................. 100

APPENDIX III - Instrument Comparison Set up ........................................................................ 103

APPENDIX IV - Readings Before Green Roof Installation ......................................................... 105

APPENDIX V - Readings After Green Roof Installation ............................................................. 112

APPENDIX VI - PMV and PPD Definitions and Equations ......................................................... 113

APPENDIX VII - PMV and PPD Calculator Interface .................................................................. 115

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APPENDIX VIII - Metabolic Rate and Clothing Insulation ......................................................... 117

APPENDIX X - Satellite Image of Case Study Site ..................................................................... 118

APPENDIX XI - Sketch of House Floor Plan ............................................................................... 119

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 - General Green Roof Example in Alabama (Snodgrass, McIntyre 2010) ........................ 10

Figure 2 Extensive Green Roof (Snodgrass, McIntyre 2010) ......................................................... 11

Figure 3 Intensive Green Roof - (2013) .......................................................................................... 12

Figure 4 Sod Roof Design (Roede 1989a, 1989b)........................................................................... 13

Figure 5 ARKOS Office building Fukuoka Japan - (www.pbase.com) ............................................. 17

Figure 6 Accessible green space .................................................................................................... 17

Figure 7 Functional green roof (no public access) ......................................................................... 18

Figure 8 School or Art Nanyang, Singapore - www.Inhabitat.com ................................................ 18

Figure 9 Chicago City Hall Green roof retrofit - www.pbs.org ....................................................... 19

Figure 10 Green Roof Residential - (Snodgrass and Mc Intyre 2010) ............................................ 20

Figure 11 Residential Green Roof Application - (Dunnett et al. 2011) ......................................... 20

Figure 12 Green Roof top on a bus ................................................................................................ 21

Figure 13 Green roof at a bus stop ................................................................................................ 21

Figure 14 Vegetation on a corrugated roof - (Dunnett et al. 2011) .............................................. 22

Figure 15 Greenery on stone roof - (Dunnett et al. 2011) ............................................................. 22

Figure 16 Green Roof layers .......................................................................................................... 23

Figure 17 Insulation and waterproofing membrane being installed ............................................. 24

Figure 18 Drainage and protective layers with growing media ..................................................... 26

Figure 19 Comparison: Green roof vs Field Soil vs Nursery Medium - www.roofscapes.com ...... 27

Figure 20 Sedum Album Athoum ................................................................................................... 29

Figure 21 Sempervivum Fame - Courtesy Wayne Fagerlund (sedumphotos.net) ......................... 30

Figure 22 Talinum Calycinum Rock Pink.html ................................................................................ 31

Figure 23 - LAI Ratio Illustration..................................................................................................... 33

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Figure 24 Rhoeo Spathacea Nana .................................................................................................. 44

Figure 25 WDCFM8912 DIgital Anemo-Psychrometer .................................................................. 45

Figure 26 RHT10 Temperature - Humidity Data Logger ................................................................ 46

Figure 27 RH42280 Temperature-Humidity Data Logger .............................................................. 46

Figure 28 Device Comparison - Indoor .......................................................................................... 48

Figure 29 Device Comparison - Outdoor ....................................................................................... 48

Figure 30 Temperature Trend Graph ............................................................................................. 52

Figure 31 Graph of Before Temp-in vs Before Temp-out .............................................................. 63

Figure 32 Relative humidity: indoor vs outdoor ............................................................................ 64

Figure 33 Temperature Highs and Lows: Indoor vs Outdoor......................................................... 65

Figure 34 Relative Humidity Highs and Lows: Indoor vs Outdoor ................................................. 65

Figure 35 Air Velocity - Indoor vs Outdoor .................................................................................... 68

Figure 36 Indoor Temp/Outdoor Temp After Installation ............................................................. 69

Figure 37 Relative Humidity: After Installation Indoor vs Outdoor ............................................... 70

Figure 38 After Installation Temp Highs and Lows ........................................................................ 71

Figure 39 Relative Humidity: After Installation Highs and Lows.................................................... 71

Figure 40 Temperature: Indoor "Before" vs Indoor "After" .......................................................... 72

Figure 41 Temperature: Before Outdoor Vs After Outdoor .......................................................... 73

Figure 42 Relative Humidity: Before vs After Indoor Values ......................................................... 75

Figure 43 Relative Humidity: Before Outdoor vs After Outdoor ................................................... 76

Figure 44 PMV and PPD values before .......................................................................................... 77

Figure 45 PMV and PPD values after ............................................................................................. 78

Figure 46 Modular Green Roof System www.ravenind.com ......................................................... 85

Figure 47 Installed Modular Green Roof www.greenroofs.com ................................................... 86

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Figure 48 Grass paving solutions www.freecreatives.com ............................................................ 87

Figure 49 Green wall system www.tulsalandscape.com ............................................................... 88

Figure 50 Acceleration of air under trees ...................................................................................... 88

Figure 51 Air acceleration around building due to landscaping .................................................... 89

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Bill of Materials - Green Roof Installation ......................................................................... 69

Table 2 PMV and PPD Values Before Green Roof Installation ....................................................... 76

Table 3 PMV and PPD Values for After Green Roof Installation .................................................... 77

Table 4 Assumed parameters for PMV and PPD Calculations (Fanger 1970) ................................ 78

Table 5 Summary of key "before" readings ................................................................................... 82

Table 6 Summary of Key "After" Readings .................................................................................... 83

Table 7 WDFCM8912 Readings from 13th March to 26th March 2014 ...................................... 105

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.Background

The Diamond Vale housing development in Diego Martin, was a project started in 1961 and

completed in the mid 1970's. The contractor was a Puerto Rican based, construction

company by the name of Homes International (Homer 2012, 2011). Close to 2500 houses

were built and they were constructed entirely from pre-stressed, pre-formed, concrete . The

design facilitated efficient construction and ensured strength to withstand earthquakes and

hurricane, given the prevalence of these occurrences in the region.

A testament to the robustness is the observed trend, more than 50 years later, where a

large number of houses have second storeys added to the original house. These renovations

were completed with little or no additional structural reinforcement, owing to the strength

of the underlying building. This type of expansion most likely formed part of the design

intent for the homes, as the roof slab provides a strong base for the new addition. Although

the advantages of the design were evident in terms of future expansion, and protection

from natural disasters, there were some inherent drawbacks. Namely, the thermal

environment created within the home and the low workability of the structure for

renovations or repairs.

Inspection of the home revealed that there are a number of architectural devices typical of

a home constructed in a tropical climate were excluded. The absence of high ceilings, large

windows, louvered vents, veranda style porches or raised wooden floors was observed.

These elements normally help to mitigate effects of the countries hot and humid tropical

climate.

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Proper air flow and natural convection are facilitated by the high ceilings and vents.

Verandas provide shade from the sun, reducing direct solar heat loading on the building

envelope and their eaves also promote the movement of air into the space (Okba 2005). In

houses with raised wooden floors, a permanent shaded area is created under the house,

providing source of cooling that can be drafted into the dwelling by natural convection.

As mentioned above, solid concrete was used to construct the homes and this material has a

high heat mass when compared to other materials, such as ceramic blocks, wood, "tapia" or

other earthen type materials. The absorption and retention of heat by concrete is far

greater than the latter, as well as the potential to transmit this heat into the space and trap

it there as well. Thus, the latter combined with the absence of profuse natural cooling and

ventilation measures, makes for a somewhat uncomfortable experience if left on its own.

A few intervention measures are outlined below, for the alleviation of any thermal

discomfort:

1. Employ forced convection utilizing electric fans

2. Renovate the building to increase ventilation and/or provide better shading

3. Install air-conditioning units to one or more rooms.

Option 1 presents a relatively low cost counter measure to the heat, but it is limited in its

application, as the desired level of cooling or ventilation depends on the size of the room,

number of occupants and the size and type fan used, as well as the ambient temperature.

Option 2 requires structural alterations to the house, which involves cutting into or partial

removal of some load bearing walls, which would impact the structural integrity of the

house. In addition, even in going forward with any type of work, the strength of the

concrete makes the walls almost impervious to drilling, cutting or reworking using regular

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duty power tools as experienced with past work. Specialized equipment such as (Hilti 2015)

impact hammers and drills, and applied contractor experience would be required to

properly execute a successful job. This additional work effort and required resources to

modify wall openings, as well as the removal and disposal of demolition materials drive up

costs significantly. What would usual be a "simple" renovation on another house, proves to

be an arduous, inconvenient and expensive task on these houses in particular (based on

experiences of renovations performed by close neighbours).

Option 3, will provide the most instantaneous improvement on the internal environment,

however, this installation also requires some alteration with the impervious concrete walls.

The job of running pipes and wiring or cutting holes for a wall unit is that much more

difficult with these houses. The need for extra labour and tools, as mentioned before,

escalates the cost of installation. Also, in addition to the capital cost, there is the long term

recurring cost of maintenance and energy consumption over the life of the unit .

In addressing the above scenarios for this particular case, one of the things that came to

mind was the LEED program. LEED, or Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design is a

voluntary green building certification system launched by the United States Green Building

Council (USGBC) in the late 1990's, as a means of promoting sustainable building and

maintenance practices in the United States. Points are granted for implementation of

measures which improve building performance in areas of energy consumption, carbon foot

print, indoor air quality and water and waste management. The awards are as follows: LEED

Certified: 40-49 points; Silver: 50-59 points; Gold: 60-79 points; Platinum: 80+ points as

gathered from the (USGBC 2015).

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Also outlined on the councils website are the LEED certification processes. These allow the

building owner or facilities' manager to examine their building, and its use to see where

sustainability points can be gained within the different categories. For instance, having a

policy for energy management earns points, this could be as simple as having energy

efficient light bulbs or ensuring occupants turn off equipment that are not in use. Of course

the more that is done in the management of energy, the more points can be accredited.

However, many of the baseline points can be earned by what may be described as "no-cost"

or "low-cost" investments. These are often linked to monitoring and improving of

operational habits. This is especially motivating as it provides a "kick start" to existing

building owners that genuinely seek to have sustainable facilities, but do not have the

capital for the major green building renovations or retrofits that would gain maximum

points.

Building on the LEED approach, the researcher intends to take a qualitative look at the

home, from the context of energy management (air-conditioning) and site management

(building envelope), to determine what "no-cost"/"low-cost" measures may be

implemented. In this way the homeowners may be exposed to more opportunities to

pursue, in creating a more comfortable dwelling, while minimizing budgetary requirements.

A major part of this effort is the employment of solutions that require little or no

interference with the structure of the house.

1.2.Research Focus

Owing to the prevalence of cheap air-conditioning systems for households, the purchase

and installation of these units is often the first port of call to many homeowners seeking to

improve the comfort level of their home. However, this is often done without holistically

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assessing the thermal properties of the space, or determining if better temperature

regulation could be achieved outside of mechanical means (Pérez-Lombard et al. 2011).

"Before energy was plentiful and air-conditioning omnipresent, designers came up with

ingenious techniques for letting the forces of nature keep their buildings cool." (Green 1979).

The strategy of using natural means to provide cooling within a building, without the use of

machines is known as passive cooling (Green 1979).

Again, owing to the prevalence air conditioning over the years, the use of passive cooling

techniques in building design have been abandoned for the comfort and design liberties

afforded by the use of refrigeration cooling (Kamal 2012). With the rising concern for the

depletion of fossil fuels and increased awareness for energy efficiency and renewable

energy sources, organizations such as the USGBC, are pushing continuously towards more

sustainable practices. As such, the major focus of this study surrounds the techniques of

passive cooling, in achieving better thermal performance of the dwelling, at the same time,

drawing from the influences of LEED to give direction to the research.

With a new build, there are many techniques that can be considered in the design stage,

however, given that the building under study already exists, the options become narrowed.

In keeping with the "no-cost" to "low cost" theme, the best approach to altering the thermal

behaviour of the building was to manage its heat gain. This often the first step in attempting

to cool a building naturally through design. The specific method selected was that of roof

shading. "Shading the roof is a very important method of reducing heat gain. Roofs can be

shaded by providing roof cover of concrete or plants or canvas or earthen pots etc" (Kamal

2012).

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The choice of roof cover was further narrowed down to the use of vegetation in the form of

a green roof installation. Plant cover provides both the shade from the solar radiation, as

well as evaporation cooling from the leaves, during the day resulting in lower roof

temperatures (Santamouris, Pavlou, Doukas, et al. 2007). At night due to lower roof

temperatures and continued plant transpiration, further heat is released to the night sky

(Kamal 2012). In addition to lowering temperatures, the green roof has aesthetic benefits,

helps manage storm water runoff and also helps to reduce heat island effect (Tsang and Jim

2011). Although, these influences on the wider environment will not be studied, they are

worthy of mention as they fall within the intention of the researcher to select a holistic

solution.

To gain a meaningful picture of the impact of the installation, the link between reduction in

heat gain of the home and the thermal comfort must be explored (Geetha and Velraj).

Human comfort is based on four main variables: temperature, humidity, airflow and mean

radiation (Parsons 2002). Of the four variables, the study will quantify the first three to

establish the measure of performance. A baseline will be set, that will provide insight for

further studies and improvements on the building.

1.3.Research Aim and Objectives

The overall aim of this research is to advance an understanding of passive cooling

techniques and green technologies in the residential construction sector, in the Caribbean

setting. The benefits of using nature in creating opportunities to manage comfort of the

dwelling space are often exchanged for costly and somewhat unsustainable mechanical

solutions. It is hoped that this research will increase the awareness of relevant stakeholders

(home owners, designers and builders), and build a case for implementation of sustainable

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measures in new constructions and renovations. Possibly, the extent to which homes are

designed in neglect of the environment can be diminished.

In the context of building this case study the objectives of the research are to:

1. Identify suitable green roof design for a "Do-it-Yourself" retrofit application for the

structure at no or low cost.

2. Evaluate current internal and external thermal and environmental behaviours of

the structure and the immediate environment.

3. Assess the impact of the green roof installation on the internal environment of the

structure

4. Formulate recommendations for the use of green and passive cooling techniques

1.4.Value of the Research

This research is expected to contribute to the community in a number of ways. In the first

instance to introduce (or re introduce) the importance of maximizing the use of natural

elements in the design of dwelling structures in Trinidad and Tobago (and regionally).

Contemporary design has ignored, to a great extent, the use of non technological devices

and techniques in building design, in an effort to increase efficiency, comfort and

maximization of space. Inasmuch as the latter are important, it is often achieved in the

absence of sustainability and the environment conscientiousness.

Additionally, the researcher hopes to demonstrate a feasible, natural mechanisms for

achieving acceptable levels of human comfort in a space, while reducing the dependence on

mechanical intervention. Minimize impact on the structure of the building, while achieving

a measureable level of impact on the internal of the home.

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Furthermore, the study promotes, a empirical approach to assessing dwelling places, so that

suitable sustainable retrofit solutions can be applied, as opposed to the default of installing

air conditioning units. Moreover, to serve as encouragement to home owners to take a

more active role in the care and design of their homes and the impact on the neighbouring

environment and vice versa.

Finally, there is commercial opportunity to be captured from this venture, as it presents a

case for feasible application of sustainable green features (roofs, walls, home gardens etc).

The fact that they are modular, relatively easy to install, relatively easy to maintain, flexible

in their design, friendly to the environment and aesthetically pleasing, present salient selling

points for this as a product and service to a niche market. The reality is, not everyone is

willing to invest the time or money in the beginning stages, but, there is great potential for

widespread adoption.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.Introduction

In this Literature Review, the main parameters surrounding the selection, design,

installation and performance of green roofs, as a retrofit solution to an existing structure,

shall be examined. Relevant applications of this technology in tropical or warm climates will

form the context for this study, especially in regards to the energy and environmental

impact on the building under review. Objectives 1, as set out in the previous section,

provides the main focus for the review of literature. Objectives 2 and 3 are fulfilled through

empirical data collection and analysis; while Objective 4 is accomplished through the

fulfilment of objectives 1,2 and 3 and these are as follows:

1. Identify suitable green roof design- for a "Do-it-Yourself" retrofit application for the

structure at no or low cost.

2. Evaluate current internal and external thermal and environmental behaviours of

the structure and the immediate environment.

3. Assess the impact of the green roof installation on the internal environment of the

structure.

4. Formulate recommendations for the use of green and passive cooling techniques.

Through the exploration of the literature, a significant contribution to this research will be

achieved. The current discoveries and approaches in green roof systems, and the overall

advantages and constraints of their implementation shall be evaluated. In addition, the

minimalist approach to combining the major elements of green roofs, such as soil type,

thickness, and selection of vegetation, for roof adoption will be examined. Likewise, the

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critical parameters for evaluating the thermal behaviour of the building and its surroundings

shall be explored.

Upon the completion of this section, it is the hoped that there is a gain of the critical

understanding of the key concerns and parameters surrounding green roofs, and that the

reader is more informed in this area of study. In addition, it would provide a clear focus and

justification to support further development of vegetated surface applications in residential

construction and retrofits in Trinidad and Tobago. The most sensible place to begin would

be to explore what constitutes green rooftops; the general definitions and descriptive

terms, design formats, and the functions of the main components. This would be followed

by an outline of key factors that impact performance and how these translate to the thermal

behaviour of the building to which the green roof is attached.

Figure 1 - General Green Roof Example in Alabama (Snodgrass, McIntyre 2010)

2.2.Definition

A green roof, also known as a living roof or eco roof, is one that comprises plant life or

vegetation, contained in a growing medium or soil layer (Sailor 2008b, Dunnett et al. 2011).

In addition to the soil, there are usually supporting functional layers, including one for

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drainage, a barrier for roots, and a water proofing layer that help protect the underlying

infrastructure from the action of the living roof. Generally the depth of the above

mentioned layers, determines the class or type of green roofs, of which there are two main

types: Extensive and Intensive (Snodgrass and Mc Intyre 2010).

Figure 2 Extensive Green Roof (Snodgrass, McIntyre 2010)

2.2.1. Extensive green roofs

These structures are classified by a depth of growing medium that ranges between 5 cm

(2in) to 20cm (8in). They are relatively light in weight and are best suited for the

propagation of ground cover, in the form of small herbaceous plants, sedum and other

succulents and grass (Sailor 2008a). Plants selected for these applications usually require

low maintenance and are able to sustain themselves in times when the availability of water

is low, which augers well for users or owners who prefer not to be too hands on in the

upkeep of the installation. Of course, wanton neglect of the live roof will lead to its demise

and subsequently diminished effectiveness. This type of green roof, "is commonly designed

for maximum thermal and hydrological performance and minimal weight load" (Wark and

Wark 2003), as such, the extensive green roof is an ideal subset to employ in the retrofitting

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of existing buildings or "Do-it-Yourself" projects, owing to the reduced requirement for

major structural reinforcement of the existing structure (Castleton et al. 2010).

2.2.2. Intensive green roof

These installation are more complex as they comprise a deeper layer of growing media,

which can range from greater than 15cm (6in) (Tsang and Jim 2011). The complexity

surround three main considerations: (1) Structural design surrounding the weight of the

deeper growing medium. Namely the integrity of underlying structure, and the required

consultation of a civil engineer and (or) architect. (2) Aesthetic design of the green space, as

the options presented by greater plant variety (ie. ground cover, shrubs and larger trees),

require greater planning in creating a workable layout for the roof garden (Nyuk Hien, Puay

Yok, and Yu 2007) . (3) The maintenance concerns, associated with this green roof type,

including irrigation, pruning and general up keep. The former considerations, makes an

"intensive" green roof system an unlikely candidate for the project at hand.

Figure 3 Intensive Green Roof - (2013)

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2.3. Application

2.3.1. Introduction

Though the origins green roofs may not be clearly identified, suggests that the modern use

of the technology has its roots in the Scandinavian regions of Norway, Sweden and Iceland,

where for centuries, turf or sod roofs have been used in the construction of the dwelling

structures there. The sod roof comprised of base layers of birch bark, the primary roofing

material at the time as it was durable, readily available and resistant to water. The birch

bark layers were then covered with layers of local turf "cut from good pasture land,

preferably with sandy soil" containing "a naturally grown grass with a deep root system" .

Well suited for its insular properties, the layers of turf also acted as a weight to prevent the

birch wood from reverting to is naturally curled shape, seeing that no fasteners were used

to secure them to the eaves.

Moreover, the overall weight of the roof also served to compress the walls of the houses,

tightening the spaces between the logs used at the time, thereby improving the draught

resistance of the dwelling during the winter period.

Figure 4 Sod Roof Design (Roede 1989a, 1989b)

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The use of sod roofs dwindled with the introduction of modern roofing systems, which

utilized industrial type materials, such as wood shingle, tiles, lead sheets, and corrugated

steel. Traditional sod roofs, became removed to the rural areas, though it experienced

resurgences in past times as an alternative to the modern roofs, through advocacy groups

for "ancient traditions".

The modern development of the green roof varies greatly from the sod roof, in its design,

use of materials, functionality and applications. Much of the work done in the developing

the modern green roof started in Germany during the 1960's (2015, Magill et al. 2011).

Development caught on within Europe, eventually spreading to the United States and other

countries. Work in green roof systems are popular in Asia, Australia and numerous regions

across the globe.

Typically, green roofs are built to serve at least four main functions (Ouldboukhitine, Belarbi,

and Djedjig 2012, Tibério Cardoso and Vecchia 2013):

1. Thermal insulation and buffering for the building envelope from solar radiation,

which reduces the heat absorbed by the building, as well as, minimizes extreme

temperature fluctuations, leading to extended life of the roof membrane.

2. Hydrological properties in regards to absorption and management of storm water

run-off.

3. Environmental and Ecological benefits such as: reduction in the heat island effect;

the filtration of heavy metals and other minerals from rain water before it enters

the soil and waterways, as well as the absorption and reduction of CO2 and CO

emissions.

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 4. Inherent aesthetic appeal: the hard lines and edges created by built up urban

structures are softened by the variation in textures, colour and shapes created by

green spaces, which is refreshing amidst the hard sometimes mundane cityscape.

Owing to the thermal impact of vegetated surfaces, on a building much attention has been

directed to the relationship of the green roofs and the energy efficiency of facilities,

especially in the area of Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (H.V.A.C.) services. Almost

50% of the energy consumed by commercial and residential buildings can be attributed to

the HVAC system, and a lot of money and non-renewable resources are expended in

maintaining a comfortable internal environment for their occupant.

Cost of energy has been a major concern for some time, and even in the design stage,

architects and building designers seek to manage and minimize the energy consumed by the

building. Some of the programs used to model these buildings have incorporated the green

roof as a energy saving measure in their simulation and modelling routines. These programs

include Energy Plus and TRNSYS 16. A list of characteristics of the proposed green roof are

entered into the system and the projected energy calculations are derived. Studies have

been able to show a direct connection between the calculated thermal behaviour and the

actual response of the real life installation. Moreover, the studies on the impact and

performance of green roof installations, whether it be a retrofit or a new construction, and

have revealed the following:

 The thermal insulation provided by the green roof improves heating efficiency

during cold months by reducing loss of heat through the roof, resulting in

significant savings in heating fuel costs. Conversely, the same thermal protection

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 also reduces the introduction of natural warmth from solar radiation, but the

benefit outweighs the disadvantage.

 The shielding provided by the green roof, against solar radiation, in addition to

evapo-transpiration process of the vegetation greatly reduces the heat gained

through the roof and minimizes the retention of heat during the warmer periods.

This contributes significantly to the reduction in the cost of cooling the space

below.

The latter of the two is especially pertinent to a tropical region and the effects of a built up

environment that experiences large doses of solar radiation.

Whatever the combination of benefits derived from a particular green roof installation, they

have been applied in the various segments of the society across the globe. These included:

Industrial or Commercial Applications

Green roofs may be found on various buildings within this class, including skyscrapers,

commercial office buildings, apartment complexes, manufacturing plants and shopping

centres. Even if the entire roof is not covered, portions of them are furnished may be

furnished with a green space that may or may not be accessed by the occupants, see Figure

5, Figure 6 and Figure 7

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Figure 5 ARKOS Office building Fukuoka Japan - (www.pbase.com)

Figure 6 Accessible green space

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 Figure 7 Functional green roof (no public access)

Institutional Applications

Apart from the commercial projects many institutions have also employed green spaces in

their building design. From government offices, public and private schools of various levels,

as well as universities. A great example is shown in Figure 8, which features the School of Art

in Nanyang, in Singapore. It shows piece of how skilful and innovative designers have gotten

in crafting sustainable facilities. Figure 9 shows the city hall in Chicago, and serves as an

example of a retrofit type application (government building).

Figure 8 School or Art Nanyang, Singapore - www.Inhabitat.com

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 Figure 9 Chicago City Hall Green roof retrofit - www.pbs.org

Residential and Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Applications

Residential projects comprise a large number of green roof installations worldwide as well.

In general, the cost justification and the rate of return may not be comparable to, their

commercial counterparts owing to the smaller scale, and sometimes size of available

resources. However, owing to the proliferation of Do-it-Yourself opportunities in the

availability of pre packed green roof components, manuals and project templates, the

feasibility of installations have been made increased. The scope of these DIY projects range

from full and partial houses installations, tool sheds, car ports and patios or terraces. The

residential project category, due to its unique application, contributes an additional

opportunity to benefit from the application of the green roof: food production. In addition

to the thermal (energy), hydrological, ecological and aesthetic properties, the aspect of food

production makes the circle of benefit complete.

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 Figure 10 Green Roof Residential - (Snodgrass and Mc Intyre 2010)

Figure 11 Residential Green Roof Application - (Dunnett et al. 2011)

Other Applications

Some projects are just purely aesthetic and may not hold any other benefit that adding the

visual value of the presence of vegetation in a given circumstance. Again, this touches on

the therapeutic value of introducing or building green spaces into monotonous, synthetic

environments. The Figure 12 and Figure 13 below, capture some of the unique ways in

which designers have chosen to use this type vegetative surface.

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 Figure 12 Green Roof top on a bus

Figure 13 Green roof at a bus stop

2.3.2 Design - Guidelines and standards

Just as with any type of construction, green roofs follow specific patterns for proper

installation, across the various scales and applications. Although in the purest form "a green

roof is one with a thin layer of soil and living vegetation installed on top of a conventional

flat or sloping roof". Green roofs can establish themselves naturally and flourish, as in the

cases where sedum, grasses or weeds propagate on some medium situated on a roof

surface, after the deposition their seeds by birds or other wildlife (Dunnett et al. 2011) (see

Figure 14 and Figure 15)

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 Figure 14 Vegetation on a corrugated roof - (Dunnett et al. 2011)

However, if left unchecked these occurrences can contribute to the demise of the roof and

the underlying structure. Thus in approaching a project, it is important to adhere to the set

codes and standards to ensure the success and longevity of the installation. This is very well

summarised in the statement expressed by (Snodgrass and Mc Intyre 2010) "a leaking green

roof with healthy plants is a compromised or failed green roof". Thus it cannot be

understated the need for consulting the right people and resources in order to build

compliance into the project. With this in mind, the construction of the green roof comprises

at least eight (8) functional components, as seen in Figure 16. In the sections below, the

important considerations and compliances shall be discussed.

Figure 15 Greenery on stone roof - (Dunnett et al. 2011)

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2.3.1.1. The Roof Deck

The top most structure of the building, serves as the foundation for the green roof.

In most commercial buildings this is usually constitutes a reinforced concrete slab,

however, in other applications alternatively suitable roofing materials can be used.

The critical considerations are the structural integrity, drainage and

water/weatherproofing constituents. The roof must be able to sustain the load of

the green roof layers to be laid above it, factoring in increases in weight during

maximum moisture saturation of the growing medium (Dunnett et al. 2011).

The load bearing capacity of the roof is a limiting factor on the depth of the growing

medium and hence affects the level of design and variability in terms of the

horticultural elements. In a new build, the design can be drafted to incorporate the

Figure 16 Green Roof layers

type green space desired and corresponding loading requirements. However, in an

existing structure the design selection must align with capacity of the existing

structure, which includes the roof and the walls and supports and this should be

checked before selection of the green roof design (Dunnett et al. 2011).

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2.3.1.2. Insulation layer

Made use of in temperate climates, this section provides thermal protection for the

underlying roof deck and subsequently the building's interior by creating a barrier

between the surface of the roof and the substrate layers. During the winter months

any moisture trapped in the growing medium becomes frozen, and acts as a heat

sink, which would draw heat from the building, through the roof, if no measures

were taken. The effects of this phenomenon, would cause and increase in energy

required for heating. For warmer tropical climates, where the effect of cold

temperatures is not a concern, this layer may not even be required.

Figure 17 Insulation and waterproofing membrane being installed

2.3.1.3. Water proofing

This membrane is required to lock out moisture from the surface of the insulation

and more importantly the roof deck. The most suitable selection for the water proof

lining are usually asphalt applied over a felt base, or rubber based materials, such as

Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) Rubber, that are applied to the roof by

painting or other mechanisms (Dunnett et al. 2011). For smaller scale do it yourself

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 projects butyl rubber linings may be used, however, this material is less weather

resistant than the former and must be kept from extended exposure to UV

radiation. Once covered completely by the substrate and other layers it will be

shielded from UV and would prove to be a cost effective material to include on an

installation.

2.3.1.4. Protective Layer

The protective layer forms a barrier between the plant roots and the drainage layer.

It also inhibits growth of the roots into the lower layers of the green roof structure.

Growing roots can prove over time to be very destructive to roof deck, thus

restraining their downward growth is important in maintaining the structural

integrity of the former, as well as the layers above it. Protection is also given to the

exposed layers during installation activities, and often takes the form of a relatively

light weight, sturdy material like concrete board, rigid board made from plastic, or

flexible, puncture resistant geo-textile (Dunnett et al. 2011)

2.3.1.5. Drainage Layer

Proper drainage is an important aspect of any green roof, as it manages the flow of

moisture within the soil, especially in the case of a retrofitted roof that has an

existing drainage system to be integrated (Snodgrass and Mc Intyre 2010). Water

must be regulated to reduce the rated of storm water runoff, without causing the

growing media to become waterlogged, at the same time sufficient moisture must

be retained for the health of the plants. Excessive moisture adds weight to the roof,

and may also present a hindrance to plants that do not thrive in water rich

environments. The drainage layer is also important in keeping the plant roots

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 aerated, to achieve this, light weight corrugated sheets or egg crate like mats made

of plastic or rubber are used.

Figure 18 Drainage and protective layers with growing media

2.3.1.6. Filter Layer

Placed over the drainage section it comprises a root resistant mesh that prevents

the movement of particulates, as well as the intrusion of growing roots into the

drainage layer. Thereby, erosion is prevented and an unclogged, functional drainage

layer is maintained. Selection of the right material for this layer is determined by on

hole size, strength, and root inhibiting capabilities. These parameters will vary

according to the design of the green roof, composition of the growing media used,

as well as the plant type and size present. The goal is to ensure that the flow rates of

water and air are sufficient to accommodate the plant life, while minimizing loss of

soil and penetration of roots.

2.3.1.7. Substrate or Growing Media

The selection of the growing media is very important as it is quite different to

selecting regular garden soil. Most roof top media comprise a mix of light-weight,

synthetic aggregate and measured portions of organic material (Snodgrass and Mc

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Intyre 2010). Growing media is selected based on a number of criteria, which

include:

 Low relative weight and density when dry or wet

 The provision of proper mineral nutrients.

 The ability to retain volume and mass over an extended period of time

 Ability to absorb and retain moisture without becoming muddy or binding.

 Resistance to the propagation of weeds and other undesirable organic life.

The material used to generate synthetic aggregate mineral base mentioned above is

usually some type expanded clay, which works well to provide the above mentioned

properties. Figure 19 shows a comparison between other growing media types that

supports the above characteristics of the substrate (Snodgrass and Mc Intyre 2010)

made further emphasizes proper selection in the statement:

"it's important to remember that a roof environment bears little

resemblance to a garden at grade. Stressors such as heat, sunlight, and

wind are much more intense on a roof, and soul qualities that are valuable

at grade (such as high organic content) can be unwelcome on a roof (too

much organic matter in growing medium can promote weed pressure and

lead to degradation and loss of volume). Many plants cannot live, let alone

thrive, in such an environment.

Figure 19 Comparison: Green roof vs Field Soil vs Nursery Medium - www.roofscapes.com

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2.3.1.8. Vegetation

The most important and visible section of the installation, colour and life can be

brought into a usually void space, as well as protection for the building below and

the surrounding environment. It is the reason for which all the other layers exist: to

support the plant life. While a measure of thermal and hydrological benefits can be

attained if the vegetation is excluded, the performance of the green roof is greatly

enhanced and magnified by the presence of this layer (Dunnett et al. 2011).

Owing to the relatively harsh nature of the rooftop environment the selection of the

plants for the green roof is critical. When compared to the typical garden, there is

more intense exposure to the elements, especially in warmer climates. The action of

the sun, wind and rain act against the green roof, increase likelihood of drying out of

foliage, erosion of the substrate media, and dispersal of the vital life. (Snodgrass and

Mc Intyre 2010) suggests that a good candidate for a green roof plant must:

a. Light weight when mature

b. Grow and spread quickly

c. Live for a long time

d. Possess a strong, shallow, lateral root systems that help to bind the growing

medium

Other aspects of the plant selection are influenced by end performance criteria, one

of which include the overall aesthetic and design intent of the finished assembly.

Plants of varying colour, heights and textures maybe included to provide a pleasing

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landscaped effect, even though they may lack one or two of the required properties

mentioned above (a-d).

Another area of consideration is the plants evapo-transpiration activity (Snodgrass

and Mc Intyre 2010). This process is the main contributor to the cooling effect of the

green roof and involves the transmission of moisture from the growing medium

through the plant, into the atmosphere. The amount of shade provided by the

foliage is also important, as it is the another major contributor to cooling. It is

important that the plants' leaves provide sufficient cover to achieve the desired

level of shade. In addition to shade, the density of the leaf coverage resists the

deposition and propagation of weeds and other undesirable plant life.

Figure 20 Sedum Album Athoum

While it may or may not be the intention of the designer it is important to factor in

the effect of the chosen roof plants on the neighbouring ecosystems. Many green

areas attract and harbour insects and possibly birds that contribute to pollination of

plants and trees within range. There is also the concept of a "productive roof",

where food in the form of herbs, spices and other produce is actively cultivated.

Although, these aspects are secondary to the main purpose of the green roof, in the

name of sustainability, many designers pay attention to these aspects in planning

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and laying out roof landscape. Of course in making these choices, budget and

maintenance requirements.

The most suitable and most commonly used plants in an extensive green roof

system, are those that are "adjusted to drought and shallow soil, as they live in

similar environments: rocky cliffs, sandy or shingly areas, or dry grass lands"

(Dunnett et al. 2011). One variety includes hardy, succulents such as Sedum, a genus

of plant that are highly drought resistant, require little maintenance and survive well

in stony, gravely bases. During the dry periods they are able to retain their moisture

by limiting evapo-transpiration during the day time.

Figure 21 Sempervivum Fame - Courtesy Wayne Fagerlund (sedumphotos.net)

Sempervivum is a succulent variety as well, they are perennial plants that are often

used as ground cover for dry, sunny areas. Then there is Talinum, which is a

herbaceous succulent with edible leaves, used for ornamental purposes. The

selection and variety of plants that can be used in green roof application is endless

and is truly left to the designer to choose in accordance with their aesthetics and

functional goals.

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 Figure 22 Talinum Calycinum Rock Pink.html

2.4. Performance Metrics

Performance of any system may be defined by both measureable gains as well as, intangible

rewards due to its implementation. In the case of the vegetated roof installation, the visual

aesthetic, and emotional (intangible) benefits are obvious. However, with regards to

tangible deliverables, the benefits gained are not as straight forward. Even though reduction

in temperatures can be measured and recorded it must be translated into how the building

performs monetarily and in terms of the comfort and safety of the occupants. Much work

has been done to model, measure and predict tangible green roof results.

As indicated in previous sections, the green roof construction influences three components:

the building envelope, the building interior, and the environment adjacent to the green roof

installation. Some performance indices respectively include: the diminishing of rooftop

temperature gradients, reduction in indoor temperatures, and improved management of

storm water runoff. This research paper will only consider the aspects pertaining to the

indoor environment of the structure being studied.

In most commercial applications, one of the main drivers of performance is money. The cost

of investment (capital and operational), versus ongoing benefit, cost savings and rate of

return on investment are deciding factors in the green roof implementation. In order to

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build a strong case for justification, researchers have sought to effectively link the observed

empirical results to derived financial returns. The former are usually attributed to building

operational efficiencies and reduced maintenance costs.

(Kamal 2012) mentions that buildings consume approximately 40% of all the electrical

energy produced worldwide and within that percentage, heating and air-conditioning

consumption comprises 50% (Pérez-Lombard, Ortiz, and Pout 2008). The price of this

consumption thus rests heavily on the thermal behaviour of the building.

Internal variables refer to those that act within the green roof itself. These aspects influence

how the vegetated roof impacts the outer environment. The external variables refer to

those that exist in the outer environment, which impact on the green roof. In the following

section these variables will be listed and dealt with in detail.

"The heat gain is more sever on the flat roofs because the entire roof is exposed to the sun at

all times." (Weiler 2009)

"A tangible benefit for small-scale structures is the potential cooling effect of a green roof.

The combination of shading the roof by the substrate and vegetation and the cooling effects

of water evaporating off the plants means that a green-roofed building effectively sweats

and cools the air Growing vegetables, herbs, and fruit around it. This makes it much more

comfortable to be in the building and potentially will cut down on the power consumption

for air conditioning." (Dunnett et al. 2011).

2.4.1. Internal Variables

Internal variables include: Leaf area index, fractional coverage, R-Values, U-Values, albedo,

stomatal resistance, moisture content and shall be briefly defined in the following sections

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2.4.1.1. Leaf Area Index

Leaf Area Index or LAI as outlined by (Tabares-Velasco and Srebric 2012) is one of the

important variables to consider, (Moody and Sailor 2013) also place importance on LAI in

the discussing performance metrics for green rooftops. According to (Sailor 2008a) LAI can

be defined as "the projected area of plant foliage per unit area of ground occupied." In other

words LAI is an indication of how well the surface under the plant canopy is covered or

shaded. The ratio was simply illustrated by (Kumar and Kaushik 2005) as seen in the Figure

23 below.

Figure 23 - LAI Ratio Illustration

The importance of LAI is hinged on the fact that shading is the main mechanism that reduces

heat transfer to a buildings structure (Santamouris, Pavlou, Synnefa, et al. 2007). Studies by

(Nyuk Hien, Puay Yok, and Yu 2007) indicate that lower temperatures were generally

recorded under canopies with high LAI (dense foliage) as compared to those with lower LAI

(sparse foliage) and also to rooftops without vegetation at all.

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2.4.1.2. Plant Height

Closely linked to LAI is the plant height thickness, which is the vertical density of the

vegetation as opposed to the lateral density as expressed through LAI. (Kumar and Kaushik

2005) show that the heat flux experienced by a surface is inversely proportional to the

height density of the vegetation, an indication that more radiation is blocked out by higher

plant canopies. This factor plays a more significant role in intensive greeneries which have

taller trees and plants, than in the case of extensive greeneries, which usually contain

shorter, ground cover type vegetation. Although the focus of this research paper is the

application of an extensive green roof, it was worth mentioning plant height density as it is a

parameter in considering green roof performance.

2.4.1.3. Stomatal Resistance

Stomatal resistance is the ability of the plants to restrict the release of moisture to the

atmosphere during respiration. According to (Sailor 2008a) "stomatal resistance is the

biophysical parameter that governs the rate at which the plant can transpire moisture

through its leaf stomata for a given environmental condition". Stomata are the "intercellular

openings between the epidermal guard cells on the leaf surface." These cells open and close

to regulate the exchange of gases and water vapour necessary for photosynthesis. It is this

exchange of moisture (evapo-transpiration), which creates the cooling effect on the

environment associated with vegetation (Moody and Sailor 2013).

Stomatal resistance not only influences evaporative cooling, it also improves the plants

ability to survive in harsh climates. This characteristic is important when selecting

vegetation for a low maintenance green rooftop. Especially in cases where rooftops are

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fairly inaccessible or are located in areas that experience high levels of solar radiation, low

moisture levels or drought conditions that may often exist in the tropics.

2.4.1.4. Other Internal Variables

These include, Fractional Coverage, Albedo, R-Values and Moisture Content. In other cases,

these values may have held a high priority, they will not be considered in the scope of this

work.

2.4.2. External Variables

Some examples of external variables include: solar radiation, air temperature, relative

humidity, air speed, all a function of geographical location and will be considered constants

in this study as they were assumed to remain the same before and after green roof

installation.

2.5.Thermal Comfort

The major theme of this research hinged on the impact of the green roof installation on the

dwelling, and the resultant effects on the thermal comfort of the internal environment. This

is a complex topic and is often difficult to define or assess, given the nature of the human

being. There are the physiological, mental, emotional, gender, age and occupational factors

that affect the perception of thermal comfort or discomfort (Parsons 2002). However, (ISO

1994, ASHRAE 2004) have defined thermal comfort as "that condition of mind which

expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment". Which is give an unambiguous, and

objective definition to the term (Parsons 2002).

The six basic parameters that impact thermal comfort are: air temperature, mean radiant

temperature, humidity and air movement, body heat produced by metabolic activity, and

the level of clothing worn (Mumovic and Santamouris 2009). These parameters were used

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by (Fanger 1970) to derive a heat balance equation, which sought to define thermal comfort

of an environment. His equation uses the balance of heat produced by the body to that lost

to the environment through the skin and lungs. And further surmised that discomfort will

arise from excessive loss (environment too cold) or excessive gain (environment too hot)

(Parsons 2002).

(Fanger 1970)'s work formed the basis for two thermal comfort indices that influenced the

development of the (ISO 1994) and (ASHRAE 2004) standards. These indices were the

Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and the Percentage Persons Dissatisfied with and environment

(PPD). The PMV predicts the mean value of the votes of a large group of persons on the

according to the scale(ISO 1994): +3 hot; +2 warm, +1 slightly warm, 0 neutral, - 1 slightly

cool, -2 cool, -3 cold. The PPD predicts the percentage of a large group of people likely to

feel too warm or cool, based on voting using the above mentioned scale. The equations for

PMV and PPD have been summarized in APPENDIX VI - PMV and PPD Definitions and

Equations.

2.6.Summary

The review of the relevant literature on green roofs shows that the implementation of a

green roof has its advantages and disadvantages and can be applied in variable climates and

conditions once proper design and construction codes are maintained. Installations can

range in scale from very small and simple to large and intricate in layout and selection of

flora. Justification is given for the use of vegetation as a means to passively cool built up

environments, and reduce energy usage due to cooling or heating (given the climate) and

costs associated

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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research study has been conducted with objectives related to the impact of passive

cooling techniques in the context of residential constructions and homeowner driven

performance retrofits. As mentioned in the Literature review chapter these objectives are:

1. Identify suitable green roof design- for a "Do-it-Yourself" retrofit application for the

structure at no or low cost.

2. Evaluate current internal and external thermal and environmental behaviours of

the structure and the immediate environment.

3. Assess the impact of the green roof installation on the internal environment of the

structure.

4. Formulate recommendations for the use of green and passive cooling techniques

Objective 1 was fulfilled in the review of the literature, while Objective 2 and Objective 3

form the basis of the empirical work, which explore the effects of the application of an

established "green" technology, in a local (Trinidad & Tobago) residential setting. The

context of the same is given by the increasing awareness of energy conservation and

sustainable design.

Given current concerns with the energy consumption and availability, as well as the

environmental impact of traditional power generation (burning of fossil fuels). Emphasis on

returning to older principles as we seek to reduce our carbon foot prints in the work place

and at home. Owing to the magnitude of the work environment (worldwide), their visibility

to the public and availability of resources a lot more emphasis has been placed on initiatives

within the industrial and commercial sector, than with residential initiatives.

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Granted that our buildings have already been constructed it is expected that many

measures will involve some sort of retrofit or renovation to the existing structure. Also given

the expense that can be incurred for these retrofits combined with long payback periods,

the case for justification can be hard to develop in the eyes of the homeowner.

However, it is the researchers observation, that many homeowners are willing to invest time

and "sweat equity" into their home and are especially keen on executing small to medium

scale Do-it-Yourself projects that are affordable in terms of fulfilling material requirements

and time. Most materials can be gathered over time at the owner's discretion without

paying the price of retaining a contractor for extended periods of time.

The literature review highlighted the benefits and performance factors that have been

discovered through the application of green rooftops in different instances, and it also

identified the appropriateness of these applications for the residential setting in a tropical

environment. Fulfilling objective 1. Objective 2 and 3 take the research into the area of

collection of empirical data and analysis of the thermal behaviours of the dwelling under

study. Trends discovered during the before period were compared and contrasted with the

trends experienced in the period after the installation of the green rooftop. By applying

principles and practices uncovered in the literature review, the researcher gained first hand

insight into the effectiveness of the application on an actual site, putting theory into

practice.

In this section, the researcher will give the details surrounding the chosen research strategy,

the method of data collection, measure parameters and sample rates, and the approach in

conducting the analysis. Also, a discussion shall be put forward on the possible limitations of

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the study and any problems that may emanate from the implementation of the chosen

research strategy.

3.1.Research Strategy

The research strategy used in this project took the form of a case study. (Eisenhardt 1989)

describes a case study as "....a research strategy which focuses on understanding the

dynamics present within a single settings." further to that (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison

2013) say:

". . . the case study researcher typically observes the characteristics of an individual unit

– a child, a class, a school or a community. The purpose of such observation is to probe

deeply and to analyse intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life

cycle of the unit."

The current research involves the practical application of green roof theory, following

guidelines revealed in the literature review. The intention of this study was not to form a

new hypothesis, or make a generalization (Biggam 2008) surrounding green roof technology

or concrete dwellings, but to gather and analyse the quantitative data pertaining to this site

alone. Owing to these conditions, the researcher deemed the adoption of a case study

research strategy to be the most suitable one for this work.

Objective 2 seeks to evaluate the "pre-green roof" weather condition of the residence under

consideration. Although, reference can be made to the weather data issued by the

meteorology office, real time weather data gathered onsite would be more accurate and

reliable for the study. Hence, the required data was acquired using temperature and relative

humidity data loggers and air flow meters, which were set up both inside and outside of the

dwelling.

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Some informal, historical insight was presented to the researcher in the form of "feelings" or

"perceptions" expressed by the occupants. For instance: "this place feels so hot these days,"

"I am so uncomfortable," "why does this place feel like this?" As mentioned in the literature

review, the human aspect of comfort are subjective in nature, and are influenced by age,

gender, choice of clothing, occupant activity and so on. Although these factors are just as

important as the environmental aspects, the added level of complexity and level of analysis

required, exceeds the scope of the project. Hence, those human aspects will not be pursued

in this study.

Objective 3 was based on the after effects of the green roof installation. For this section of

the study, the data collection process was repeated. As mentioned before, subjective data

was not collected, as it was previously established that such information would fall outside

of the scope of the research. Moreover, in the case where the subjective data were to be

collected, the very knowledge of the presence of the green roof would have created a bias

in the mind of the occupants. With the anticipation of change in the internal climate of the

home, the reliability of the occupant responses to any survey would have been eroded Thus,

any connection to be made between the "before" and "after" data analysis would have been

in doubt.

According to (Biggam 2008) research can be categorized as either quantitative or

qualitative. "At a simple level, the former type – quantitative – refers to research that is

concerned with quantities and measurements," while "qualitative research, on the other

hand, is linked to in-depth exploratory studies." In short quantitative type analysis go after

the 'how', for example how the external temperature relates to the internal comfort of a

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dwelling. Whereas, the qualitative research seeks to answer the 'why' question, namely why

do the occupants feel uncomfortable in the particular living space?

3.1.1. Design of Experiment

3.1.1.1. House Floor Layout

As mentioned before, the house is located in Diamond Vale, a suburban development,

established in 1962, in the Diego Martin area. Most of the houses share a similar design:

single storey, 3 bedroom units, occupying approximately 1200 sq ft (2011). They were

constructed from pre-formed, steel-reinforced concrete. The load-bearing walls (the 4 outer

walls, and central wall) were six inches thick, while the minor walls were four inches thick.

The roof slabs were five inches thick and are either flat, or gable style with a low pitch,

however, the former is the more prevalent design, and is in fact the design of the house in

this study.

The house is oriented, more or less in a North-South direction, with the entrance to the

property and front entrance to the house facing south (see APPENDIX X - Satellite Image of

Case Study Site). The house is divided into six rooms; three bedrooms, a living room, a

kitchen and a toilet and bathroom (see APPENDIX XI - Sketch of House Floor Plan).

The living room has one set of windows on the eastern wall, and the main entrance on its

south wall, a double door flanked on each side by single windows which opens onto the

porch. The master bedroom has two sets of windows (South and west walls); the north-west

bedroom has two windows (north and west walls); and the north-east bedroom has two

sets of windows (north and east walls). The kitchen has one window and a door that exits

the building, on the east wall, to an annexed room containing the laundry area, which was

added to the house by the owners. The toilet and bath have a single vent opening each.

Page | 41
There is no ventilation between rooms, and just from observation, air flow can be restricted

severely of doors were closed. Thus each room was treated as though they were isolated

from each other in terms of airflow and thermal behaviour. With this assumption one room

was selected as a standalone test area, as opposed to attempting to cover the entire house.

This scaled approach would prove to be more manageable for data gathering purposes.

The decision was made to select the living room for the experiment. This was owed mainly

to the fact that this was, most commonly used space, shared by every occupant. As such,

any results obtained here could be translated to the rest of the house. Moreover, through

observation, it was found that the easterly location of the room resulted in maximum

exposure to solar radiation during the day, from early morning to late afternoon. This

allowed for a wider range of readings to be taken and better trending of the environment

over the course of each day.

3.1.1.2. Green Roof Construction and Materials

In the Literature Review section, the typical structure of a green roof system was outlined in

detail. To recall, the sections include:

i. The roof deck

ii. The Insulation

iii. Water Proofing

iv. Drainage Layer

v. Root Barrier

vi. Substrate

vii. Vegetation

Page | 42
Given constraints of time and the lack of availability of certain materials in the local, some

liberties were taken with the composition of this green roof and priority was given to the

following:

i. Roof Deck
The existing roof was flat and covered by an aging asphalt based water proofing

layer. According to original specifications, the houses were designed to support a

large distributed load, (exact capacity unknown). Given the age (over 50) and

exposure to the elements, the ability of the roof to support the intended weight

may not have been up to its original capacity. The true integrity of the roof could

not be properly assessed given time and resources. However, informal advice was

sought from an experienced contractor and structural engineer, who were familiar

with the housing development. Based on their advice, the thickness of the substrate

was limited to 4 inches, for the 14ft x 10ft area to be covered, to minimize the

loading, without compromising the design of the green roof top.

ii. Water Proofing

The installation was a temporary one, as such, the selected of the water proof

membrane was not permanent in nature (as prescribed). Polyethylene sheets, same

as that used as in the construction of foundations was installed. In addition, the

material fulfils the requirement for light weight materials as well as budgetary

considerations. Moreover, no professional or contracted services would be required

for installation of permanent weatherproofing options.

iii. Substrate

Despite the recommendations for specialized, lightweight growing medium to be

used, a mix of garden grade, sandy soil was applied due to availability. Inasmuch as

Page | 43
 there was a small level of uncertainty in the load bearing capacity of the roof, the

risk was minimized by the short term nature of the project, relatively small size of

the plot, and maximum soil depth of 4 inches. This medium augured well for quick

establishment of the vegetation.

iv. Vegetation

Rhoeo spathacea nana was the plant selected, as they are very popular locally and

can easily be obtained see Figure 24. The Rhoeo spathacea nana are usually "grown

due to the fact that they are very drought tolerant and make excellent and fast

growing ground cover in the garden" (Rhoades 2014). They thrive well in full sun or

under shade and form dense clusters of foliage, which is expected to provide the

ideal amount of solar shading and evaporative cooling for this green roof application

to perform well. Moreover, these plants are very low maintenance and, may be

considered a plant and forget type of vegetative cover.

Figure 24 Rhoeo Spathacea Nana

v. Insulation

Omitted from the design as this material was not readily as it was deemed

unnecessary, given that the location is in the tropics.

vi. Drainage layer

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 Omitted from the design, to reduce cost. A small risk, however, the short term

nature of the project, and the fact that the experiments were conducted during the

dry season mad this risk manageable

vii. Root Barrier

Also, omitted from the design, to reduce cost. Again, given the short term nature of

the project, and given that the root system of the chosen plants tend to be very

shallow, this layer was deemed unnecessary.

3.1.1.3. Measuring Instruments

There were three measuring instruments used to collect data for this experiment:

1. The General model WDCFM8912 Digital Anemo-Psychrometer see Figure 25. This

instrument was used to take interior and exterior measurements for temperature,

relative humidity and air flow/wind speed.

Figure 25 WDCFM8912 DIgital Anemo-Psychrometer

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2. The Extech RHT10 Temperature and Relative humidity Data Logger, see Figure 26.

This instrument was used to gather readings from the exterior. The RHT10 was

selected for its compact size and weather resistant design.

Figure 26 RHT10 Temperature - Humidity Data Logger

3. The Extech RH42280 Temperature and Relative Humidity Data logger, see Figure 27.

This instrument was used to gather readings from the interior. This instrument was

selected for the interior, as no weather resistance was required and Its large display

screen provided easy visual access to temperature and relative humidity readings in

a given moment, especially to passersby.

Figure 27 RH42280 Temperature-Humidity Data Logger

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Instrument Application

At the beginning of the research the WDCFM8912 handheld meter, was the only device

available to gather readings. Owing to time constraints and delays in receiving the data

logging equipment, the researcher opted to apply this manual method in the beginning in

order to get the project of the ground. When the RHT10 and the RH 42280, became

available they were used to carry out the data gathering. With the hand held meter readings

were written down. While the data logged readings were extracted using a laptop, and

respective software platforms.

Calibration of Instruments

One of the major concerns of using three different pieces of equipment, was calibration and

synchronization across the three devices, so that gathered data could be analyzed

accurately and used to produce reliable extrapolations. Before the second phase of

readings was started, baseline tests were done to establish the degree of variation between

the three devices.

To achieve this the WDCFM8912, RHT10 and RH42280 set up side by side, firstly in the an

indoor location, and secondly in an outdoor environment. Simultaneous readings of

temperature and relative humidity were taken for at least five hours, with sample times of

thirty minutes. The readings from each of the devices were plotted and compared side by

side to see how they varied. This variance would be taken into consideration when

comparing and analysing the data collected across each of the instruments see Figure 28for

indoor comparison and Figure 29 for outdoor comparisons.

Page | 47
 Indoor Comparison - WDCFM8912 vs RHT10 vs RH42280 Temp 1

37 75 Temp 2
70
36 65 Temp 3
60

Relative Humidity (%)

Temperature (deg C)
35
55 RH 1
34 50
45 RH 2
33 40
35 RH 3
32 30
25
31
20
30 15 RHT10 = 1
10 RH42280 =2
29 5 WDCFM = 3
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (Hours)

Figure 28 Device Comparison - Indoor

Outdoor Comparison - WDFCM8912 vs RHT10 vs RH42280 Temp

1
85 Temp
59 2
57 80
75 Temp
55 3
53 70 RH 1
65

Relative Humidity (%)

51
Temperature (deg C)

49 60 RH 2
47 55
45 50
43 45
41 40
39 35
37 30
35
33 25
31 20
29 15
27 10
25 5 RHT10 = 1
14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 RH42280 =2
Time (hours) WDCFM = 3

Figure 29 Device Comparison - Outdoor

3.1.2. Data Collection

All data considered in this experiment was extracted from the identified location in Diego

Martin, using the apparatus outlined in the design of experiment section. The data was

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collected in two phases; 1) Before Green roof installation and 2) After Green Roof

installation.

Interior Readings Before Green Roof Installation

The WDCFM8912 hand held device was used to capture three variables of temperature,

relative humidity and air velocity. There was not data logging capacity for this instrument,

hence all readings had to be taken manually, hour by hour. At each appointed time,

measurements were taken at three different spots within the room and an average was

derived for the measured variables. The measuring instrument was kept in a central part of

the sample room throughout the experiment, and replaced after every reading. This was

done to ensure that the instruments were properly acclimatized to the environment, to

reduce time for taking "settled" readings.

Exterior Readings Before Green Roof Installation

Exterior readings were taken, very soon after the interior readings were completed. The

WDCFM8912 hand held device was used to capture the exterior readings of temperature,

relative humidity and air velocity. An area in the yard just outside of the sample room was

selected for taking readings, the latter were taken at three locations within the selected

area, and an average of each derived. For each reading. During this time it was ensured that

the instrument was shielded from direct solar radiation or hot or cold spots.

Interior Readings After Green Roof Installation

The RH42280 was used to capture variables of temperature and relative humidity, and the

WDCFM8912 was used to record air velocity. With the RH42280, a single location was

selected that was suitable for the device to take reading, I.e. in the shade, out of the range

Page | 49
of direct sunlight or sources of heat or cold that could contribute to false readings. Readings

were monitored on the display and compared randomly to WDCFM readings as reference.

Exterior Readings After Green Roof Installation

The RHT10 was used to capture temperature and relative humidity, the WDCFM8912 was

used to record air velocity. A temporary shelter using a 4ft pole, and an umbrella was

erected over an unpaved area outside of the sample room, in the same vicinity that the

'before' readings were taken. The RHT10 was mounted on the pole and shielded from

exposure to direct sun or unexpected wetness by a modified plastic cup.

Given the nature of the RHT10 and RH42280 multiple readings per sample were possible,

thus the accuracy of the machine was

Sample Size

Sample size was delineated by the number of reading days, for both the "before" and

"after" portions of the experiment, which was set at a period of 14 days. This time was

deemed sufficient to extract the trend for the measured values such that the before and

after measurements could be compared and analysed.

Sampling Technique

The sampling technique was systematic in approach. Readings were taken on a daily basis,

at an hourly rate, between the hours of 6am and 6pm. The sample rate of one hour was

deemed sufficient and convenient to the researcher, such that changes over the course of

the day were captured without the risk of being too sensitive and collecting too much data

(too short sampling time). While at the same not limiting sensitivity, with too long a sample

time missing key readings. The hourly rate also provided an easy reference for the

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researcher to compile, analyze and present the measured variables as they changed over

time.

3.2.Frame work for Data Analysis

The data collected was analyzed in two parts:

1. Daily readings before installation of the green roof, which include:

a. Internal Air Temperature vs External Air Temperature

b. Internal Relative Humidity vs External Relative Humidity

c. Internal Air Flow vs External Air Flow/Wind speed.

2. Daily readings after installation of green roof, which mirrors the above.

a. Internal Air Temperature vs External Air Temperature

b. Internal Relative Humidity vs External Relative Humidity

c. Internal Air Flow vs External Air Flow/Wind speed.

Part One (1) set the baseline for the sample room, providing the "as is" environmental

conditions for the chosen time of year. The plotted values showed the trend of change in

the external environment during the course of the day, and captured the response of the

building interior to the changes in the external environment.

The daily readings were gathered between the hours of 6am and 6pm, at an hourly rate. The

result was the ability to plot a graph of the captured variables over time, revealing the trend

of change for the twelve (12) hour period of daylight. Emphasis was placed on the day time

readings as from experience and observation the maximum heat load would have been

experienced by the building during this time. Moreover, the greatest variation in

temperature, from low to high would have been observed. The daylight hours were also the

time where the majority of the complaints were registered, regarding the internal

Page | 51
household environment. Now temperature is not the only determinant of the comfort level

of the environment, but it is the leading variable under investigation. This was the period of

time that should have exhibited the most change, if any, after the green roof installation.

The night time was the less stressful period, as the ambient air temperature outdoors was

inherently lower, due to the absences of solar radiation. It was also during this time where,

the heat retained by the building during the day, is released to the cooler surroundings.

Some of this heat would have been inevitably released into the space, however the effects

of this was expected to be significantly lower than would occur during the day. Moreover,

the anticipation was that the green roof would have also lessen the night time heat transfer

by reducing the overall heat gained by the building during the day.

The daily trend line for temperature was expected to take a form similar to the graph shown

in Figure 30

Temp (°C) vs Time (Hrs) Temp (°C)

34
32
30
Temperature deg C

28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (Hours)

Figure 30 Temperature Trend Graph

Of course there were two trend lines that would be compared side by side, one for the

indoor values and one for the outdoors. As much as the above figure represents a general

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graph profile, the aim was to determine the specific profiles for the building and

environment under examination in its current state. Namely in terms of:

1. The average temperatures recorded for each hour

2. The maximum average temperature attained (Tmax) and time of occurrence,

3. The lowest average temperature attained (Tmin) and time of occurrence,

4. The rate of change of temperature during the day (ie transition from low to high

and vice versa)

5. How these values differ between the indoor trend and the outdoor trend

The daily readings were then compiled/collated so that the hourly temperature averages,

hour on the hour were determined. In this way fourteen daily graphs were condensed into

one general graph. One for the interior, and one for the exterior. The same procedure was

completed for variables of air flow/wind speed and relative humidity.

The three variables were plotted against time, as well as against each other, to deduce the

relationship between them over time. Using the graphs, the environmental conditions at

any given time of day, could be extrapolated and compared to the standard index for

environmental comfort. Using the standard index as a metric for the level of comfort in the

space, takes away any subjectivity created by the "feelings" of the occupants.

It would also, aid the researcher in evaluating the performance of the green roof

installation, in terms of qualifying and quantifying the level of change in environment along

with any improvement (if any) in the comfort level provided after the green roof installation.

The external readings were also collected and tabulated in the same manner as the interior.

Owing to the influence of the external environment on the internal, it was important to do

Page | 53
this so that the internal and external values over time could be compared. This comparison,

would show the natural "response" of the building to changes to external environment.

After the installation of the green roof, both the exterior and interior variables were

measured again in similar manner as outlined above, except for the use of the data logging

RH and Temperature instruments. Interior and exterior variables were plotted against time

and compared to deduce the new "response" of the building interior, with application of the

green roof attached, to the changes in the exterior environment. To do the complete the

analysis, the following assumptions were made:

1. Internal environment remained constant. That is, little to no changes occurred in

the internal structure during the time of installation of the green roof, to contribute
to any changes to internal variables, outside of those attributed to the green roof
installation.
2. Weather patterns remained constant. That is, the external measured variables were
consistent with those measured before the green roof installation.

The use of the data logging equipment:

1. Minimized human error in collecting readings.

2. Improved consistency of sampling rates and sample times.
3. Facilitated the capture of night time or "off peak" data that was neglected during
the "before" phase. This data provided insight into the cooling phase of the house
during the night.

Thermal Comfort

Once the values of temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity were collected, they

were used to derive the thermal comfort indices: Predictive Mean Vote (PMV) and

Percentage Persons Dissatisfied (PPD), as outlined in the literature review. The above indices

Page | 54
were calculated using two independent online calculators (Fukuyo 2010) and (Holmer 2008),

screen shots of two interfaces were also included in APPENDIX VII - PMV and PPD Calculator

Interface. An average of the two sets of results were tabulated, and graphs of PPD vs PMV

plotted.

Variables required for the calculators include:

 Air temperature (°C)

 Mean radiant temperature (°C)

 Air velocity (m/s)

 Relative humidity (%)

 Metabolic rate (W/m2)

 External work (W/m2)

 Clothing insulation values (Clo or m2 K W-1)

Values of air temperature, air velocity and relative humidity were collected values. Mean

radiant temperature represents the heat sensation experienced from heat sources within

the space (e.g. walls, heaters etc). The metabolic rate refers to the heat generated per by

the body while performing various activities. The clothing insulation values provides

estimates for the level of insulation provided to the body by different types and different

quantities of clothing. Appropriate values for the former and latter were taken from

tabulated estimates outlined by (Fanger 1970), and they were based on the case study.

External work, refers to the work acting on the body and is usually assigned a value of zero

(0) for most activities (Parsons 2002).

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3.3. Limitations and Concerns

In the course of the practical element of the project a number of concerns arose and

limitations were experienced. A list of the same, was compiled in order of importance, as

well as, impact on the research and go as follows:

1. Heat gained by the house was not limited to the heat gained through the roof.

Other sources of heat gain included the outer walls, which received solar radiation

and re-radiated into the interior space. In addition to this, the paved sections of the

yard and drive way also received heat loading from the sun, and the re-radiated

heat contributed to warm air around the house. Both the walls and areas of the yard

closest to the house, received partial or inconsistent exposure to direct solar

radiation during the day. In the morning period the west walls and yard, fell in the

shadow of the housed and received little or no heat load, while the eastern section,

that were not in the shade of the neighbouring house and wall receive the heat

load. These areas would most likely affect adjacent rooms i.e. eastern walls =>

eastern rooms and vice versa.

Apart from the heating contribution of the external surfaces, there was also a

cooling effect of the grassy and vegetated sections of the yard. This was notably

observed in the western corner bedroom, which had a full section of lawn (unpaved

surface) along the length of its wall and to the property line. This room seemed to

be the most comfortable (coolest) room in the house regardless of the time of day.

In addition to the external factors that contribute to the interior environment of the

house, there are the internal conditions that influence this environment as well.

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 Activities such as cooking, baking, hot or warm baths, ironing etc, employ devices

that add to the heat and humidity levels within the space. The running of appliances

such as refrigerators and freezers, laundry dryers add to the internal conditions as

well. Conversely, the running of air conditioned units, motorized fans contribute to

the reduction in temperatures and influence air flow within the space.

The above speaks to the complexity and challenge of investigating even this

relatively small internal environment. The task of modelling the above occurrences

would have been beneficial for an overall study of the environmental conditions of

the house. However, the data collection and observation of these variables would

have required much more time and resources. Notwithstanding, the above

mentioned factors have great influence on the study; however, their detailed

analysis falls outside of the scope of the investigation. This may serve as areas for

further study to build on the work of this research paper.

Given that all the above mentioned factors existed before and after installation of

the green roof, they are assumed as constants. Thus any observable change in the

environment during the investigation will be assumed to be a result of the green

roof. It is anticipated that the amount of readings taken will minimize the effect of

the variables external to study.

2. Owing to researcher (and research assistant) distraction or absence from the site:

a. Some missed readings - Some of the hourly readings were not taken at all.

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 b. Some inconsistent reading times - Instead of readings taken on the exact

hour, some may have been taken ten (10) or fifteen minutes (15) past the

hour.

c. Some inconsistent first and last reading times - Some first readings were

taken an hour or two after the designated start time. As such the end times

were also delayed by equivalent time.

d. Time lapse between indoor and outdoor readings - This was the limitation of

having only one instrument, and the inability of the researcher to be in two

places at once to take simultaneous readings. However, to mitigate this,

interior and exterior readings were taken within 2-3 minutes of each other

and were assumed to be simultaneous.

3. Another limitation posed, was the unavailability of the prescribed materials for the

green roof. For example, many of the ready-made products that are marketed in the

U.S. and Europe, such as specialized growing medium (see Literature review), root

barrier/protective, drainage layer. Owing to this, some improvisation was required

in the use of materials and liberties were exercised in the omission of others. For

example, the major components of the roof included:

a. The vegetation

b. The growing medium and,

c. The protective or water barrier layer

In the case of the vegetation, a suitable locally available option was selected (see

literature review). Specialized growing medium was replaced with regular garden

type soil, which has a higher weight per square foot, which meant that attention

had to be paid to the volume of growing medium on the roof to avoid dangerous

Page | 58
 loading on the house structure. Thus the depth of the growing medium was

restricted to 4 inches. For the protective layer and water barrier, construction

polyethylene film was used in place of a permanent sealing compound as described

in Literature review. Given the short nature of the project, the fact that the

experiment was carried out during the dry season, and that little irrigation was

involved in the study, the risk of improvising with this component was manageable.

The components that were deemed to minor in this study included:

d. The root barrier

e. Drainage layer

f. Insulation layer

The above three were omitted from the design as they were considered to be

unnecessary given the temporary nature of the experiment, in addition to the

assessment that their omission would have had minimal impact on the results of the

study.

4. The flexibility in the design and use of components was limited by time and

resources. Only one configuration could be "on trial" at a time, so there was no way

of examining the impact of changing or tweaking the design on the obtained results.

The research was dependent on past work to inform the selection of design in this

instant. Thus, whatever results were observed had to be confined to the particular

selection. Multiple trials on design fall outside of this scope; however, room for

further study and investigation remain.

Page | 59
5. Airflow through the space influences the human comfort in the space. This

component is a function of sufficient ventilation, i.e. the presence of window, doors,

ventilation blocks, as well as the relative movement of air in and around the house,

via natural means or through forced motion through mechanical means. Since the

study seeks to deal with natural means of establishing environmental comfort, the

mechanical instruments shall be ignored. The presence of the green roof has no

influence on the magnitude of air flow in or around the space, the expected impact

on the results in this area of the experiment are limited. This also serves as further

area of study for the residence.

6. In the review of the literature, it was found that in many of the green roof studies,

temperature measurements were taken: above the green roof, within the green

roof, at the roof surface (beneath the green roof), and at the interior surface of the

roof (ceiling). The results of those experiments were able to determine the effect of

the green roof on reducing the temperature gradient across the roof, and the

associated impact on internal environment. However, this experiment sought to

establish the difference in air temperature and relative humidity between the

exterior and interior environment, created by the presence of the green roof. This

method of course, was far less direct in the approach in terms of data collected and

the analysis of same, as left the experiment open to many of the limitations and

concerns previously mentioned. However, the approach taken does not devalue the

nature of the work that was done or the results obtained in this case study.

7. Owing to the use of three different pieces of measuring equipment, there was some

concern with the reliability of the measurements collected and how the readings

were compared and analysed between the three devices. Efforts had to be made to

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ensure that collection of data was executed in a way to minimize error and account

for any variances between respective readings. These were outlined in the data

collection section.

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4. CASE FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introduction

The following chapter reveals the results of the case study outlined in chapter three (3)

Research Methods. The focus of the case study lies on the trending of the thermal

characteristics of the dwelling, namely: interior ambient air temperature, relative humidity

and air flow, as compared to the exterior ambient air temperature, relative humidity and air

flow around the dwelling place, during the course of the day. The two sets of data were

collected, before the installation of the green roof and then again after the installation.

These data sets were then compared and analyzed to establish the response of the

building's internal environment, to the addition of the green roof.

The data collection period lasted for fourteen (14) days, prior to the green roof installation,

and then for another fourteen (14) days, after the green roof installation. Given that, the

first round readings were taken manually; the most convenient times for obtaining them

were during the hours of 9am and 5pm. Inasmuch as this was also the timeframe during

which the effects of the solar radiation as anticipated to be most prominent.

Notwithstanding, It was noted that the data collected in this research project was confined,

to this residence and was not used to draw conclusions or formulate hypotheses for the

other houses in the area. Insofar as the unique conditions of each home, the habits of the

occupants, and the past and present maintenance of structures, present variables that were

beyond the scope of this study. It is hoped, however, that the information gathered here,

may serve as a reference for similar work within the same community or similar housing

developments in Trinidad and Tobago.

Page | 62
4.2.Description of Results and Analysis

4.2.1. Before Green Roof Installation

The period March 13th, 2014 to March 26th 2014 marked the before installation stage. The

data collected revealed the following trend in the daily temperatures: a steady, gradual

increase in both the exterior and interior temperatures measured during the morning

period; readings peaked around mid afternoon, (2pm in the case of the exterior of the

dwelling and 4pm in the case of the interior measurements); then there was a gradual

decrease in temperature towards the later part of the evening (between 6pm and 7pm).

Figure 31, illustrates this trend in the graph plotted of the average hourly interior

temperature readings, versus corresponding exterior temperature readings collected over

the fourteen day period. The table of results from which the averages were derived , have

been compiled in APPENDIX IV - Readings Before Green Roof Installation

14 Day Average Temperature

34.0
Temp-In
Temp-Out
32.0
Termperature (deg C)

30.0

28.0

26.0
10:00

12:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

20:00

22:00
6:00

8:00

Time (hours)

Figure 31 Graph of Before Temp-in vs Before Temp-out

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 14 Day Average for RH-In vs RH-Out
68.0
66.0
64.0

Relative Humidity (%)

62.0
60.0
58.0
56.0 BEF RH - In
54.0
52.0 BEF RH - Out
50.0
48.0
46.0

10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
Time (hours)

Figure 32 Relative humidity: indoor vs outdoor

Figure 37 Relative Humidity: After Installation Indoor vs OutdoorFigure 37, shows the

relative humidity variation with time. It can be seen that this variable was inversely

proportional to the temperature readings. As the temperature increased the relative

humidity decreased in similar fashion, and when the temperature reached a plateau at the

highest value, the relative humidity bottomed out and as the temperature decreased again,

the relative humidity began to rise again. Relative humidity for indoor compared the

outdoor values varied just as closely to the variation in the indoor and outdoor

temperatures.

Figure 33 and Figure 34 respectively captured the comparison of the highs and lows in

average temperature and highs and lows in average relative humidity. It was observed that

the lowest average interior temperature was 26.93 °C (Time 7am; RH: 65.17%), which was

accompanied by an average exterior temperature 30.42 °C (RH: 57.80%). The highest

average interior temperature observed, was 33.65 °C (Time 4pm; RH: 48.32%)

corresponding to an exterior temperature of 32.22 °C (RH: 48.95%). The highest average

Page | 64
external temperature reading was 33.24 °C (Time: 2pm; RH: 48.56%), accompanied by

average interior temperature and relative humidity of 33.26 °C and 48.76% respectively.

Comparison of Highest/ Lowest Temperature

35 33.65
32.22 33.26 33.24
30.42
30
26.52
25
Temperature °C

20
T-in
15 T-out

10

0
T Low Interior T High Interior T High Exterior

Figure 33 Temperature Highs and Lows: Indoor vs Outdoor

Comparison of Relative Humidity Highs/Lows

60
54.72
52.72
48.95 48.32 48.76 48.56
50
Relative Humidity( %)

40
RH-in
30 RH-out

20

10

0
T Low Interior T High Interior T High Exterior

Figure 34 Relative Humidity Highs and Lows: Indoor vs Outdoor

Page | 65
In observing the trends above, the relationship between indoor and outdoor variables could

be summarized. In the morning, the external temperature started off at an average reading

of 29 °C (Time: 7am; RH: 57.8%) almost 3 degrees higher than the interior readings at the

same time (26.93°C; RH: 65.17%). The two temperatures increased steadily, and around

midday the two sets of readings converged between 33.24 °C and 33.65 °C. As the afternoon

progressed and temperatures gradually decreased, the interior temperatures were seen to

decrease at a slower rate, lagging behind the fall of the exterior temperature.

The observed trend was typical of the heating cycle experienced by the surroundings, in

direct relation to the travel of the sun, and the resultant exposure to solar radiation

experienced during the day. In the morning as the sun rose, the exposed ground and other

surfaces began to absorb the suns radiation. Some reflection, some absorption, and some

re-emission occurred. As a result the of reflection and re-emission from these surfaces, the

temperature of the surrounding air, rose as well, and apart from direct exposure to the sun,

the experience of the sensation of heat became evident. Owing to the fact that the exterior

surfaces were the first to be exposed to the radiation and subsequent heat exchange,

temperatures on the outside are showed the first signs of increase.

The interior of buildings, however, did not receive direct solar radiation, the experience of

heat was a result of the influence of outside air, combined with reflected and re-emitted

radiation from the outside. Another contributor to the indoor experience of heat, was the

radiation absorbed by the building envelope that was re-emitted to the interior space. In

essence, the exterior surfaces undergo more direct heat exchanges, whilst the interior

undergoes mainly secondary heat exchanges, relative to the incident solar radiation. This

resulted in differential rates of temperature change during the morning. Conversely, during

Page | 66
the evening, the sun descended, and the intensity of solar radiation decreased. The air, and

outer surfaces, released their absorbed energy, which brought a resultant cooling effect

experienced during that time.

In the case of the interior of the building, just as it was heated indirectly through convection

and emission, its cooling occurs through the same methods. Two major things impact how

this cooling occurred:

1. The design of the building. Which speaks to the size, shape, room layout,

juxtaposition to neighbours, site orientation and natural or forced convection

features.

2. Choice of construction materials used in the building envelope of the dwelling;

which include such items as concrete, brick, stone, thatch, glass, lumber and

composites. Each having its own properties and effects on the behaviour of the

building.

Inasmuch as the first influences the former, and vice versa, the absence of conscientious

designs leaves room for the characteristics and properties of the construction materials to

"bear the weight" of building performance. In the case of this dwelling, over ninety percent

(90%) of the structure was built from reinforced concrete. Much of the solar radiation

received during the day was absorbed and "held" by this material, as the rate of release was

far less that the rate of absorption. Once solar radiation subsided, the trapped heat was re-

radiated internally and externally. The internal re-radiation bore the greater impact on this

study, as this phenomenon more than likely accounted for the lag in cooling rate seen on

the graph, of the internal space versus the exterior.

Page | 67
 14 Day Average Air Velocity In vs Air Velocity out

1.20

1.00

0.80

Air Velocity (m/s) Air Vel - In

0.60
Air Vel -Out
0.40

0.20

0.00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
Time (hours)

Figure 35 Air Velocity - Indoor vs Outdoor

Figure 35 shows the variation of recorded values for air velocity. These readings were very

low indeed. See that at some points, mostly indoors, the movement of air was zero. This

was an indication that for the given area and house under review, there was a shortfall of

air movement. Combined with the existing temperature and relative humidity, a major

impact on the comfort level of the space.

4.2.2. Green Roof Installation

The green roof was installed over a two week period, between the 26th March, where the

last "before" set of readings were taken, and the 13th of April. Between 13th April and 16th

April, testing was carried out, with the new measuring instruments, as outlined in the

research methodology section (see page 45). In keeping with the Do-it-Yourself aspect of

the project, all the material were procured, transported and installed on the site by the

researcher. A total of $588.00 dollars was spent (see Table 1) and an approximate total of

Page | 68
forty-eight (48) man hours (weekends and evenings after work) were spent, over two

weeks, putting things together for the experiment. Photos of the build sequence were

compiled in APPENDIX I - Green Roof Build (Photos)

Table 1 Bill of Materials - Green Roof Installation

Description Qty U/M Unit Cost Total

Polyehtylene Sheets 30 ft 8 $ 240.00
Concrete Bricks 24 Ea 7 $ 168.00
Soil 4 Bags 45 $ 180.00
Rheo Plants 200 lbs 0 $ -
$ 588.00

4.2.3. After Green Roof Installation

Second phase readings commenced on the 18th April and continued through to the 3rd

May. Figure 36 shows the trend of temperatures recorded, while Figure 37. It can be seen

from the graph that a similar curve to the "before" readings was obtained. Where the

temperatures increased

34
14 Day Average Temp Log (After GR)
AFT_TEMP_IN
AFT_TEMP_OUT
32

30
TEmperature °C

28

26

24

22
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 0:00
Time (hours)

Figure 36 Indoor Temp/Outdoor Temp After Installation

Page | 69
 14 Day Average of RH In and Out
90
88
86
84
82
80
78
76 AFT-RH-In

Relative Humidity (%)

74
72 AFT-RH-Out
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

0:00
1:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
Time (hours)

Figure 37 Relative Humidity: After Installation Indoor vs Outdoor

steadily during the early part of the day, peaked around midday, then steadily decreased

during the evening period. What was noteworthy, was the more pronounced difference

between the peak external temperatures and the peak internal values as compared to the

"before" values that were much closer to each other.

Peak values attained externally, range between 30 - 34 °C, which is similar to the pre-

installation readings. The internal readings hovered between 28 °C and 30 °C. This

represents a difference of 2-3 °C between the peak average external temperature and the

peak average internal temperature. As done in the section 4.2.1, summary graphs of the

major differences were plotted as shown in Figure 38. These temperature relationships

were as follows:

1. Lowest average indoor temperature and respective outdoor temperature

2. Highest average indoor temperature and respective outdoor temperature

3. Lowest average outdoor temperature and respective indoor temperature

Page | 70
 4. Highest average outdoor temperature and respective indoor temperature

35.0 33.32
31.81
30.0 28.75
25.86 26.24 27.35
24.21
25.0 22.67

20.0
T-in
15.0 T-out

10.0

5.0

0.0
T Low Interior T High Interior T Low Exterior T High Exterior

Figure 38 After Installation Temp Highs and Lows

Figure 38 and Figure 39 were created to show the temperature highs and lows and

corresponding relative humidity highs and lows, between the indoor and outdoor

measurements. The graphs and bar charts reveal a marked difference to the readings

obtained from phase one of the experiment.

90.0%
83.7% 84.4%
80.0%
70.0% 68.9%
70.0% 65.2%
Reative Humidity (%)

60.6%
60.0%
47.4% 49.4%
50.0%
RH-in
40.0%
RH-out
30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%
T Low Interior T High Interior T Low Exterior T High Exterior

Figure 39 Relative Humidity: After Installation Highs and Lows

Page | 71
4.2.4. Comparison: Before vs After Readings

The following was a side by side comparison of the readings obtained before and after the

green roof installation. As in the previous sections the comparisons were compiled as

follows:

1. Indoor Temperature Readings Before vs After

2. Outdoor Temperature Readings Before vs After

3. Indoor Relative Humidity Before vs After

4. Outdoor Relative Humidity Before vs After

Firstly, Figure 40 shows the relationship of the average indoor temperatures recorded

before with those recorded after installation of the green roof. It can be seen that the

"after" temperatures for indoor, generally followed a similar trend to the "before"

temperatures, however, peak readings were approximately 3-4 °C lower than the "before"

peak readings. The "after" temperature fluctuation range, from lowest to highest, was also

lower than that exhibited by the "before" readings. Whereas the latter values ranged from

26.9 °C to 33.4 °C (6 °C difference), the former ranged from 26 °C to 28.75 °C (3 °C

difference).

14 Day Average for T-in Before vs T-In After

34

32
Temperature (°C)

30

28 BF-T-IN
AF-T-IN
26

24
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

0:00
1:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

Time (hours)
Figure 40 Temperature: Indoor "Before" vs Indoor "After"

Page | 72
This observation suggests that on average, during the time that the green roof was in place,

there seemed to be a reduction in the maximum temperatures recorded within the test

area. In addition, the rate of change of temperature also, seems to have been suppressed.

14 Day Average T-Out Before vs T-Out After

34.00
BF-T-OUT
32.00
AF-T-OUT
30.00
Temperature (deg C)

28.00

26.00

24.00

22.00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
Time (hours)

Figure 41 Temperature: Before Outdoor Vs After Outdoor

Secondly, In Figure 41, the exterior temperatures for the before and after period were

plotted. The two graphs followed similar trend lines. However, the "after" readings reflected

a sharper rate of temperature change, during both the morning period rise and afternoon

fall in temperature. This was exhibited by the relatively steep slope of the "after" graph

during the morning and afternoon time periods. The graphs also showed a more

pronounced fluctuation in temperature between the highest and lowest temperature

readings. Inasmuch as, the two graphs peaked just around 33 °C, the lowest reading for the

"before" was around 29 °C, while the lowest temperature attained on the "after" graph was

around 23 °C. Therefore, the representative temperature fluctuation range for the "before"

period was approximately 4 °C; while the "after" period was approximately 10 °C.

Although these results may seem to be an indicator of a change in outdoor weather

patterns, according to historical weather records for Port of Spain during that period the

Page | 73
highs and lows observed are well within the ranges for both "before" and "after "periods.

The differences, may have been attributed to the difference in equipment used. As

mentioned in the research methodology section, a manual device was used to collect data in

the first phase of the experiment, while automated data logging equipment was used for

the second phase.

The automated equipment presented three conditions which may have influenced the

results obtained, these are:

i. The sensitivity of the equipment in instantaneously taking samples.

ii. No need for acclimatization of the instruments, as they were constantly set

up in the outdoor environment, they were always tuned to the current

temperature at a given sample time.

iii. More consistent early morning and late afternoon readings that would have

yielded lower temperatures on average.

Thirdly, in observing the relative humidity values for indoors, before and after (Figure 42),

the two sets of readings exhibited similar trend lines, except they were separated by a gap

of approximately 10-13% RH. This meant, that for the average value of RH at a given time

("before"), the corresponding RH value ("after") was higher by an approximate value of 10

to 13%. For example at around 10 am, the "before" value was 54.7 %, which corresponded

to an "after" value of 64.2%; again at 4:30 pm a value of 48.3% RH corresponded to relative

humidity of 61.4%. Given that the instruments yielded minor variations, during the test

period, as mentioned in the Research Methods section (see Figure 28 and Figure 29), the

Page | 74
 14 Day Average RH-In Before vs RH-In After
70.0
68.0
66.0
64.0

Relative Humidity (%)

62.0
60.0
58.0
56.0 BF-RH-In
54.0
AF-RH-In
52.0
50.0
48.0
46.0
44.0
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

Time (hours)
Figure 42 Relative Humidity: Before vs After Indoor Values

differences recorded seems to be too large to be attributed only to the difference in the

equipment used, the set up, or rate of sampling, as mentioned above. The observation was,

however, consistent with the temperature graphs as seen in Figure 40, and expressed the

correlation between temperature and relative humidity. Inasmuch as, the gap in max

temperature graph, also showed up as a gap in the relative humidity graph.

Fourthly, relative humidity values for outdoor, before and after were plotted, see Figure 43.

Just as with the temperature graphs for the exterior, the trend lines are more or less very

similar to each other. Of course the disparity in the rate of change in temperature and the

range of fluctuation in high between high and low values for "before" vs "after" readings,

was reflected in the rate of change in, as well as the fluctuation range for relative humidity

Page | 75
 14 Day Average RH-Out Before vs RH-Out After
74.0
72.0
70.0
68.0
66.0

Relative Humidity (%)

64.0
62.0
60.0
58.0 BF-RH-Out
56.0
54.0 AF-RH-Out
52.0
50.0
48.0
46.0
44.0
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
Time (hours)

Figure 43 Relative Humidity: Before Outdoor vs After Outdoor

4.2.5. Thermal Comfort: Before vs After

Thermal comfort indices of PMV and PPD, as described in literature review were calculated

using the average values of temperature and humidity obtained during the before and after

phases of the study. The indices for the before period were tabulated in Table 2 and

corresponding values plotted in Figure 44 PMV and PPD values before. Respective values for

the "after" phase were captured in Table 3 and Figure 45.

Table 2 PMV and PPD Values Before Green Roof Installation

TIME Avg. Air Avg. Temp Avg. RH PMV PPD

Velocity (°C) (%) (%)
7:00:00 AM 0.00 26.9 65.2 0.46 9.41
8:00:00 AM 0.00 28.0 63.1 0.84 20.07
9:00:00 AM 0.00 29.5 54.7 1.32 41.24
10:00:00 AM 0.00 30.6 54.7 1.72 62.66
11:00:00 AM 0.00 31.9 51.7 2.16 83.30
12:00:00 PM 0.00 32.2 50.1 2.25 86.57
1:00:00 PM 0.00 33.1 49.1 2.56 94.62

Page | 76
 TIME Avg. Air Avg. Temp Avg. RH PMV PPD
Velocity (°C) (%) (%)
2:00:00 PM 0.00 33.3 48.8 2.62 95.67
3:00:00 PM 0.05 33.5 48.2 2.69 96.57
4:00:00 PM 0.00 33.6 48.3 2.72 96.95
5:00:00 PM 0.00 33.0 48.9 2.52 93.91
6:00:00 PM 0.00 31.6 54.1 2.05 78.84
7:00:00 PM 0.00 32.9 53.4 2.54 94.11

Neutral Slightly Warm Hot

Warm
100%
Predicted Persons Disatisfied

90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Predicted Mean Vote

Figure 44 PMV and PPD values before

Table 3 PMV and PPD Values for After Green Roof Installation

TIME Avg. Air Avg. Temp Avg. RH PMV PPD

Velocity (°C) (%) (%)
7:00:00 AM 0.00 25.9 70.7 0.13 5.40
8:00:00 AM 0.00 26.8 67.1 0.44 8.98
9:00:00 AM 0.00 27.4 65.2 0.64 13.64
10:00:00 AM 0.00 27.8 64.4 0.78 17.91
11:00:00 AM 0.00 28.1 63.5 0.88 21.56
12:00:00 PM 0.00 28.5 62.3 1.02 27.02
1:00:00 PM 0.00 28.8 60.6 1.12 31.29
2:00:00 PM 0.00 28.7 61.1 1.08 29.82
3:00:00 PM 0.05 28.7 62.7 1.10 30.45
4:00:00 PM 0.00 28.6 62.1 1.06 28.57

Page | 77
 TIME Avg. Air Avg. Temp Avg. RH PMV PPD
Velocity (°C) (%) (%)
5:00:00 PM 0.00 28.5 61.2 1.01 26.61
6:00:00 PM 0.00 28.2 60.8 0.90 22.04
7:00:00 PM 0.00 27.9 62.9 0.81 18.70

Neutral Slightly
Warm Hot
100% Warm
Predicted Persons Dsiatisfied

90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Predictive Mean Vote

Figure 45 PMV and PPD values after

The calculations were done, drawing from estimated values for clothing insulation and

metabolic rate developed by (Fanger 1970) (see APPENDIX VIII - Metabolic Rate and Clothing

Insulation). The assumed parameters that most likely fit the conditions of the occupants and

the space, were compiled in Table 4 Assumed parameters for PMV and PPD Calculations

below.

Table 4 Assumed parameters for PMV and PPD Calculations (Fanger 1970)

Assumed parameters
-2
Metabolic Rate Sedentary activity = 70Wm /1.2Met
External Work 0 Wm-2
Radiant Temperature Equal to Air Temperature (as
recorded)
Clothing insulation Typical tropical Clothing = 0.3Clo/
0.047 m2KW-1
Air Velocity as recorded, velocities before
assumed to be constant before and

Page | 78
 after

The final graphs plotted, as shown in Figure 44 PMV and PPD values before and Figure 45

PMV and PPD values after show that the thermal indices derived for the "before" period

were significantly different to those derived for the "after" period. The PPD index, over the

course of the day showed that over ninety percent (90%) of respondents for a large sample

would have been dissatisfied with the space, registering a mean vote of between (+2) warm

and (+3) hot (see APPENDIX VI - PMV and PPD Definitions and Equations for definitions) .

Conversely, during the after period, the level of dissatisfaction, as indicated by the graph

(Figure 45), turned out to be much less. The PPD index, over the course of the day showed

that only thirty percent (30%) of respondents for a large sample would have been

dissatisfied with the space, registering a mean vote of between (+1) slightly warm. A

significant development indeed.

Page | 79
5. CONCLUSION
The aim of this research work was to investigate the impact of a vegetated roof, as a passive

cooling tool, on the concrete residential structure. One of the homes in a leading Trinidad

and Tobago residential community was selected for the case study, and to pursue the

investigation the following objectives were outlined:

1. Identify suitable green roof design- for a "Do-it-Yourself" retrofit application for the

structure at no or low cost.

2. Evaluate current internal and external thermal and environmental behaviours of

the structure and the immediate environment.

3. Assess the impact of the green roof installation on the internal environment of the

structure.

4. Formulate recommendations for the use of green and passive cooling techniques.

In this section these research objectives will be revisited and summarized in terms of the

findings, in the literature review and the empirical data collected and analysed. As such,

conclusion based on same, will be offered and recommendations for future work put

forward. Using this approach, the case study will be concluded reflections made on whether

the objectives outlined were met.

5.1. Research Objectives: Summary of Findings and Conclusions

5.1.1 Objective 1: Suitable Green Roof Design

The design that was actually executed was similar to a sod roof, where the growing medium

was placed directly on top of the roof, with a moisture barrier in place. Its depth was 3-4

inches within the range of an extensive roof (less than 20 inches in depth) and a succulent,

resilient local species of thick ground covering plant was applied. Based on the results of the

Page | 80
study, there was notable change in the thermal environment on the interior of the house,

thus it can be said that solar shading of the concrete roof was accomplished with this

installation of the green roof top. The design was simple and manageable for the

application, in term of cost and labour. The "extensive" green roof class was fulfilled, and

allowed for the simplicity giving room for the necessary improvisation when materials had

to be substituted and omitted, as well as an when the depth had to be reduced, as the

concern for the structure of the house arose in mid installation. These attributes made it a

suitable do-it-yourself project.

Notable was the performance of the Rhoeo Spathacea Nana, which exhibited its resilient

characteristics in the course of the study. Where other plants may have died after being

harvested from their original locations and transplanted, they recovered well, and flourished

well under the harsh conditions on the roof, and minimal attention paid to them. The main

conclusions that can be offered are: firstly, the design of the green roof even its imperfect

state, provided some measureable change on the environment within the scope of this

study. Secondly, if a home owner is discerning about his home, and willing to access

knowledge available, pertaining to sustainable living, they can have an impact on their

environment one small project at time.

5.1.2 Objective 2: Evaluate Existing Thermal Behaviour

In summary the thermal parameters exhibited a familiar trend of change during the day and

reflect the climate of the locality and the weather experienced for the given time of year.

The following table reflects that key points gleaned from the recordings.

Page | 81
 Table 5 Summary of key "before" readings

Indoor Readings Outdoor Readings

Max Average Temperature = 33.65 °C Max Average Temperature = 33.24 °C

Min Average Temperature = 26.93 °C Min Average Temperature = 29.00 °C

Max Average Relative Humidity = 65.2 % Max Average Relative Humidity = 57.8 %

Min Average Relative Humidity = 48.76% Min Average Relative Humidity = 48.60%

Time of Highest Average Temp = 4pm Time of Highest Average Temp = 2pm

Time of Lowest Average Temp = 7am Time of Lowest Average Temp = 7am

Max Air Velocity = 0.05m/s Max Air Velocity = 1.2 m/s

Min Air Velocity = 0.0 m/s Min Air Velocity = 0.10 m/s

One of the main conclusions that can be drawn from this is that the site does not exhibit

abnormal temperature of temperature and relative humidity readings for the location, and

are in line with the local weather patterns. As such, the impact of microclimatic extremes

can be ruled out as the cause for thermal comfort (discomfort) within the home.

On looking at the graph of PMV against PPD, it can be concluded that the occupants in the

house were not biased in their perception of thermal sensation, as the scale indicates that

over 90% of a large sample group would have responded that they felt warm to hot under

the recorded conditions.

Page | 82
 5.1.3 Objective 3: Assess Green Roof Impact on Thermal Behaviour

In comparing the readings during the before phase of the project there had to be special

considerations to compare the same time span for the recorded values (i.e. 6am to 6 pm).

The data logging equipment was able to capture useful readings, however, there were no

readings to compare from the "before" phase, so the view of the readings were constrained

in this manner. As such the will give a summary of the values captured within the given

window.

Table 6 Summary of Key "After" Readings

Indoor Readings Outdoor Readings

Max Average Temperature = 28.45 °C Max Average Temperature = 33.32 °C

Min Average Temperature = 25.86 °C Min Average Temperature = 22.92 °C

Max Average Relative Humidity = 67.10 % Max Average Relative Humidity = 70.90 %

Min Average Relative Humidity = 60.06% Min Average Relative Humidity = 51.8%

Time of Highest Average Temp = 1:30pm Time of Highest Average Temp = 1:30pm

Time of Lowest Average Temp = 7am Time of Lowest Average Temp = 7am

The main conclusion that can be derived from the assessment of the after readings, is that

the presence of the green roof brought about a definite depression in the indoor

temperatures by at least 3 degrees. This validates the use of this device for this residence,

Page | 83
and shows that there is room for further study into improved designs to yield better results.

Expansion of the application to cover the entire roof, is also a viable consideration.

The thermal also provide a non biased, non subjective outcome that points to a level of

improvement in the thermal comfort of the space see Figure 45. It can thus be concluded

that there was distinct improvement of the thermal sensation in the spaces as only, just

over 30% of the respondents from a large sample would have responded that the room was

slightly warm.

5.1.4 Objective 4: Recommendations for further green applications

The literature review revealed that flat roofs, regardless of construction material,

experience a high level of heat loading due to the constant exposure to solar radiation

during the day. In the same way, paved driveways and court yards that are not shaded,

receive an equivalent level of solar radiation, which is reflected and re-emitted as heat into

the surroundings. It is also known that walls and other vertical surfaces, especially the

eastern-western facing surfaces are exposed to a great deal of solar radiation at the

morning and evening times respectively.

The above points correspond to the three major features of the Diamond Vale residence

that have been observed to affect the thermal environment of the dwelling:

1. Solar heat gain through the roof

2. Reflected and Re-emitted heat gain from the paved surfaces

3. Solar heat gain through exposed walls

Page | 84
Literature reveals that use of vegetation to soften built up spaces impacts the thermal

environment in a positive way by providing shade and through the cooling effect of the

natural transpiration processes and exchange of cooling moisture with the environment.

One main conclusion drawn from this is that roof shading using vegetation is a relative cost

effective, non evasive intervention to the solar heat gain through the roof of the house. The

solution can be implemented with little or no structural modification to the house. As

mentioned before, any construction activity would be a very expensive venture, which may

inhibit or delay the home owner from taking the necessary action to bring comfort to his

home. The use of vegetation in this manner, puts power in his hands to achieve a level of

improved comfort without the financial burden. The green roof can be fixed or modular in

nature. Fixed refers to the method used in the study, where the roof was attached to the

roof deck; modular refers to use of grow box type systems that can be placed on top of the

roof without being affixed to it see figures below

Figure 46 Modular Green Roof System www.ravenind.com

Page | 85
 Figure 47 Installed Modular Green Roof www.greenroofs.com

A second conclusion can be derived, in that further impact on the thermal environment of

the residence can be achieved by treating with the paved areas around the house. Similar to

the roof, the open areas of the yard and drive way can be softened by the introduction of

vegetation, effectively reducing solar heat gains and introducing some evapo-transpiration

cooling as well. can also modified to reduce the heat effects. The former can be achieved by

replacing the solid paving with modular grass paving solutions as shown in the figure below.

These provide the firm structure required for supporting vehicles, while still maintaining a

lawn.

Page | 86
 Figure 48 Grass paving solutions www.freecreatives.com

In addition to the shading of the roof and softening of the paved spaces, the third

conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that the thermal environment of the house

can be influenced by the shading of the walls as well. The east wall, experiences a great deal

of solar heat gain, which impacts the rooms on that side of the house during the morning

period. The western wall is shaded by the garage as well as the neighbouring home, thus the

heat gain is significantly lower. One significant device used for the shading of the wall

include hanging plants, use of running plants such as Ivies or vertical mounting units called

living walls or green wall modules see figure below. Complexity varies, and will require a

higher level of maintenance and attention than the other devices, however, the option is

still a viable one for the home owner to influence the thermal environment of the home at a

lower cost than structural work.

Page | 87
 Figure 49 Green wall system www.tulsalandscape.com

Other literature highlights that use of landscaping to influence the movement of air around

the house. In addition to provide shade and evapo transpiration cooling, strategic placement

of trees and hedges can direct airflow and increase air velocities around the house especially

around the windows and ventilation devices.

Figure 50 Acceleration of air under trees

Page | 88
 Figure 51 Air acceleration around building due to landscaping

The fourth conclusion that can be drawn from this is that the issue of low air movement as

recorded in the experiment may be alleviated by applying strategic landscaping methods.

Although the landscaping may be useful, the size of the plot poses a little challenge in the

orientation and layout. In spite of this, it is still a topic that can be looked at in further study

of the residence.

The conclusions and recommendations presented have been made based on an extensive

review of the related literature and the empirical evidence gathered from this site. The work

supports this particular case study and does not attempt to form a generalization for all the

dwellings in the neighbourhood. However, the principles and methodology are translatable

to any site, and may be applied to obtain unique results for other houses in the area, or any

other residential development that bear structures similar in construction.

The research though slow and tiring was enjoyable and has opened the researchers eyes to

the need for sustainable solutions, especially in the residential built environment. Even

though energy is cheap (for now) and the enforcement of our environmental laws are a

nonexistent, the power is within our hands to do better, starting from home.

Page | 89
6. REFERENCES
2011. The Early Days in Diego Martin. Daily Express, Trinidad Express Magazine,
http://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/The_early_days__in_Diego_Martin-
116138154.html#main.

2014. Building Design and Construction 2013 [cited February 4 2014]. Available from
http://www.bdcnetwork.com/8-grand-green-roofs-and-walls.

2015. Green Roof Technology: History 2015 [cited July 31 2015]. Available from
http://www.greenrooftechnology.com/history-of-green-roofs.

ASHRAE, ANSI. 2004. "Standard 55-2004, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
conditioning Engineers." Inc., USA.

Biggam, J. 2008. Succeeding with You Master's Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Handbook:

McGraw-Hill Companies,Incorporated.

Castleton, H. F., V. Stovin, S. B. M. Beck, and J. B. Davison. 2010. "Green roofs; building energy
savings and the potential for retrofit." Energy and Buildings no. 42 (10):1582-1591.
doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05.004.

Cohen, L., L. Manion, and K. Morrison. 2013. Research Methods in Education: Taylor &
Francis.

Dunnett, Nigel, Dusty Gedge, John Little, and Edmund C. Snodgrass. 2011. Small Green Roofs:
Low Tech Options for Greener Living. Portland, London: Timber Press.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. 1989. "Building theories from case study research." Academy of
management review no. 14 (4):532-550.

Fanger, Poul O. 1970. "Thermal comfort. Analysis and applications in environmental

engineering." Thermal comfort. Analysis and applications in environmental
engineering.

Fukuyo, Kazuhiro. 2015. PMV and PPD Calculation 2010 [cited July 20 2015]. Available from
http://ds0.cc.yamaguchi-u.ac.jp/~fukuyo/pmv-calculation.html.

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Geetha, NB, and R Velraj. "Passive cooling methods for energy efficient buildings with and
without thermal energy storage–A review."

Green, Kevin W. 1979. "Passive cooling: Designing natural solutions for summer cooling
loads." Research and Design no. 2 (3):4.

Hilti. 2015. Hilti 2015 [cited July, 14 2015]. Available from https://www.hilti.com/drilling-
and-demolition.

Holmer, Ingvar. 2015. JAVA applet for ISO 7730 Calculation of Predicted mean Vote (PMV)
and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD), PMV 2008 ver 1.0, 2008 2008 [cited July
20 2015]. Available from
http://www.eat.lth.se/fileadmin/eat/Termisk_miljoe/PMV-PPD.html.

Homer, Louis B 2012. When a Diamond Vale house cost $10,000. Daily Express, Trinidad
Express Magazine,
http://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/When_a_Diamond_Vale_house_cost__10_00
0-160201655.html.

ISO, EN. 1994. "7730, 1994." Moderate thermal environments-Determination of the PMV and
PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort.

Kamal, Mohammad Arif. 2012. "An overview of passive cooling techniques in buildings:
design concepts and architectural interventions." Acta Technica Nepocensis: Civil
Engineering and Architecture no. 55:84-97.

Kumar, R., and S. C. Kaushik. 2005. "Performance evaluation of green roof and shading for
thermal protection of buildings." Build. Environ. no. 40 (11):1505-1511. doi:
10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.11.015.

Magill, John D, Karen Midden, John Groninger, and Matthew Therrell. 2011. "A History and
Definition of Green Roof Technology with Recommendations for Future Research."

Moody, Seth S., and David J. Sailor. 2013. "Development and application of a building energy
performance metric for green roof systems." Energy and Buildings no. 60:262-269.
doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.02.002.

Mumovic, D, and M Santamouris. 2009. "A Handbook of Sustainable Building Design and
Engineering: An Integrated Approach to Energy." Health and Operational
Performance, Earthscan.

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Nyuk Hien, Wong, Tan Puay Yok, and Chen Yu. 2007. "Study of thermal performance of
extensive rooftop greenery systems in the tropical climate." Building and
Environment no. 42 (1):25-54. doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.07.030.

Okba, EM. 2005. Building envelope design as a passive cooling technique. Paper read at
Proceedings from the.

Ouldboukhitine, Salah-Eddine, Rafik Belarbi, and Rabah Djedjig. 2012. "Characterization of

green roof components: Measurements of thermal and hydrological properties."
Building and Environment, 56:78-85.

Parsons, K. 2002. Human Thermal Environments: The Effects of Hot, Moderate, and Cold
Environments on Human Health, Comfort and Performance, Second Edition: Taylor &
Francis.

Pérez-Lombard, Luis, José Ortiz, Juan F. Coronel, and Ismael R. Maestre. 2011. "A review of
HVAC systems requirements in building energy regulations." Energy and Buildings
no. 43 (2-3):255-268. doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.025.

Pérez-Lombard, Luis, José Ortiz, and Christine Pout. 2008. "A review on buildings energy
consumption information." Energy and Buildings no. 40 (3):394-398. doi:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.03.007.

Rhoades, Heather 2014. Growing Rhoeo Plants In The Garden, 03/16/15 2014 [cited January
12 2014]. Available from
http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/flowers/rhoeo/growing-rhoeo-
plants-in-the-garden.htm.

Roede, Lars. 1989a. Section of traditional sod roof at eaves of a log house (3).

Roede, Lars. 1989b. Section of traditional sod roof at eaves of a log house (2).

Sailor, D. J. 2008a. "A green roof model for building energy simulation programs." Energy
Build. no. 40 (8):1466-1478. doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.02.001.

Sailor, D. J. 2008b. "A green roof model for building energy simulation programs." Energy
and Buildings no. 40 (8):1466-1478. doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.02.001.

Santamouris, M., C. Pavlou, P. Doukas, G. Mihalakakou, A. Synnefa, A. Hatzibiros, and P.

Patargias. 2007. "Investigating and analysing the energy and environmental

Page | 92
 performance of an experimental green roof system installed in a nursery school
building in Athens, Greece." Energy no. 32 (9):1781-1788. doi:
10.1016/j.energy.2006.11.011.

Santamouris, M., K. Pavlou, A. Synnefa, K. Niachou, and D. Kolokotsa. 2007. "Recent progress
on passive cooling techniques." Energy and Buildings no. 39 (7):859-866. doi:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.02.008.

Snodgrass, Edmund C., and Linda Mc Intyre. 2010. The Green Roof Manual: A Professional
Guide to Design, Installation and Maintenance. Portland, London: Timber Press.

Tabares-Velasco, Paulo Cesar, and Jelena Srebric. 2012. "A heat transfer model for
assessment of plant based roofing systems in summer conditions." Building and
Environment no. 49:310-323. doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.07.019.

Tibério Cardoso, Grace, and Francisco Vecchia. 2013. "Thermal Behavior of Green Roofs
Applied to Tropical Climate." Journal of Construction Engineering no. 2013:1-7. doi:
10.1155/2013/940386.

Tsang, S. W., and C. Y. Jim. 2011. "Theoretical evaluation of thermal and energy performance
of tropical green roofs." Energy no. 36 (5):3590-3598. doi:
10.1016/j.energy.2011.03.072.

USGBC. 2013. USGBC, 2015 2015 [cited December 3 2013]. Available from
http://www.usgbc.org/.

Wark, Christopher G., and Wendy W. Wark. 2003. "Green roof specifications and standards."
The Construction Editor.

Weiler, Susan K., Scholz-Barth, Katrin. 2009. Green Roof Systems: A Guide to the Planning,
Design, and Construction of Landscapes Over Structure. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley &
Sons.

Page | 93
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biggam, J. 2008. Succeeding with You Master's Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Handbook: McGraw-
Hill Companies,Incorporated.

Dunnett, Nigel, Dusty Gedge, John Little, and Edmund C. Snodgrass. 2011. Small Green Roofs:
Low Tech Options for Greener Living. Portland, London: Timber Press.

Snodgrass, Edmund C., and Linda Mc Intyre. 2010. The Green Roof Manual: A Professional Guide
to Design, Installation and Maintenance. Portland, London: Timber Press.

Page | 94
8. APPENDICES

APPENDIX I - Green Roof Build (Photos)

Green Roof Assembly Picture #1: Getting materials on the roof

Green Roof Assembly Picture #2: framing the space

Page | 95
 Green Roof Assembly Picture #3: framing complete

Green Roof Assembly Picture #4: Waterproofing layer - Polyethylene sheets

Page | 96
Green Roof Assembly Picture #5: Growing medium started

Green Roof Assembly Picture #6: Growing medium filled

Page | 97
 Green Roof Assembly Picture #7: Rhoeo Spathacea Nana Started

Green Roof Assembly Picture #8: Rhoeo Spathacea Nana Sprinkling

Page | 98
 Green Roof Assembly Picture #9: Rhoeo Spathacea Nana Completed

Green Roof Assembly Picture #10: Rhoeo Spathacea Nana Established with Secondary Vegetation

Page | 99
APPENDIX II - Instrument Technical Specifications

WDCFM8912 Hand held Anemo-Psychrometer

Page | 100
RHT10 Temperature and humidity data logger

Page | 101
RH42280 Temperature and Humidity data logger

Page | 102
APPENDIX III - Instrument Comparison Set up

Instruments side by side for Indoor comparative readings

Instruments side by side for outdoor comparative readings

Page | 103
Outdoor comparative reading set up

Page | 104
APPENDIX IV - Readings Before Green Roof Installation

Table 7 WDFCM8912 Readings from 13th March to 26th March 2014

Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
13-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 34.3 35.9 41.3 42.1 0 0.5
13-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 29.5 34.8 58.2 49.8 0 0
13-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 30.6 30.9 55.6 53.8 0 0
13-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 29.7 29.4 62.3 63.7 0 0
13-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 29.4 29.4 61.8 63.2 0 0
13-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 29.5 29.5 62.7 62.3 0 0.5
13-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 28.5 28.4 68.8 68.6 0 0.5
13-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 28.8 28.5 68.2 69.6 0 0
13-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 28.7 28.2 65.3 66.2 0 0

14-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 27.5 29.7 65.5 59 0 0

14-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 29.4 37.9 60 43.4 0 0
14-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 31.1 30.9 57.4 55.7 0 0
14-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 30.9 31.1 56.9 55.7 0 0
14-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 32.4 36.6 53.6 47.6 0 0
14-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.3 38.2 51 40.5 0 0
14-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 32.3 34.1 51.1 48.6 0 0.4
14-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 33.5 31.3 51.1 53.6 0 0.2
14-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 32.5 30.8 52.9 54.2 0 0.3
14-Mar-14 6:00:00 PM 32.9 31.8 51.9 50 0 0.9

Page | 105
 Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
14-Mar-14 9:00:00 PM 30.5 29.4 54 55.6 0 0.8

15-Mar-14 7:00:00 AM 27 33.5 68.8 46.9 0 0

15-Mar-14 8:00:00 AM 28.1 37.5 61.7 41.6 0 0
15-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.2 31.4 58.7 52.7 0 0
15-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 30 30.4 56.8 58.7 0 0
15-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 30.2 30.5 54.2 55.3 0 0.5
15-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 31.5 31.6 50.2 50.5 0 0.3
15-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 32.6 34.4 47.1 47.8 0 0
15-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.5 33.2 45.6 46.3 0 0
15-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 34.3 33 44.5 45.9 0 0
15-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 33.8 31 43.6 47.8 0 0.7
15-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 32.7 31.2 48.5 51.2 0 0.3
15-Mar-14 6:00:00 PM 31.5 29 50.5 55.1 0 1.1
15-Mar-14 9:00:00 PM 30.3 28.7 52.8 55.9 0 1.6

16-Mar-14 8:00:00 AM 28.3 28.4 62.1 59.4 0 0

16-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.7 30.5 56.5 53.7 0 0.6
16-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 30.5 30.7 56.6 56.5 0 0
16-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 31.3 30.8 55.8 53.7 0 0.8
16-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 31.4 31 54.4 53.2 0 0.4
16-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 32.2 31.3 54.5 54.6 0 1.2
16-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 32.4 31.1 54.5 56.8 0 0
16-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 33.7 32.9 54.3 53.4 0 0.8
Page | 106
 Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
16-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 33.8 33.3 54.6 50.3 0 0.4
16-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 32.3 30.7 56.1 58.6 0 0
16-Mar-14 6:00:00 PM 32.5 31.1 55.8 56.7 0 0.8

17-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.6 31.6 57.7 53.8 0 0.7

17-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 31.9 32.2 55.6 56.3 0 0
17-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 32.3 31.8 56.3 53.6 0 0.4
17-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33.7 31.4 50.2 51.3 0 0.8
17-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 31.3 31.7 59.6 59.8 0 1
17-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 31.5 31.2 51.9 58.9 0 0
17-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 31.5 31.7 56.5 56.5 0 0.7

18-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.5 30.5 54.1 50.8 0 0.9

18-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 31.1 31.1 55.9 54 0 1
18-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 31.7 30.9 55.9 54 0 0
18-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 32.4 32.4 52.7 51.9 0 0
18-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33 31.5 51.4 51.9 0 0
18-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.6 33.1 49.7 49.3 0 1.4
18-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 33.5 32.6 49.5 50.7 0 0.6
18-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 33.6 32 52.6 49.6 0 0.6
18-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 33.3 31.4 50.2 52.9 0 0.4

19-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.1 29.5 60.5 60 0 0.4

19-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 30.5 30.7 58.2 57 0 0.9
Page | 107
 Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
19-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 32.1 31.9 52.9 52.2 0 1
19-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 33.4 32.3 48.9 51 0 0
19-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33.1 32.8 50.1 50.5 0 0.8
19-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.5 32.5 49 49 0 0
19-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 33 32.2 50.8 51.2 0.7 0.6
19-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 34.2 33.4 47.6 47.6 0 0
19-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 32.8 31.2 49.7 53.3 0 0

20-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.9 30.1 50 50.8 0 0

20-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 30.5 30.2 52.5 48.1 0 1.3
20-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 33 33 47.4 46.7 0 1.3
20-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 33 32.1 46.3 48.4 0 0
20-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33.1 32.1 50.8 48.3 0 1
20-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.3 31.9 48 48.8 0 0.9

21-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 28.7 29 57.4 55.4 0 0.6

21-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 30.1 31.2 47.6 42.7 0 0
21-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 32.2 34.8 41.6 39.2 0 0.9
21-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33.3 35.1 39 38.3 0 0
21-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.3 33 39 40.8 0 0.3
21-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 33.7 33.5 36.3 37.2 0 0.8
21-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 33.8 31.4 37.9 38.1 0 0.3
21-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 33.2 33 41 40.8 0 0

Page | 108
 Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
22-Mar-14 7:00:00 AM 26.7 26.6 64.1 64.5 0 0
22-Mar-14 8:00:00 AM 27.5 27.4 65.5 61 0 1
22-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.5 29.9 55.5 55.3 0 0.8
22-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 32.3 32 55.7 49 0 0
22-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 33.4 33 49.2 49 0 0
22-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33.6 33 49.4 46.3 0 2
22-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 33.1 32.2 48.5 48.9 0 0.5
22-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 34.7 34.2 45.8 45.2 0 0.7
22-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 34 31.6 45 48.7 0 0.9
22-Mar-14 7:00:00 PM 32.1 31.6 47.9 47.8 0 0.4

23-Mar-14 7:00:00 AM 27.1 26.9 62.6 62 0 0

23-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.3 29.2 52.3 47.4 0 0.8
23-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 31.5 31.7 51 48.7 0 1.2
23-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 33 32.1 46.6 46.5 0 1.2
23-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 34.6 35.3 43.2 41.7 0 1
23-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 36.2 34.5 39.7 41.5 0 0
23-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 35.9 34.3 40.4 42.5 0 0.8
23-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 35.5 33 45.3 44.8 0 0.4
23-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 36 32.9 40.5 41.4 0 1.2
23-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 34.6 32.3 41.1 42.2 0 0.8
23-Mar-14 7:00:00 PM 33 30.6 43.9 45.3 0 0

24-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 29.5 29.4 55.4 54 0 1.2

Page | 109
 Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
24-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 30.2 31.3 55.1 53.8 0 0.9
24-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 32.2 33.2 50.1 50.2 0 0.5
24-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 34.1 36.3 47.3 45.7 0 1.1
24-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 34.7 32.9 42.9 43.1 0 0.6
24-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 34.6 34.3 43.7 43.7 0 0.8
24-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 34.5 33 44.3 45.3 0 0
24-Mar-14 6:00:00 PM 33.8 32.5 46.7 48.4 0 0
24-Mar-14 7:00:00 PM 33.7 32.2 46.2 48.4 0 0

25-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 29.1 29.5 47.5 47 0 0

25-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 30.2 31.6 46.9 45.4 0 0.4
25-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 32.3 32.3 48.3 47.6 0 0.7
25-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 33.2 32.7 43.8 43.8 0 1
25-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 33.6 33.1 45.9 46.6 0 0
25-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 34 32.9 44.5 45.7 0 0.8
25-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 33.9 32.5 45.5 45.3 0 0
25-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 33.7 32.9 44.9 46.1 0 0
25-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 33.5 33.3 45.2 44.7 0 0

26-Mar-14 9:00:00 AM 28.3 28.6 54.3 52.6 0 0.9

26-Mar-14 10:00:00 AM 29.7 29.9 55.5 54.6 0 0.7
26-Mar-14 11:00:00 AM 31.4 31.2 50.6 50 0 1.2
26-Mar-14 12:00:00 PM 32.5 32.2 46.8 46.8 0 0
26-Mar-14 1:00:00 PM 34.7 34.2 43.1 42.3 0 0.7

Page | 110
 Date Time Temp-In Temp-out RH In RH Out Air Vel In Air Vel Out
26-Mar-14 2:00:00 PM 34.9 35.4 42.9 43.4 0 0.5
26-Mar-14 3:00:00 PM 36.3 36.1 40.5 41 0 0.6
26-Mar-14 4:00:00 PM 36.1 34.5 41.9 43.3 0 0
26-Mar-14 5:00:00 PM 35 32.3 43.7 46 0 1.1

Page | 111
APPENDIX V - Readings After Green Roof Installation

TIME TEMP_IN TEMP_OUT RH-In RH-OUT

12:00:00 AM 26.95 23.41 80.57 66.43

1:00:00 AM 26.79 23.11 81.19 66.89

2:00:00 AM 26.67 23.01 82.19 67.51
3:00:00 AM 26.43 22.85 83.52 68.36
4:00:00 AM 26.24 22.67 84.35 68.85
5:00:00 AM 26.08 22.92 84.78 69.29
6:00:00 AM 25.86 24.21 83.68 69.97
7:00:00 AM 25.88 27.52 76.39 70.66
8:00:00 AM 26.77 31.28 60.25 67.10
9:00:00 AM 27.35 33.32 49.36 65.24
10:00:00 AM 27.84 32.58 49.33 64.42
11:00:00 AM 28.11 32.95 50.88 63.55
12:00:00 PM 28.45 32.84 51.81 62.25
1:00:00 PM 28.75 31.81 47.43 60.64
2:00:00 PM 28.72 31.75 52.79 61.06
3:00:00 PM 28.71 30.81 54.43 62.70
4:00:00 PM 28.58 29.18 56.63 62.07
5:00:00 PM 28.54 27.61 59.65 61.19
6:00:00 PM 28.17 26.21 65.91 60.79
7:00:00 PM 27.88 25.67 70.86 62.89
8:00:00 PM 27.56 24.83 72.25 63.27
9:00:00 PM 27.43 24.46 75.21 63.73
10:00:00 PM 27.36 24.25 77.41 64.53
11:00:00 PM 26.93 23.61 79.09 65.75

* Air velocities were assumed to be similar to the before period

*Values represent hourly averages over the 14 day period, for the sake of brevity as the quantity of data
points extracted numbered in the thousands.

Page | 112
APPENDIX VI - PMV and PPD Definitions and Equations

Predictive Mean Vote and Percentage Persons Dissatisfied (ISO 1994)

Page | 113
Predictive Mean Vote and Percentage Persons Dissatisfied (ISO 1994)

Page | 114
APPENDIX VII - PMV and PPD Calculator Interface

Online PMV and PPD calculator #1 (Fukuyo 2010)

Page | 115
Online PMV and PPD calculator #2 (Holmer 2008)

Page | 116
 APPENDIX VIII - Metabolic Rate and Clothing Insulation

Clothing Ensemble Clo M2 K W-1

Naked 0 0
Shorts 0.1 0.016
Typical tropical clothing outfit
Briefs, (underpants), shorts, open neck shirt with short sleeves, 0.3 0.047
light socks and shoes
Light summer clothing
Briefs, long light weight trousers, open neck shirt with short 0.5 0.078
sleeves, light socks and shoes.
Working clothes
Underwear, cotton working shirt with long sleeves, working 0.8 0.124
trousers, woollen socks and shoes
Typical indoor winter clothing combination
Underwear, shirt with long sleeves, trousers, sweater with long 1.0 0.155
sleeves, heavy socks and shoes
Heavy traditional European business suits
Cotton underwear with long legs and sleeves, shirt, suit comprising 1.5 0.233
trousers, jacket, waistcoat, woollen socks and heavy shoes.

Estimated Clothing Insulation Values (Fanger 1970, Parsons 2002)

Activity Met Wm-2

Lying down 0.8 47
Seated quietly 1.0 58
Sedentary activity (office, home, laboratory, school) 1.2 70
Standing, relaxed 1.2 70
Light activity, standing (shopping, laboratory, light industry) 1.6 93
Medium activity, standing (shop assistant, domestic work, machine 2.0 116
work)
High activity (heavy machine work, garage work) 3.0 175

Estimated metabolic rates (Fanger 1970, Parsons 2002)

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APPENDIX X - Satellite Image of Case Study Site

Google maps aerial shot

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APPENDIX XI - Sketch of House Floor Plan

House floor plan sketch

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