NOTES ON BRIDGE

ENGINEERING

by

Dr. Neelkanth Patwardhan

B.E. Civil, M.E. Structures, Ph.D. (I.I.T. B’bay), F.I.E.
 DEDICATION

Dedicated to late Shri M B Gharpure

(1927-2013) for outstanding bridge
engineering work with highest quality and
clear understanding. Late Shri Gharpure
also guided engineers and contractors from
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh states.
 Preface
Instructions on bridge engineering in the instruction syllabus of Civil
Engineering syllabus needs a thorough revision and updation. There are
textbooks which run in more than 250 pages while the instructions are
hardly for more than 4 lecture periods. Often there is a tendency to skip this
course which is no good.

Like houses and dams, bridges do play vital role in society. Such bridges are
seen for more than 100 years. Earlier day it was all arch bridges which were
simple to construct. Next came RCC and prestressed bridges. There are
outstanding bridges like cable suspension bridges which have spans more
than 200 metres. San Francisco bridge is one of them. Next came the days of
cable stayed bridges.

China, Norway and USA have long term planning of infra-structure in which
multibridge units are commonly employed.

It is necessary that students visit the bridge projects during construction.

This book ‘Notes on Bridge Engineering’ attempts to cover in brief all the
above aspects. It is hoped that a long time gap has been filled up by this book.
Suggestions of engineering committee are most welcome.

Thanks to engineers of M B Gharpure & Co., engineer Mr. Prabhakar Bhalerao

who helped the author in construction as well as design. Some of the
chapters in the book are thoroughly revised and checked by Prof. Suhasini
Madhekar, CoEP; and Mr. Madhukar Kale. Entire write-up and drawings are
compiled by Mr. Mohan Johari. My thanks are due to them.

Mr. Sudheer Kulkarni is an eminent engineer in U.S.A. in bridge engineering.

He has based on his wide experience compiled written an excellent book in
Marathi ‘Katha Jagprasidha Pulanchya’. In this book, about 12 bridges
throughout world are selected and described with sketches. This author
rightfully appreciates his work.

It is rightfully acknowledged that family members – Mrs. Suneeta and others

greatly encouraged to write this book.
 CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No

1 Initial Overview 5 - 16

2 Loads and Specifications, 17 - 21

Normal Cross Sections

3 RCC Bridges 22 – 25

4 Prestressed Bridges 26 - 32

5 Substructure, Multiple Units 33 - 40

For Long Spans

6 Miscellaneous Points in 41 – 43
Bridge Engineering
 CHAPTER 1

INITIAL OVERVIEW
PROPOSAL
The proposal is to compile observations, the author has made over the years in
the field of bridge engineering. In fact the author himself has come across quite a
few points, which are found unusual and worth noting. These may not be
available in standard textbooks. The readers to these notes are either practicing
fresh engineers or engineering college pre-final year students. It is necessary that
there is at least one site visit to understand bridge construction. Retaining walls or
footings, foundations can be seen to get a thorough idea.

The notes are divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 is a general introduction. It
covers broadly all types of bridges. Chapter 2 is for design and specifications.
Chapters 3 and 4 are for RCC and prestressed concrete respectively. Chapter 5 is
on piers, foundations, retaining wall etc. Multiple bridge projects are also
included. Chapter 6 covers miscellaneous points.

The contents of these notes are quite different from the contents of a standard
bridge engineering text book. This chapter 1 covers the basic introduction to
bridge engineering. It states points like age of a bridge. Once the site of a bridge is
proposed, the situation may be treated differently. Some want it as single span or
2 span or a 3 span bridge!

The full list of concerned professionals need be explained. Components of a

general bridge should be stated. Arch bridges, cable suspension and cable stayed
bridges form separate categories. Tenders, invitations, B.O.T.s (Build, Operate
and Transfer) are explained.

Subsequent chapters furnish details of RCC ,prestressed bridges, loading

standards and specifications. It is felt that engineers should hereafter follow
international standards. Our engineers are serving in the whole world.

1.1 INITIAL
ANNOUNCEMENT TO INAUGURATION OF A BRIDGE - AN
INTERESTING SET OF UNIMAGINABLE EPISODES

Quite often announcement of a bridge proposal is made and it takes lot of

time, involves many changes when the bridge comes into reality. The events from
declaration to inauguration of a bridge are very interesting and be noted by the
engineering community. There are several unimaginable episodes. To some extent
these are brought out in this book.
1.1.1 A Fictitious Proposal

To understand better an example is taken; it is the proposal of design and

construction of 2 x 30m span Concrete Road bridge for Indian conditions. At this
proposal stage decision about choice of RCC bridge could be made.

30 M 30 M

2 SPAN CONTINUOUS BRIDGE

SINGLE SPAN 60 M BRIDGE

20 M 20 M 20 M

3 × 20M = 60M BRIDGE

Figure 1.1 : Various Span Possibilities

Proposal for a bridge is put forth and the constructor /mostly contractor has to
do a lot of study to prepare initial data.
Let us take following values arbitrarily. The road widths may be one lane each
for two-way bridge with foot paths and hand rails.
Indian Road Congress and BIS Codes [Bureau of Indian Standards] are
applicable. We see later why we should widen vision to note about International
standards.

1.1.2 Superstructures, Substructures as Dead Loads

The components of a bridge broadly are superstructure - the portion above the
bearings and substructure the portion below bearings. Bearings may come under
substructure.
Under heading superstructure are : Under dead load self weight of bridge
lanes is one part. Hand rails, traffic lights etc are also additional dead loads.
Overhangs of bridges are also superstructure dead loads. Impact factor applies to
these loads.
Cables, water and sewage lines are often using bridge footpaths. These are
additional loads. These shouldn’t be taken footpaths and overhangs. These can be
from outer sides of footpaths or at pier bearing levels.
 SUPER FREE BOARD
ABUTMENT STRUCTURE

HHFL
BEARING
HFL
RETAINING
WALL PIER

Figure 1.2 : Components of a Bridge

Let us see dead loads first. Road slab [self weight] is the important dead load,
on which is moving vehicle load or live load. After road slab is laid, the other or
superstructure loads are placed.
The separation of self weight and dead loads of other category such as
handrail etc. should be understood, since it is essential to note it with prestressing
caused stresses in concrete with passage of time.
Bridge engineering companies and designers have often readily available
designs but in different style. Further the companies usually design the bridge
with available material-especially the formwork for the main girder. The
formwork available may be for superstructure, piers, foundations, for coffer dams,
etc.

DECK SLAB

8400

350
200

STEM
3000

275 CABLE (PSC)

OR
REINFORCEMENT

4500

SOFFIT 200

Figure1.3 Common Box Section

 In respect of cross section it is found that box section with ribs or stems 2, 3 in
number, bottom and top slabs[soffit and deck slabs] are a common feature . Box
section is a common choice. It has better torsional rigidity.

Here is a bridge of total 60m span with 30m each two adjacent spans [may not
be continuous]; central support on pillar 12 m total height [6m above LWL-lowest
water level] and totally resting on rocky foundation 500 mm below bed,
abutments on sides 6 m high , having 1 m below GL.

1.1.3 Thumb Rule

Which type of bridge – one span, two or three span be chosen is the
construction agency’s choice. There is one thumb rule commonly heard. For
optimum values it is stated: "Cost of superstructure is equal to the cost of
substructure". Choose accordingly!
This is quite practical but not a must!

1.1.4 Bridge Components

The basic components of a normal bridge are: Left and right abutments, piers,
foundations for abutments and piers. Left side is the one which is to the left, when
we view the bridge from upstream side to downstream side. This is a general
definition.
Embankments to abutments are required in case the bridge road level is quite
higher than approach roads. The retaining walls to the embankments are necessary
to protect it. Design and construction of retaining walls is carried out in
innovative ways.

1.1.5 Some Special Concrete Bridges in Urban Areas –Flyover Bridges

Books on bridges provide scanty information on flyovers. Due to extensive

traffic in urban areas, the use of traffic signals often creates traffic jam at road
crossings. Further bridges over railway lines are a must. These are over bridges
with perhaps steeper approaches. There are special class of mostly concrete or
steel bridges and called FLYOVER BRIDGES. What were road over bridges
earlier is in urban sense, these days are flyover bridges.
Flyovers have become utmost essential for intense traffic of metropolitan
areas. Thus initially for south Mumbai and later for greater Mumbai came spate of
flyovers. Some 55 flyover were proposed in 1975 and special designs were
adopted. These helped to mitigate the traffic intensities.
Bangaluru has perhaps set example of flyovers and also multiple flyovers and
often spread over larger area. These were similar to multiple flyovers in USA e.g.
those near San Francisco or New York. The concept widened considerably due to
steeper rise in use of vehicles.
To traverse long distances in a vehicle and have the smooth change of joining
other highways and streets is these day’s necessity. There is one condition. There
should not be any traffic signal to stop the traffic. Due to intense rise in vehicular
traffic such road facilities are being introduced.
 Multiple flyovers achieve their aims in eliminating traffic jams! Incidentally
the valuation of land plots and built-up structures in and neighborhood of such a
flyover bridge fluctuate greatly; once such fly over bridge is noted, some areas get
more convenience of traffic and prices of real estate rise! Multiple roads and
flyovers are common features for roads in U.S.A. However, in India, this becomes
costly affair. Hence, curvilinear passovers are avoided.

Figure 1.4 : Plan showing details of roads coming for the flyover.

Flyover bridges are by and large RCC bridges; the approaches to fly over
could be a bit steep/steeper to fit in given space. Axle loads of vehicles play
important role in design. In USA, such flyovers are provided as curved bridges
one over the other. Hence, traffic disturbance is least.

1.1.6 Arch and Bowstring Bridges

Arch and bowstring bridges are compression member bridges. Arch ones are
common sites of old bridges. Bowstring ones have better architecture. Some of
the old arch bridges belong to pre-cement era and have hydraulic lime as a binder.
Keystone – the centre member stands balance of both sides.
 KEY
MURUM STONE
ARC FILL
H

SPRINGING
R

ABUTMENT

Figure 1.5 Masonry Arch Bridge

Figure 1.6 Steel Framed Arch Bridge

1.1.7 Steel Framed Bridges

Most commonly seen steel framed bridge is pedestrian crossing over main
roads in urban area. Usually, this is accompanied by a pair of steel staircase on
either side to reach the bridge level. The members usually provided are I-sections,
H-sections, T or angle sections and connections are achieved by bolts, rivets or by
welding.
Quite often the railway bridges of the early days, are made of steel frames. In
most of the workshops, steel framed bridges are found convenient to use. The
railways used for over hundred years, steel membered bridges and to do so a lot of
precaution in rust prevention was carried out.
 Figure 1.7 : A Steel Framed Bridge

The vehicles can pass through the deck of the bridge. They can also pass over
the top of the bridge. Such bridges are not uncommon in India. Where bridge
construction is costly in rivers like Ganga, steel bridges are found to be
convenient and the traffic through the deck and on top of the deck is a common
practice.

1.1.8 Cable Suspension Bridges

Cable suspension bridges have pair of cables, suspenders –wires and

supporting beams below to lift road slabs. Cables are in tension; it is thus tension
dominant bridge. For such cables the normal shape is catenary to bear the
suspenders’ load.
There are very tall piers and called as PYLONS! The pylons go above the
road slab and support cables at higher levels. The design is comparatively simpler
but depends on the pair of cables.
Cities like New York, San Francisco are known for the architectural beauty of
cable suspension bridges. Pylons are different from the piers and these receive the
loads from the main pair of cables. It is all tension in cable that wields the load.

Pylon Pylon
Suspenders

Deeply
anchored

Figure 1.8 : A Cable Suspension Bridge

For cable suspension bridges there are no intermediate anchorings - usually.

Cables are pulled at both extreme ends of the bridge and are deeply anchored in
the abutments. Cables lift the bridge through suspenders and pass the loads over
pylons and at end supports.

For small spans – say under 40m to 60m cable suspension bridges may not be
suitable or perhaps costly. When the crossings are over sea and large rivers,
intermediate piers and pier foundations are costly and take lot of time to construct.
Sea creeks, bay areas, estuaries are places where such bridges with minimum
piers [pylons] are to be used.
This will be clear if we refer to San Francisco bridge as entrance to Pacific.
Constructed in 1936 and around it is as if a symbol of magnificence. It is at the
bay area that runs from Berkeley at North to San Jose to the south.
Quite a few bridges joining New York are cable suspension bridges!
Comparatively these bridges do need large spans. These bridges would be dealt
with briefly subsequently.

1.1.9 Cable Stayed Bridge

These days around 2012 AD and two decades back the cable stayed bridges
are coming for large spans. The largest bridge on lands [not sea shores, creeks] is
in France. It is partly cable stayed and partly prestressed bridges. The pylons
come into pictures for supports. The bridge is around 12 km in length.

Pylon

Stays

Figure 1.9 : A Cable Stayed Bridge

1.2 AGE OF A BRIDGE

Age of bridge [for that matter of buildings] is an important parameter. Usually
this aspect of a bridge seems to be ignored. Reasons for it are little known. In that
case let us see what practice might be existing. Though not stated it is a common
belief, undeclared, that life of a building is 50 years. Same may be the life of a
bridge- 50 years!
This observer has found that bridges are as much as 110 years old! Some
repairs do occur! Use of a very old bridge continues to be made - may be at
reduced speed!
A reputed bridge engineer has once said that there is no sudden collapse of a
bridge! Minor repairs do continue. Hence ‘age’ is not important!!

On the background of so many developments in construction such a statement

seems to be not a comfortable way to qualify!
1.3 GUIDANCE FROM LITERATURE/DESIGN OF TIME
TESTED BRIDGES OF YESTER YEARS BRIDGE
COMPANIES
Documentation of a bridge must be well maintained. For each bridge such a
record is a must! Inspection and study of bridges in a city or a region are very
vital and essential. Today Compact Disc is the best way to store/save.
Not merely construction drawings but also during the life of a bridge several
episodes-major accidents, cracks, growth of plants may occur. Maintenance be
recorded.
Engineering colleges may contact and access help these renowned contractors
to take on CDs the drawings and designs of time tested bridges. Sometimes a
bridge design runs 100 pages each for superstructure and substructure. A very
renowned bridge company has about 100 bridges. These are packed into a packet
for each .Such packs, bound in cloth and tied with a string are occupying a lot of
space in office. Superstructure write up runs in 200 pages and the substructure has
the same number of Xeroxed pages!
This is for one bridge! How about other dozens of bridges! Funny point is
how to refer back say after 10-15 years! It is such a voluminous and tedious job!

1.3.1 Use of CD

If reference to any bridge or its design is required, it becomes a tedious, when

CD is not used; it is to pull the right pack and to search for the right section. CD is
the current solution.

1.3.2 Study of Bridges in a City

For a particular city municipal corporation such a study revealed that some 12
existing bridges are ‘unsafe’; the state of other dozens was not good! Minor
cracks to piers, abutments to road surfaces are often seen!
Growth of plants and algae is a common site; it remains unattended! This is
how well documentation is useful to improve the condition of a new or an old
bridge.

1.4 Tenders, Invitations, B.O.T.

It is all a government procedure. Tenders are invited. Newspapers display the
tender notices. It is expected that there would be keen competition to get good
quality work done with minimum expenditure than expected, estimated. Further
this is within declared time slot.
It is not that smooth! Often instead of tenders the proposer or the owner
[usually government] has to request for proposal! Contractors are not ready to
quote a tender. Also contractor wants some conditions to be relaxed or fulfilled!
Hence invitation with readiness for some changes is necessary.
1.4.1 B.O.T.

These days there is all discussion about BOT-build, operate and transfer back
owner-govt or semi-government usually. This may be one or many bridges, one
dam, roadways or all this together. It is a novel idea. Less botheration for owner-
mostly govt.
Let contractor design and construct as per specifications ;operate the work
done and hand it over to the owner – govt and receive the payment! Less office
work or design planning for govt departments. This idea is being implemented by
owner/govt at few places. Since the concept is new let us note an example.
Maharashtra state government has entered into agreement for such a BOT. It is for
constructing a road, cum metro rail, including tunnels, railway stations, fly-over
bridges in Mumbai - between Varsova to Wadala railway stations. A voluminous
and complicated work! The existing road traffic is not to be disturbed.
Possibly it is a unique experiment to be watched. It is a unique BOT!
Vigilance is not to be compromised. Designer, Project Management consultants,
subcontractors and labour gangs etc – all are controlled by BOT contractor.

1.5 AGENCIES INVOLVED

Following agencies or services are involved in bridge engineering.

1.5.1 Proposer-Owner Govt/Semi-Govt

Here is the bridge proposer- mostly govt owns land, the authority. It may be
state govt or central [Federal in USA] govt or municipal – and other semi govt
authorities.
Sometimes bridge is proposed by state govt ; there is a hold or rights issue of
the central govt. Thus e.g. defence department owns the access road to the bridge!
Its permission norms are different!

1.5.2 The Designer

The designer of the bridge prepares the design/calculations work and prepares
the drawings. His word about concreting, reinforcement, tendons etc is to be
followed and is final.

1.5.3 Project Management Consultant

Project Management Consultant [PMC] is these days [since last 15 years] an

important player in construction. The work becomes unwieldy; PMC helps to
systematize the scheme.
For RCC this is stated and well understood. For prerstressing there is a change
of forces at every phase and stage. It is true even for single span prestressed
concrete bridge!
1.5.4 The Constructor [Contractor]

Contractor is the prime agency to carry out the construction. In general

available resources – men material and machinery govern choice of continuous or
other states.
For bridge proposer – usually a govt agency this choice of spans is not a
design criterion.

1.6 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

Maintenance and repairs – M & R is the most important aspect in bridge
engineering. Though important its fund utilization is very poor. ‘We have limited
funds’ is a common reply.
‘Our funds are not for major works’ is a good answer.
NEGLECTED M&R
In general M&R [maintenance and repairs] whether in India or in USA is not
that vigilantly attended, though budget provisions are made.

1.7 MINIMUM HEIGHT OF BRIDGE BOTTOM

What should be minimum height of bridge superstructure bottom over the
road it is crossing? Often when traversing in a car we notice that there is a board
on the over-bridge bottom that says 15ft or 14ft etc. This is essential since vehicle
may be overloaded truck that will dash against the bottom of the over-bridge.
This minimum height is 14ft! This must be noted that the height is over road
surface after asphalting etc. Further this is not applicable to the footpaths,
alongside which are invariably higher say 4" (100 mm) above road surface. In
overtaking traffic on road below the bridge the trucks or buses often overtake the
vehicle on footpath and their vehicle may hit against the bottom of bridge deck
above. To write the height in bold letters is a safer way to caution the vehicles.

1.8 LAUNCHING OF BRIDGES

Konkan Railway has in its construction come across a gorge which was too
deep [over 150 ft deep] near Ratnagiri section. To construct the bridge deck the
scaffolding and formwork over such a depth was very difficult. As an alternative
it was proposed to launch the bridge from one end and rest it on the pier, already
constructed. That was unique launching and it worked well. In deep gorges such a
technique-launching bridge from one end is suitable.
Launching span is like a moving cantilever with road slab built on it
advancing -reaching to rest on the nearest support. The bridge advance has to be
designed accordingly.
Mr Noori of Shirish Patel Associates, Mumbai has helped Konkan Railway
construction authorities in this design and implementation. It is worth visiting this
launched section and observe how this deep gorge is covered and bridge erected!
CoEP Alumni Association has felicitated Mr. Noori for this and other works by
citing S.B. JOSHI ANNUAL AWARD.
1.9 COFFER DAMS
For works in water or slush areas, foundations and even piers do need working
for construction by erecting temporary coffer dams around and pumping out
water, slush etc. The construction work is carried to the required height and depth
within the coffer dam and after work within is complete, the coffer dam is
removed.

Quite often coffer dams to pier footings, low level of piers are retained,
believing that they add to strength and safety of piers! Coffer dams are made of
wire meshes impregnated with weak cement mortar. Pumping out within coffer
dam should be carried out with ease. The coffer dam is what a site engineer erects
to suit his ideas and available material.
 CHAPTER 2

LOADS AND SPECIFICATIONS,

NORMAL CROSS SECTIONS

In this chapter, we include loads, specifications, cross sections of bridges. We

avoid to repeat specifications; we only highlight the points that need different
considerations. Excellent work is compiled by Indian Road Congress in its IRC-6-
2014; it is the Section II - Loads and Stresses under STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS AND CODE OF PRACTICE FOR ROAD BRIDGES. IRC-
6-2014, Section II comprises of loads and stresses and very exhaustively describes
aspects such as vibrations, load factor, impact, rolling stock, wind loads, drag
coefficients, horizontal forces due to water currents, longitudinal forces,
centrifugal forces, buoyancy, temperature variations, erection spaces, construction
loads, seismic responses, snow loads and barge impacts. Combination of loads for
limit state design is fully covered. But, all these considerations cannot be included
in the current Notes on Bridges.

2.1 VIBRATIONS

We draw attention to some other points. The first is based on the lessons learnt
from an English Movie: ‘BRIDGE ON RIVER QUAI’. It is shown that when army
walks over the road bridge, it doesn’t follow MARCHING action - all at a time
following LEFT-RIGHT! It is a common belief that if steps of all jawans - all
soldiers are simultaneously coming on the bridge, it may resonate and may
collapse! In the movie, it is perhaps wooden planks, are used as bridge on steel
frames. Spans are small!
Apart from the bridge details, the lesson of the movie to be drawn is unique;
avoid resonance of the bridge even in the ordinary foot-walk! For vehicles some
more care has to be taken. Such a precaution need be stated on bridge sites, may
be by limiting speed of vehicles.
Especially for long span cable suspension bridges such oscillations or
vibrations are felt by pedestrians and also by small car travelers! Some bridges in
Scotland are such that oscillations/vibrations are felt.
It is not that bridges would come down! But it is desirable to minimize these
vibrations. In quite a few bridges – more so with steel bridges, such vibrations are
felt. This needs more attention.

2.2 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

Since bridges are bridges; whether constructed in India, USA or Timbukhtoo,

how about international standards? Indian engineers do work in all parts of the
world. They are required to follow American or international standards.
 In these days email has neared all distances in email dispatch time. Indian
Engineers be encouraged to follow international standards; if it to be done step by
step, start with AASHTO - American standards. Let us not embrace it completely;
let us be in readiness to access it. In concrete, there are international standards. It is
good that side by side with Indian codes these be kept on our CD or even on main
hard disc!
In general dynamic analysis is carried out in tunnels! The results need be
stated explicitly; remedial measures are to be built right in construction.

2.3 VEHICLE AND OTHER LOADS WITH DEAD AND

SUPERIMPOSED LOADS
IRC Section II-IRC 6-2014 is an all inclusive document on loads and stresses.
It furnishes all information of vehicle loads, impact factors, earthquake loads. For
designer and bridge engineer 70R is a commonly required load system. This with
Class A loading or Class AA is valid in urban area. Class B load is for timber
members.
Yet other load worth noting is pilgrimage load. For few bridges the design
was started with 70R load. However it turned out that pilgrimage load is heavier;
causes more load and stresses on the bridge.
In the bridge design there are checks on load equilibrium. Bending stresses
checks are equally important. Besides longitudinal checks , these days transverse
checks are insisted on. These checks are a bit tedious and do borrow coefficients from
text books.

2.4 LIST OF VARIOUS LOADS

IRC 6-2014 furnishes a long list of such loads. These are 19 in number. Some
of these are: snow loads; impact factor for vehicular loads, vehicle collision load,
impact factor due to vehicles moving, centrifugal loads, wind load, water currents,
earth pressure, temperature effects, deformation effects, secondary effects etc.
This list is quite exhaustive.
Some load combinations need be made as per requirements. Thus in
Maharashtra or in general Non-Himalayan region, ‘snow load’ is non-existent!
We do not consider snow load in Maharashtra. Local requirement is to be studied
and used.

2.5 DETAILS OF 70R LOADING

70R loading is of two types. One is a wheel train and the other is TRACK
load. Track load is usually – military tanks . 70R wheel loads are as follows:

2.5.1 Tracked Vehicles

Please see fig. 2.1

udl total 70 t
Length 4570 mm
Max Nose to tail length 7920 mm
Width of track 840 mm
 TRACKED VEHICLES Width Width
Class of track over track
70 t

70R 4570
840 2900
Tracked Nose to tail
Length 7920

Max. Max.
Single axle Bogie
FOUR WHEELERS load load

100 t 20 t 40 t
8.0 12.0 12.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 20.0 20.0
810 3980 1520 2130 1370 3050 1370 910
1220
1220 1830 1830

70R WHEEL LOADS

 Width over track 2900 mm

2.5.2 Wheel Loads

Wheel loads are stated as in IRC 6-2014 appendix. These are: – first distance
in mm and next wheel load in t.

610mm-8t-3980mm-12t-1520mm-12t-2130mm-17t--1370mm -
17t-3050mm-17t-1370mm-17t-910mm
Max single load 20t over 1220mm;
Max Bogie load on two wheels 40 t with distances 1830mm-1220mm
[wheels] - 1830mm

This could be shown by sketches. Students should work out these figures into
regular sketches. Total value of wheel loads is : 100t [ not 70t !]. These values are
further to be multiplied by vehicle impact factors. There are other wheel load trains
such as Class A and AA, Class B [for timber frames], 5R, 9R, 18R, 24R, 30R,
40R, 50R, 60R.

2.5.3 70R Loads

Since 70R load is so common, it is necessary that we learn more about it.
Total length is 14840 mm. This means spans less than 15m may not be covered by
the wheel loads. Wheel loads are 7 in number. There are 7 wheels. Four are 17 t
coming one after another; two loads are 12 t and one of 8 t at engine level. Axle
load of 20t is noteworthy for fly over bridges .

2.6 PRACTICE FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS

It is good that practice using 70R loads is carried out in engineering college class
rooms. That may help firm understanding loads on simply supported spans say 20m
onwards with 5 m step to 40 m spans.

2.7 DENSITIES OF MATERIALS

Under clause 203 note 6 list of engineering material and their densities in t/m3
are tabulated. This is very useful information. However, it is suggested that it is
better to find the densities locally. Particularly in case of prestressed concrete,
these densities are crucial. Dead weight calculations should be precise;
accordingly the cable location and number has to be provided.
Here we note that densities of concrete - Items 12 to 15 it is shown as
2.5 t/m3. In Maharashtra the aggregate used is dense basalt; usually the densities
of concrete or RCC, made from such aggregates are around 2.6 t/m3! In fact it
may be more-say 2.62 especially of RCC or concrete with M40 upwards.
 This is different - higher than 2.5 t/m3!. In terms dead weight of material -
concrete; this means increase of self weight - dead weight say by 4 %!!
Hence what IRC 6-2014 says is a broad way of classification. The best way to
come out is to find density. Already 150 mm cubes [ 6" ] are being used; the
weight of the cubes, when taken out of the mould need be weighed. Design
procedure may go ahead with 2.6 t/ m3 as density or whatever has come out in
previous tests.

2.8 DESIGN PROCEDURE

There is a lot of change in the design procedure. Let us take 70R Load train.
Let us say it is 25 m simply supported span. We have to calculate BM and SF at
intervals of L=0. 0.1L span, 0.2L span, 0.3Lspan. 0.4L span and at 0.5 L span.
The other half span values of BM and SF are simply repeated, because of
symmetry.
At these points max value of BM and SF in tm and t are computed and
tabulated. The stresses in the beams in concrete [including reinforcement and
prestressing cables-ignoring their role in BM/SF] are computed. BM may be
sagging or hogging. Accordingly reinforcement or cable tensions are designed .
A decade back and due to advance in accessing computer, transverse section
stresses are being asked by the Govt. Mostly these are satisfied, process is lengthy
and coefficients are to be quoted from tables.
 CHAPTER 3

RCC BRIDGES

It is proper to show highlights in RCC bridges on the background information

of earlier chapters.

3.1 CONCRETE BRIDGE DETAILING

Let us as an example take a 25 m span RCC bridge, simply supported and

having the dimension of earlier viz. box section of depth 2900 mm, road width of
8400mm and soffit of 4500 mm etc.

3.2 DIAPHRAGMS

Usually these long bridge lengths should have diaphragms of RCC at 0.25L,
0.5L and 0.75L. That helps to stiffen the main road deck slab.

3.3 SUPPORT CONCENTRATION AND SHEAR STIFENERS

At supports is the termination of quite a few reinforcement bars that may be at

bottom or at top etc. This is a case of end concentration of forces, that may prevail
for a length about 1.5 times the depth. In this area it is necessary to provide 4
legged stirrups of 10 mm dia at 175 mm c/c.

3.4 STRESS VALUES AT 0.1L INTERVALS FOR ARRIVING

AT REINFORCEMENT DETAILS
Minimum grade of concrete for bridges is M 25 but desirable is M40. To
provide reinforcement for a M40 grade concrete one should find state of stress for
various types of loads and combinations. Most common is self weight or road
slab, dead load with impact factor for superimposed dead load and 70R IRC
loads.
The checking points here are : 0.0L, 0.1L, 0.2L , 0.3L, 0.4L and at 0.5L .
Thereafter the pattern can take values by symmetry. For superstructure load [not
self weight] there is an impact factor as per clause 211.2[i]. It is better for our
understanding that there is no impact factor for self weight of road slab.
 Retaining
End Section Shear
wall reinforcement
Main reinforcement

SPAN

Pier
Fig. 3.1 : Simply Supported RC Beam

It is good as a learning practice to take 15 t/m as the dead load. This is slightly
on higher side.

3.5 PROPERTIES CROSS SECTION

Again for avoiding over micro detailing in this write up the cross section is
maintained same throughout. Once bending moments are known, it should be
possible to design reinforcement, noting that concrete doesn’t take tension.
Thus area of steel required is checked at every 0.1L interval for maximum
bending moment value due to rolling loads on the bridge.

3.6 WHEELLOADS AND TRACKED LOADS

Tracked load is 70 t on a length of 4570mm; to get maximum of value of

bending moment [or even shear force] the tracked loads could be placed at the
given point – say 0.4L or 0.5L as the case may be symmetrically.
For wheeled load trains the procedure is complicated. First the c.g. of the
wheel train that rolls over the bridge is located. To get maximum B.M. from the
train [ of total 100 t loads ], the wheel which is near the CG should be on the
given say 0.4L or 0.5L etc. This is a bit tedious procedure but a must.
The required load combinations DL + LL etc. are to be worked out.

3.7 THE SPAN LIMIT

It is not that increase in depth would be a must for spans say 25 m or more;
thereafter i.e. for longer than 25m span, it is better to switch over to prestressed
concrete (PSC) and create opposite type of bending moments! Wherever there is
tension, we create compression using prestressing cables. Thus if it is sagging
moment due to loads, cable creates compression at the bottom; if it is hogging
moment, tension in beam is at top, hence prestressing cable group creates
compression at top! Anyway the limit is around 25 m to 30m; upto that limit is
RCC and beyond that it is PSC. Perhaps if it is possible additional piers could be
constructed and small spans created.
Thus 20 x 4 = 80m means three piers. 2 x 40 = 80m means one pier! Span
being large we go in for PSC beam.

3.8 REINFORCEMENT OF 32mm DIA OR MORE IN SIZE

Min and max dia of reinforcement could be 8mm and 40mm. It is sometimes
that designer has chosen 32 mm steel; in the market however it is not available!
What to do on such occasions?
One way is either delay the work, wait and place the order that suits the
revised time table! Else go for available smaller diameter and if required increase
the beam depth! All this is a case of site experience and it is quite interesting.

3.9 GROWING MATERIAL PRICES

It is essential that all the above considerations also include the

current material prices. Cement prices are no more under Rs 325/-per bag of 50
kg. Normal reinforcement bars are 8, 10 and 12 dia and these are over or around
Rs40,000 per tonne.
Engineering labour at remote sites is not less than Rs 500/- per day and that
with free residence and free food facility. Scarcity of labour is a common
complaint in states like Maharashtra, Gujarath, etc. Earlier labour from Bihar or
Bangladesh was available. But there is uncertainty!
All this needs full consideration and greatly affects the costs.

3.10 CODE PROVISIONS - IRC 21-2000 AND OTHER CODES

IS 456-2000 is most common in India for concrete. In case of emergency it

could be relied upon. It is published by Bureau of Indian Standards. It means
every Civil Engineer should note its latest version. For roads however, IRC 21-
2000 released by IRC –Indian Road Congress is available. Quite a few interesting
details are included in it.
The engineers should have minimum knowledge of this code. Here are
presented very few clauses of the above IRC 21. Under Clause 304.3 the cover-
CLEAR is 40 mm. Reinforcement grades are Fe500 most common; Fe415 and
Fe240 are not in use and not available in market. Lap splice lengths are well
defined.[314.6.6.2]. Minimum reinforcement in beams, slabs and columns should
be noted.
The engineer should study such specifications whenever some project is to be
studied.
3.11 DEFLECTION CRITERION

Normally deflection of a bridge should be verified for satisfying the

requirement that deflection/span is less than 1/300! This check is necessary for
worst combination of loads. This condition may not apply for prestressed concrete
bridges. Here the load caused deflection is counterbalanced by prestressing force
with designed eccentricity.
 CHAPTER 4

PRESTRESSED BRIDGES

MAIN THEME
The main theme of this chapter is to introduce to prestressed concrete bridges
in a general way. Detailed calculations may not be possible to include. Span is
simply supported beam over 25m to say 46m. The whole idea is to acquaint with
the bridge details.

4.1 OVERVIEW – A PLACE OF PRIDE FOR INDIAN

ENGINEERS
In 1939 Freyssinet in France and Leonhart in Germany developed theory and
suitable practical gadgets for prestressing a post tensioned beam. Post tensioned
means concrete is well set and has minimum 21 days strength. They could
convince engineering world that long span could be handled by this technique.
Around the same time respected late S.B. Joshi grasped how prestressing force
could be created by cables of strands, those could be pulled at ends and anchored
in the beams. By 1953 S. B. Joshi constructed a prestressed bridge in India!
In India, Freyssinet Prestressed Company at Mumbai is carrying out
indigenously; it has developed Freyssinet system for Indian conditions. Over the
years it has successfully developed and implanted the technique for several
prestressed bridges. The gadget and know-how is thus fully developed.
For cable stayed bridge as well, stays connect segments of box sections to the
pylon tops. This is again a Freyssinet system development, with some difference.
Currently engineer Mr. P. Y. Manjure is the chief engineer of that company; the
company has carried out works at various places in India and abroad. Mr.
Manjure is also invited by Indian Road Congress in preparing the codes and
specifications. It is good to extend him invitation for lectures and demonstrations
to understand importance of prestressed concrete technique.

4.2 SOME DATA

The data of the superstructure of a prestressed constructed work of a bridge is
borrowed from a private company and runs as follows.
It is designed for 2 lanes of Class A or one lane of class 70R, whichever
produces severe effects. This is as per NIT – notice inviting tenders. End to end
span is 46 m and between bearings is 44.20 m. Deck width is 8.40 m and carriage
width is 7.50 m. Depth of girder is uniformly kept at 2.900m. Please see figure 1.3
repeated here and figure 4.1.
 DECK SLAB

8400

350
200

SIEM
275 CABLE (PSC)
OR REINFORCEMENT
3000

4500

SOFFIT 200

Figure1.3 (Repeated) : Common Box Section

The prestressed beam has cable in the form of strands covered in

sheaths. The location of cables is to create eccentricity and therefore
bending moment opposite to that due to load. There are two anchor
zones - left and right - each with plenty of shear rings. There is heavy
concentration of reaction at anchor zone supports. Besides cables, the
normal nominal reinforcement is also provided.
 Retaining
Shear
wall Anchor Section
reinforcement
Main cables

SPAN
Pier

Pl

=
AE
Cable Tension created
by elongating using
Fixed end pulling devices. Fixed end
anchor anchor for
for cables Pulling cables

Figure 4.1 : Sketch of a Prestressed Concrete

Simply Supported Beam Showing Cables and Anchor Zones

4.3 CODES
IS 1343 released by BIS and is all purpose useful for various prestressing
situations. However, IRC 18-2000 is the code that is exclusively for prestressed
concrete road bridges. Let us have a brief idea of IRC 18-2000.

4.4 BASIC ACTION – DUE TO FORCE AND LOCATION OF

CABLES
Basically prestressing cables, clad in foils or sheaths of aluminum and other
thin sheaths, are laid in such way that they, when pulled at ends of the beam
create compression in concrete around; further such compressive force may have
location away from c.g.of the concrete section; that creates moments in opposite
to the load caused the B.M.
 Thus at midspan the load causes sagging bending moment. Here the
prestressing cable creates HOGGING bending moment at this point-at midspan!
This action of hogging in place where sagging is due to loads is the whole idea of
cable, its force and location; it is kept with changing distance of cable from the
c.g. of concrete section. Over the support for a continuous beam there is
NEGATIVE moment at support. Here the cable location has to create
compression and bending opposite in nature!

4.5 ABOUT PRESTRESSING AND CABLES

Some info on prestressing is useful at this juncture.

4.5.1 Material

High tensile stress; low relaxation strands with: A] cross

sectional area of strand: 100 sqmm2
B] Young’s modulus of elasticity: 2x104 kg/cm2.
C] Ultimate tensile strength: 187 kg/cm2
Manufacturers produce certificate of these properties.

4.5.2 Anchorages

The anchorages are at supports and also at intermediate for part length cables-
usually around midspan.
A] For cables in ribs except spare cables…
12T13 system is in use for cables. It means there are 12 number of stands
and 13 is nominal diameter in millimetres. This yields approximately the area of
strand as 100 sqmm2. This is how strands of Freyssinet Prestressed Concrete
System work.
B] For short cables and spare cables… 7K13 and 6T13
C] Slip of anchorages for 12T13 is 6 mm
D] Slip of anchorages for 6T13 is 6 mm
E] Slip of anchorage for 7K13 is 6 mm

4.5.3 Sheathing

A] Bright metal sheathing

B] Internal dia for strands more than 7 : = 72ID

C] Internal dia for strands = 7 and < 7 : = 48ID

D] coefficient of friction [ ] 0.25/rad
E] coefficient of wobble [k] 0.0046/m
4.5.4 Permissible Stress

IRC 18-2000 permissible stress for jacking pressure in prestressing steel, is

90% of 0.1% proof stress. 0.1% proof stress is = 0.85% of ultimate tensile stress,
UTS. Hence
Jacking force[stress] = 0.9x0.85x187= 143.055 kg/ cm2

4.5.5 Losses in Prestressing FORCE summary

In the design of prestressing force in the cable that creates compression in a

beam with a calculated eccentricity, the losses in prestressing do occur. Over the
years engineers have well defined it and these are also accorded approval by the
codes - here IRC 18-2000. In this beam design the losses assumed and losses
permissible are stated below.
Elastic shortening both in steel and in concrete final values [calculations not
shown]: assumed 2.0%
[code allows 1.7 – this is on safer side].
Relaxation in steel is a phenomenon that needs explanation. Steel after having
being to put to continuous [we can’t call it eternal] tension, starts lengthening!
This is a case of experience; this value for long cables is assumed as 5%; code
insists on minimum 4.98%; for short cables the values are 6.60% minimum,
allowed being 6.12%.
Though not quoted, for concrete the shrinkage is 5.10%.

4.6 ANCHOR BLOCKS

Anchor blocks play vital role. Its concreting should be dense; NDT– non
destructive test be carried out to verify dense nature; any void is risky. Anchor
zones have at ends cable ending plates. Even here care has to be exercised to
ascertain tight holding.

4.7 MEASURED ELONGATION FROM BOTH ENDS

Elongation precedes the final end fixity position. Designed elongation is say
100 mm. The elongating pumps operate at both ends of the beam. It would be
50mm elongation from each of two ends. Pump at one end pulls say 10 mm; then
the pump at other end of this beam pulls additional 10mm. This is all human
labour work! A typical Indian way of shouting is done to state the elongation
carried out. This is an interesting action. The cable pulling pumps operate at
suitable intervals. In our country the gangs of workers do this pulling by shouting
and operating pumps! This ensures accurate elongation equally from both ends.
Best way to understand the pulling is by paying a site visit. Also these 12T13
system of strands being pulled should be shown to students.
4.8 GROUTING AFTER PULLING AND PLACING AT
PROPER DISTANCE
Cables are covered in sheaths; after pulling and placing cables at designed
eccentricity [with reference to c. g. of concrete] the sheathing be grouted on its
full length. All cables in sheath undergo this grouting.

4.9 SPARE CABLES

Over the years the designer has realized that sometimes a cable amongst a
group may get snapped or may not work at all. The bridge is yet to open for
traffic. It is here that spare cable may be brought in operation; this cable is pulled
at anchor places and grouted.

4.10 HOW TO CREATE PRESTRESSED FORCE WITH

REQUIRED ECCENTRICITY
The aim of prestressing is to create bending moment opposite to that of dead
load and live loads. Hence, eccentricity of tensioned cables is created. Cables
consist of strands. Cables are placed with sheathing around them and beam is
concreted. After concrete sets, cables are pulled from ends. One end is fixed and
the other end is pulling end. Use of wedges and anchoring pieces helps in pulling
as well as retaining the pull forever.
Bending moment diagram due to prestressing is opposite to the bending
moment diagram due to loads. There are two stages to consider.
1.4 Prestressing moments opposite to the dead load moment and
1.5 Prestressing moments due to DL + LL (dead load + live load). This is bit
difficult to achieve. Hence, prestressed + DL bending moment may create some
tension in concrete at top of midspan. Hence, this should be kept within limits.
Grade of concrete is usually M40 and that permits tension for a while. This is
because there is prestressing once for all. Usually, the losses in prestress need be
computed based on experience. The slip caused losses (about 6 - 9%) at
anchorages are well known. Also over the life of cables, this loss may go over 12
- 15%. These values are essentially practical experience oriented. Hence, one
should note them and compute with earlier experience.
Prestressing over continuous spans could also be achieved. Here the cables
run at midspan and also over the support. Over the support there is negative
bending moment. All these things are necessarily experience oriented.

4.11 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN PSC BRIDGES

It is unique that simply supported and continuous spans in prestressed
concrete needs vigilance at every stage. Initial prestressing and dead load at
prestressing is one combination. Next is prestressed after initial losses plus dead
load at that time is one more combination that is to be checked for either no
tensile stresses in concrete or to some extent permissible low value tensile
stresses. Next phase is prestressing after all losses and dead load plus live loads
(e.g. 70R). These various stages should be known both to the designer as well as
to the construction engineer at site. This means there should be thick rapo
between design engineer and construction site engineer. Snapping of cables
should never take place during prestressing or else extra cables need be provided
in the initial design and construction.
 CHAPTER 5

SUBSTRUCTURE, MULTIPLE UNITS

FOR LONG SPANS

Chapter 5 deals with substructure of bridges. It also covers multiple bridge

units for long spans, creeks/bays. Please see figure 1.2 (repeated) and figure 5.2. It
also shows how multiple bridge units are taken where in RCC, prestressed and
long span cable stayed bridges are included. In India at Mumbai through Bandra –
Worli unit is a recently constructed multiple bridge unit.

ABUTMENT
SUPER FREE BOARD
STRUCTURE

BEARING HHFL
HFL
RETAINING
WALL PIER

Figure 5.1 (fig. 1.2 repeated) : Components of a Bridge

5.1 SUBSTRUCTURE

Substructure of a bridge consists of bearings, piers, abutments [and its

retaining walls] and foundations. Figure 5.2 shows cross-section of a pier from
road top to bottom of foundation.
 BOX SECTION 150.00

(TBM)
STIFFENER

PTFE
BEARINGS
PIER CAP 147.00

PIER 3500 - 4200 144.00

OUTER DIA

PIER
BRACES

PIER 132.00
FOOTING
300

Figure 5.2 : Pier section from road top to bottom of

foundation
5.2 BEARINGS

Bearings receive the loads and transmit to the piers or abutments. Here only
elastomeric bearings are introduced. Recent practice is the use of elastomeric
bearings. In comparison to earlier day metallic bearings these elastomeric
bearings are very convenient, cheaper and offer ease of maintenance and
replacement. These are polymeric bearings. Neoprene polymeric bearings are
already installed with success to quite a few bridges. These are antioxidants and
antiozonants. Pad and pot neoprene bearings are commonly employed. In
elastomer pad bearings layers of elastomer and steel laminates are placed one over
the other. Three or more layered pairs of elastomer steel laminates are laid. IRC
1076 be followed. Plan area of laminates should be adequate so that average
normal stress is less than permissible contact pressure of the concrete structure.
The ratio of overall length to breadth be equal to or less than 2. Total elastomer
thickness should be less than one-fifth to one-tenth of the overall breadth of the
bearing. It should be strong enough to resist strain due to horizontal loads /
movements due to creep, shrinkage and temperature effects.
The students and interested fresh engineers should see these elastomer –
called Neoprene bearings. It is a big departure from early day metallic bearings.

PTFE bearings are recently developed.

Earlier day there used to be roller below say one support and the other had
hinged support. But PTFE bearings can with modifications have rocker and also
roller with due modifications.
Mr Vijay P. Deshpande an intelligent engineer has since 1989 developed
various sizes and shapes of such PTFE bearings. Maharashtra and Gujarat state
and central government bridge engineering authorities have approved these.
Bridges in Maharashtra, Gujarath and other states have since 1997 or so used the
PTFE [trade name] bearing. Here we append only relevant type of the bearing.
Fixed and Free/Sliding Pot Bearings are available to support loads upto 1200
Tonnes. Fix Pots can permit rotations upto 0.02 radians about any axis, but no
translational movement. However, Sliding Pots can offer rotations as well as
sliding/translation in any direction. Constraints can be provided to restrict
movement in a particular direction.
The manufacturer’s address is as follows : Mr.
Vijay P.Deshpande
Tefcon Bearings Pvt. Ltd.
24, Padmadarshan Society, Behind Rawat Showroom Satara
road, Pune 411009

BOTTO
CENTRE M
PLATE POT

DIMPLE
LIFE S.S.
SHEET

TOP PLATE

FREE / SLIDING POT

FIXED POT

Figure 5.3 : PTFE Bearings

5.3 ABUTMENTS, PIERS

Abutments and piers are important. Piers are required for two or more spans.
Piers as a vertical wall [often widening] with water facing conical edges are a
normal practice of yesteryears. Circular ring type piers are also a common
practice. Equilibriums of forces and moments are important points in design.
Stabilizing moments should be more than overturning moments. This is to be
ensured for various combinations of forces. This is further to be checked or
established at various levels from foundation to bearings.
There are various combinations of situations. Winds may be at 70 km per hr!
There may be earthquake; there could be one span dislodged condition. Self-
weight of a road slab with footpaths etc may be around 15 t/m including impact
factors. This information is useful to rough estimation of forces, moments on
foundations.
Pier foundations are to be checked for no tension development. Middle third
rule is applicable. Height is a local variable. Few sketches of piers, especially
pylons and foundations are enclosed. With 40 t/m2 safe bearing pressure, the
footing area need be 10 m2/length is fixed.
Reaching the load to the bottom of foundation at last is achieved by
substructure. Below the foundation is the mother earth!
A number of points arise! Is it loose earth? Is it in marshy land only at bottom
layers? Is it reclaimed land of Mumbai or coastal area or slushy area? It is all
uncertain!
This means enough safety precautions should be taken. Trial pits are a definite
way to guess some certainty.
Foundation is as such a very vast and complex field. It is driving piles, wells
to dig the soil, and allied problems. Under-reamed piles are quite different… not
suitable for bridges!

5.4 RETAINING WALLS BEHIND ABUTMENTS

In retaining walls some new developments are noticed. Normally it is a wall-

in rubble masonry or in concrete. New method is developed in which concrete
thin walls [Padadis] are constructed slant as required for side slope and its top end
is spread on the backfill. Under the further earth-fill it gets stability. Such few
retaining wall segments could be placed to reach top bridge surface.
As such it is better briefly to show in a simple figure. Please see figure 5.2
shows cross section of a bridge pier from top road slab, box section, bearings, pier
cap. Further it shows hollow circular pier, pier foundation and rock on which it
rests. It is a 12 m high of pier. At intermediate levels are braces.
5.5 MULTIPLE SETS OF BRIDGES TO CROSS LONGER
OPENINGS
The next part of the chapter is multiple sets of bridges to cross longer
openings. This is current trend. RCC, prestressed and long span bridges are
altogether considered as multi bridge projects.

5.6 ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE IN USA, CHINA AND

EUROPE
A country should have excellent infrastructure. It was Germany in forties and
sixties of last century that infrastructure developments got importance; roads are
arteries of the nation and are must; roads are called AUTOBAHN in Germany;
these should be laid on major routes of the country. These are same as present day
express ways in India. In sixties of last century, USA undertook construction of
express ways and related works. Bridges, small or large are a must to overcome
traffic congestions. Number of bridges and flyovers were constructed to join
harbours, creek areas. A suitable combination of cable-suspension, cable stayed
bridge, arches –load on top or below arch line- were built in such bridges in –
multiple and concrete – RCC or prestressed bridge used to plug intermediate gaps
between cable/arch long span bridges.
Multiple bridge units is thus a normal way especially to bridge long sea
creeks, near prime urban areas.
It is believed that in the world multiple bridge systems of transport have
helped the relevant countries. Very roughly in the world there are 6 such giant
bridge-multiples in Asia [ 1 in India and 5 in China], 3 in North America and 3 in
Europe. Mr. Sudheer Kulkarni CoEP settled in USA has written a nice book in
Marathi entitled 'KATHA JAG-PRASIDDH PULANCHYA' [Granthali, Mumbai
400 028].
China in nineties of last decade made rapid strides and planned and succeeded
in such multiple bridges on its very wide rivers and sea creeks. India also took
such an initiative. Even today such schemes are being completed in India and
these are a great step in avoiding traffic congestions. Norway has to its credit the
long northern series of scattered islands; these islands are being joined for few
decades by multiple sets of bridge projects. Europe particularly Sweden and
Denmark undertook see creek bridges that joined them by roads- Highways.
These were all innovative and needed billions of Dollars. It took lot of planning,
several changes in plans, designs and laborious work for 10 or more years.

5.7 BANDRA-WORLI SEA BRIDGE

Roads belong to govt departments and so bridge construction costing billions

of Rupees are funded by govt to spend. Companies in India like HCC- Hindustan
Construction were invited by state governments. Bandra-Worli sea bridge is
example of multi-bridge project recently completed by Maharashtra State
government and this has to be appreciated since it is unique in India.
 The plans of such huge multi bridge schemes ran through several difficulties-
many changes.

Figure 5.4 : Worli Bridge Tower

Figure 5.5 : Bandra Bridge Tower

Symbol of Mumbai was for decades GATEWAY OF INDIA. The Bandra-

Worli sea creek has taken over these days as SIGNATURE of Mumbai; Mumbai
would be shown symbolically by this multiple bridge project!! Please see fig. 5.4
and 5.5.
Few salient points of the multi-bridge project are as follows. The road width is
minimum 18.1 m and is more on the cable stayed sections. Civil engineering
students and also practicing engineers should make it a point to seek permission
and visit the bridge mega-project.
 It has a total length of 4.7 km of which 4.2 km is over the sea! Its construction was started
in the year 2000 AD and was completed in the year 2010 AD incurring expenses to the tune of
Rs 1634 crores! There are two cable stayed bridges- one on the Bandra side that is 600m long
and the pylon tower height 125 m; the Worli side cable stayed bridge is 350 m long.
These cable stayed bridges add to the architectural grandeur of the city. This is unique
feature of mega-bridge! It is a pylon on which cables are tied down at vertical lengths; the other
end of the cable is welded to the road platform edges. Cable diameter is 80 mm, each
containing 7 galvanized HTS wires. These cables stretch and transfer the load to the pylon at
successive higher levels! Minimum cable length is 85 m and maximum is 250 m.
It is worth studying this new concept - tying cables to pylons at one end and pulling the box
girder on the other end. It is good to learn this technique. In the years to come this way of
pulling the cable – cable stayed would be common for long span projects. Fig 5.4 and 5.5 show
briefly the concept; it looks so nice that it tempts one to visit the bridge and travel over the
bridge.
It is noted that initially foreign engineering Experts prepared the primary scheme. There
were changes made. Fishermen wanted more length – not 50 m say on Worli side; few flyovers
were necessary for urban needs. Later only Hindustan Construction showed perseverance to
complete the changed layouts.
This description of multibridge projects is borrowed from Marathi book on bridges by Mr.
Sudheer S. Kulkarni. This is his great contribution.
Thus ends the bridge engineering write up that is meant for learning bridges. This should be
augmented with site visits to bridges.
 CHAPTER 6

MISCELLANEOUS POINTS IN
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Besides the basic structure covered in the earlier chapters, few more miscellaneous points
crop in. These are in brief stated in this chapter.

6.1 INITIAL PREPARATION

Once the bridge construction order is passed, it is all to be arranged at site. Usually the site
belongs to the government or semi government agency. The contracting agency has to initially
search for labour at the given site. In Maharashtra and Gujarat, labour was made available from
labour agencies of Chattisgarh, Jharkhand. Later on, the labour came from Bangladesh. The
agencies need be contacted for that.

6.1.1 Equipment, machinery, etc.

Usually, the construction sites are at remote place and may be away from the sites earlier
bridge constructed. Thus, the earlier site may be at Khadakwasla near Pune while the new site
for bridge construction is at Mohol on Seena river near Solapur. This is more than 130 km. The
entire bridge equipment such as mixer, vibrators, lifting mechanisms need be taken to Mohol
which is quite difficult. Here, the question may be studied and if local construction agencies are
available, local machinery can be used on hire basis.

6.1.2 Construction of site office

Construction of site office is the next step. This is in G.I. sheets and also similar
construction for labour and engineers. May be electricity construction available from MSEB is
tapped. Else generating set is a must. That adds to the cost. The road in between site office and
bridge site is essential. Telephone connection is must in these days. Sometimes, due to
prevalence of mobile phones this is becoming much easier, but a must.
Store and shades for cement are a must. Else, moist cement may result in decrease the
strength. HYSD steel Fe500 and above, and in case of prestressed steel, cables of steel are to be
adequately protected and placed.

6.2 FOUNDATION DEPTH

It begins with test reports of foundation at selected sites. This may involve digging to the
deep rock or else pile driving up to rock and below that. Often this is adequate. Only at certain
times in Mumbai and coastal area, there is slush or muddy layers under a given rocky area.
This is very precarious since our design loads are much heavier than the mud layers can bear.

6.3 DAILY REPORTING

Everyday there is daily reporting between site engineers and the government engineers.
This is of utmost importance or else some ambiguity and misinterpretation may arise.
6.4 REACHING IN THE ROCK
Usually about 500mm in the rock is the depth up to which the foundation should go. Bed
concrete and foundation footings come above that. This work may be in a dry place but often
meets with underground water sources and hence pumping during concreting becomes
essential.

6.5 ASSEMBLY OF STEEL SECTION

Sometimes the bridge is in steel members such as angles, channels, I-sections. In this case,
the cutting and fixing of parts of the assembly is partly done on site and partly near the site
office. This is a tedious work and needs the use of JCB type of cranes and coordination is
necessary. Assembly of steel sections is to be well coordinated.
Earlier days, there were rivets, bolts used for connection. These days, the practice is all for
welding and in case of changing situations use of bolts is made.

6.6 CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

Usually RCC or prestressed concrete beams are commonly used as road slabs. This means
use of formwork and supporting bamboo ballies or steel sections for the formwork. Often the
formwork is made of certain size such as 2’ x 2’ plates. The supporting system is to be based
for such plates. The plates being used often may be damaged and are to be straightened out.
This involves initial work at site office.

6.7 LOCATION OF CONCRETE MIXERS

Location of mixer depends on nearness to the site and site office. 10 x 7 mixer is commonly
used. It is for 1 bag cement intake (50 kg). Mixer operator plays the key role. Quality of
concrete depends greatly on handling of mixer. Using mixer hopper for more load is no good.
Further rotating mixer for more than 3 minutes is not desirable.

6.8 OBSERVATION OF EXISTING BRIDGES

There are situations where different types of bridges could easily be viewed from a single
site. Thus, Thane Creek bridge near Mumbai is a site where 3 different bridges are seen
spanning the creek. One is railway bridge which is prestressed and is an example of ideal
railway bridge. Next to that is a road bridge which is constructed by UP Setu Nigam against
prestressed bridge. There is third bridge the work of which has remained incomplete or may be
stopped further since new road bridge has been constructed.
Similar bridge views could be had at Dapodi Khadki section near Pune. Here, we observe
railway bridge, old road bridge (which is about 100 years old) and three span prestressed
continuous bridge released in 1987 for traffic.

6.9 M & R OF BRIDGES

We have in chapter 1 referred at 1.6 on M&R (Maintenance and Repairs) of bridges. In
fact, M&R of bridges is a problem also in USA.
 In May 2013, there was a news that Washington state has about 7000 bridges to be
repaired. In India, the situation is no way different.
Basically, road slab, pier cap and pier bearing form one part of M&R. In this, pier bearing
are being successfully handled by PTFE bearings which are originally a product of UK by M/s
Glacier Metal Co., UK, but now a days also made in Pune by Tefcon Bearings Pvt. Ltd.
Next part which needs M&R is the pier proper. Piers could be strengthened using
ferrocement technique which is well developed in India and abroad as well. Ferro cement
slurry with steel mesh is pressed at a force on a given damaged surface of a pier and it helps to
strengthen the pier. This technique is not difficult to implement and be followed throughout the
world.