Irrigation Report v2

NEWMAP –
Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project
Consultancy Service for Engineering Design for

Four Water Conservation Structures and Minor
Irrigation Facilities in Kano State
Irrigation Design Report

NEWMAP- KNSPMU/CQS/17/2.1 April 2018
Contents Page
Acronyms 5
1 TAKAI IRRIGATION 8
1.1 Background Data ............................................................................................ 8
1.1.1 Physical Setting of Project Area............................................................................... 8
1.1.2 Climate and Weather Conditions ............................................................................ 8
1.1.3 Humidity ................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.4 Crop Growth and Climate ........................................................................................ 9
1.1.5 Source of Water ...................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Agricultural Plan ........................................................................................... 10
1.2.1 Planning Concepts ................................................................................................. 10
1.2.2 Present Situation .................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture ................................... 11
1.3 Irrigation and Drainage System .................................................................... 13
1.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13
1.3.2 Cropping Pattern.................................................................................................... 13
1.3.3 Irrigation Layout .................................................................................................... 13
1.3.4 Irrigation Water Requirements .............................................................................. 13
1.3.5 Crop Water Requirements ..................................................................................... 16
1.3.6 Field Irrigation Requirement ................................................................................. 18
1.3.7 Irrigation Method ................................................................................................... 18
1.3.8 Frequency and Efficiency of Irrigation .................................................................. 19
1.3.9 Irrigation and Drainage Layout ............................................................................. 20
1.3.10 Irrigation Water Supply .................................................................................. 20
1.4 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 20
1.4.1 Canal Flow .............................................................................................................. 20
1.4.2 Velocity ................................................................................................................... 20
1.4.3 Roughness Coefficient (n) ..................................................................................... 21
1.4.4 Side Slopes ............................................................................................................. 21
1.4.5 Canal/Drain Gradients ........................................................................................... 21
1.4.6 Canal Bed Width and Depth of Flow ...................................................................... 21
1.4.7 Freeboard ............................................................................................................... 21
1.4.8 Canal Turnout ........................................................................................................ 22
1.4.9 Regulator/Check Structure .................................................................................... 22
1.4.10 Canal Drop Structure ..................................................................................... 22
1.4.11 Access Road ................................................................................................... 22
1.4.12 Summary of Proposed Project Design ........................................................... 22
1.5 Design .......................................................................................................... 23
1.5.1 Canal Design .......................................................................................................... 23
1.5.2 Details of the main canal are as follows ............................................................... 24
1.5.3 Details of Secondary canals are as follows ........................................................... 24
1.5.4 Drainage Design .................................................................................................... 25
1.5.5 Land Levelling ........................................................................................................ 25
1.6 Operation and Maintenance ......................................................................... 26
1.6.1 Operation of the System ........................................................................................ 26
1.6.2 Water Users Association (WUA) ............................................................................. 26
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1.7 Maintenance of the System ........................................................................... 29

1.8 Financial Analysis ......................................................................................... 29
2 TOFA IRRIGATION 31
2.1.1 Rainfall.................................................................................................................... 31
2.1.2 Temperature........................................................................................................... 31
2.1.3 Humidity ................................................................................................................. 32
2.1.4 Crop Growth and Climate ...................................................................................... 32
2.1.5 Source of Water ...................................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 35
2.3.4 CROPWAT ............................................................................................................... 36
2.4 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 40
2.4.1 Canal Flow .............................................................................................................. 41
2.4.2 Velocity ................................................................................................................... 41
2.4.4 Side Slopes ............................................................................................................. 41
2.4.7 Freeboard ............................................................................................................... 42
2.4.8 Canal Turnout ........................................................................................................ 42
2.4.11 Access Road ................................................................................................... 42
2.5 Design .......................................................................................................... 43
2.5.1 Canal Design .......................................................................................................... 43
2.5.2 Drainage Design .................................................................................................... 45
2.5.3 Land Levelling ........................................................................................................ 45
2.6.2 Maintenance of the System ................................................................................... 49
3 MAKODA IRRIGATION 51
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 51
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3.3 Present Situation .......................................................................................... 52
3.4 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture ............................. 52
3.4.1 Crop Selection ........................................................................................................ 53
3.4.2 Cropping Programme ............................................................................................ 53
3.4.3 Farm Mechanization .............................................................................................. 53
3.4.4 Use of Fertilizers .................................................................................................... 54
3.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 54
3.6 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 59
3.6.1 Canal Flow .............................................................................................................. 60
3.6.2 Velocity ................................................................................................................... 60
3.6.4 Side Slopes ............................................................................................................. 60
3.6.7 Freeboard ............................................................................................................... 61
3.6.8 Canal Turnout ........................................................................................................ 61
3.6.11 Access Road ................................................................................................... 62
3.7 Design .......................................................................................................... 63
3.7.1 Canal Design .......................................................................................................... 63
3.7.2 Drainage Design .................................................................................................... 65
3.7.3 Land Levelling ........................................................................................................ 65
4 SHANONO IRRIGATION 71
4.1 Background Data .......................................................................................... 71
4.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 74
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4.3.5 Evapotranspiration ................................................................................................. 76
4.3.6 Reference Evapotranspiration ............................................................................... 76
4.3.10 Frequency and Efficiency of Irrigation .......................................................... 78
4.3.11 Irrigation and Drainage Layout ..................................................................... 79
4.4 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 79
4.4.1 Canal Flow .............................................................................................................. 79
4.4.2 Velocity ................................................................................................................... 80
4.4.4 Side Slopes ............................................................................................................. 80
4.4.7 Freeboard ............................................................................................................... 81
4.4.8 Canal Turnout ........................................................................................................ 81
4.4.11 Access Road ................................................................................................... 81
 field drains (2.30 km); 82

4.5 Design .......................................................................................................... 83
4.5.1 Canal Design .......................................................................................................... 83
4.5.2 Drainage Design .................................................................................................... 84
4.5.3 Land Levelling ........................................................................................................ 84
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ACRONYMS
DFI - Development Finance Institution

DMP - Data Management Plan
EAR - Environmental Audit Report
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
EMS - Environmental Management System
EMP - Environmental Management Plan
EPC - Engineering, Procurement and Construction
EPFI - Equator Principles Financial Institutions
ESIA - Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
ESIS - Environmental and Social Impact Statement
ESMP - Environmental and Social Management Plan
ESMS - Environmental and Social Management Statement
EU - European Union
FEPA - Federal Environmental Protection Agency
FGD - Focus Group Discussion
FGN - Federal Government of Nigeria
FMEnv - Federal Ministry of Environment
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GEF - Global Environment Facility
GES - Growth Enhancement Support
GPS - Global Positioning System
IDI - In-depth Interview
LCDA - Local Government Development Area
LGA - Local Government Area
m - Meters
NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation
PHCN - Power Holding Corporation of Nigeria
PPE - Personnel Protective Equipment
QC - Quality Control
R&D - Research and Development
SEP - Stakeholders Engagement Process
SME - Small and Medium Enterprise
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator
VOC - Volatile Organic Compound
WCN - Waste Consignment Note
WCS - Wildlife Conservation Society
WHO - World Health Organization
WST - Water Storage Pond
WTP - Water Treatment Plant
Design Report -Zephyrgold August 2018
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano ................... 9
Table 1.2: Irrigation Water Supply ................................................................................. 14
Table 1.3: Crop Water Requirement ............................................................................ 16
Table 1.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Takai.................. 17
Table 1.5: A detailed inventory of canals ................................................................... 23
Table 2.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano ................. 31
Table 2.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Tofa ................... 38
Table 2.5: Inventory of canals ....................................................................................... 43
Table 3.2: : Irrigation Water Supply ............................................................................... 55
Table 3.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Makoda............ 57
Table 4.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Shanono ........... 77
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Table of Figures
No table of figures entries found.
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1 TAKAI IRRIGATION
1.1 Background Data
1.1.1 Physical Setting of Project Area
Location and Extent

The project is located on Takai River close to Takai town in Takai Local Area of Kano
State. The Takai Irrigation Project is located between around latitude 7° 53’ 38'' N and
longitude 6°12'15'' E
The proposed site as selected by the Authority is located about 1.5km south of Takai
town. Access to the site is achieved through a earth road from Takai (See Figures 1.1 for
the location of the proposed site)
Geology & Topography
Geology
Generally the geology of the area consist of the Granite gneiss belonging to the
Migmatite – Gneiss Complex formation however the project areas are predominantly of
the Precambrian to Cambrian Basement complex.
Topography
The topography around the Irrigation area is slightly undulating with well-defined river
course which makes the area not susceptible to flood. The vegetation is that which is
typical of the Northern Nigeria; sparse vegetation with some isolated trees/shrubs. Most
part of the area is already cultivated with crops like maize, guinea corn, pepper,
tomatoes and other grains.
1.1.2 Climate and Weather Conditions

The survey area has a seasonal climate which is largely determined by the Intertropical
Discontinuity Zone (IDZ); a transient, discontinuous zone where the tropical maritime and
tropical continental air masses meet. The former is a warm and humid air mass which
blows as a south westerly wind from the Atlantic Ocean and the latter is the dry
harmattan wind which blows from the Sahara Desert as the dusty, north easterly winds.
The project area is situated in the semi-arid region of North-Central Nigeria. The area is
characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons, dictated by the movement of the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is the interface between the moisture
laden South-Western Wind from the Atlantic Ocean and North –Western Wind originating
from the Sahara.
The ITCZ is at the farthest north in August, causing rainfall between the months of June to
September, and farthest South in January/February, causing the dry season in October
to April.
Rainfall
The dry and hot season runs from the months of November to April.
In the months of December and January, the dry and dust-laden Eastern and North –
Easterly winds blows from Sahara desert towards the project area.
The main rainy season is July to October but occasional showers fall in May- June
particularly in the higher rainfall areas in the South with maximum precipitation in August.
The rainy season usually commences with local thunderstorms and line squalls.
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Most rain falls in the summer months of May to October, followed by a 6 month dry
season, during which time the woody vegetation loses its leaves and the grasses dry up
and may burn. The Mean Annual Rainfall for the project area is
837.7mm
The movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) determine the quantity of
rainfall in a particular year - if it penetrates far to the north there will be a long rainy
season and good rains; if it does not move sufficiently far north, then the rains may fail
totally. During the winter, hot dry winds (known in much of West Africa as the
"Harmattan") blow from the north, often bringing dust and sand from the Sahara with
them.
Table 1.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano

MONTH AVE. RAINFALL (mm) MIN. TEM 0C MAX. TEM 0C RELATIVE
HUMIDITY (%)
Jan 0 14.2 31.6 54.4
Feb. 0 16.4 34.8 56.5
Mar. 3 20.4 37.6 63.4
Apr. 14 24.2 38.7 72.2
May 39 24.8 37.4 78
Jun 79 22.9 34 81.5
Jul. 117 21.8 30.9 83.1
Aug. 150 21.2 29.5 83.1
Sep. 78 21.2 31.5 81.9
Oct. 15 19.8 34.4 79.9
Nov. 0 15.9 33.9 70.6
De. 0 14 32.6 61
Temperature
The mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Takai for the period of 50 years as
obtained from the FOA climate software for use in irrigation design (CLIMWAT for
CROPWAT) have been averaged and presented in Table 1. The mean monthly minimum
temperatures show that during the first part of the year, there is a gradual increase then
gradual reduction in temperature. In January, the mean monthly maximum
temperatures are about 31.60C, and by March, these values rise to 37.60C. The onset of
intense rains has a cooling effect with maximum temperatures dropping to 29.50C in
August; the peak of the rainy season. During the rainy season, minimum temperatures
are fairly steady. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in January may
be as much as about 31.6 and 140C respectively. Following the rains, there is a slight
increase in temperature range as minimum temperature is reduced by the effect of the
dry dust harmattan. By April the south-westerly air mass is dominant over the harmattan
from then until the onset of the rains, the hottest season occurs with mean maximum
temperature of 38.70C.
1.1.3 Humidity
Humidity is relatively high as a result of influence by humid maritime air mass that blows
from the Atlantic for some period of the year. Mean monthly value for humidity ranges
from a minimum of 40% in January to a maximum of 83.1 in August (Table 1). The factors
responsible for humidity include evaporation, solar radiation, vegetal cover and wind
action.
1.1.4 Crop Growth and Climate

The potential limits of crop production are primarily a function of climatic factors,
especially rainfall and temperature.
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Rainfall
The major limitation to crop growth in the tropics is the amount, time and spread
of rainfall. The rainfall expected at the project site in an average year is about
837.7mm. The spread of rainfall covers at least 96 days. The rainfall amount and
spread in relation to evaporation at the project site, more than provide for most
cereal crops in year. The variability in annual rainfall from year to year however
can be pronounced. This can result in season, which can alternatively be too wet
or dry and calls for good water management.
The dry season begins about October when most cereal/legumes are ripening.
This has an advantage of reducing the cost and time of drying most crops. There
are only six months in a year when rainfall is in excess of evaporation, over the
remaining six months, there is water deficit in the soil. This means that in a normal
year, irrigation would be very much required from October to April.
Temperature
Next to rainfall, the climatic factor that determines what type of crop may be
grown at the project site is temperature. Generally, there is no problem with the
growth of any tropical cereal, legumes and fibre crops during the rainy season.
The temperature requirement for most common tropical crops is adequate.
1.1.5 Source of Water

The principal source of water for agricultural purposes around the project area has been
rain. This still remain the water source to be considered in this scheme as there are no
other sources for now. There is a dam been proposed to be the source of water for the
proposed irrigation scheme. The topography of the area is good for a small dam, the
catchment area for the River is also reasonable and the topography can provide good
impoundment. Moreover, the reservoir of the dam will inadvertently provide sufficient
water for the project. The scheme is therefore proposed to be that of dam reservoir
based scheme.
Water from the dam shall flow by gravity into the main canals and running through the
irrigation area.
1.2 Agricultural Plan
1.2.1 Planning Concepts

The primary aim of agricultural development in the project area has been
defined as follows:
 Increase the income and consequently raise the living standard of small
farmers
 Increase the production of basic foods and improve the diet and
nutritional standard of the rural population
 Increase the production of vegetables and other cash crops
 Improve livestock husbandry or pisciculture as supplementary farm

enterprises.
The aims of agricultural development cannot be spelt out in terms of production

only, especially in terms of production channelled to urban markets. One of the
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prime objectives of development is to bring about a transformation of traditional

farming practices leading to viable enterprises, which will provide fair return on
the farmers labour and raise their standard of living comparable to that of the
non-agricultural sectors of the economy.
The means for realizing these aims includes bringing new virgin land under
cultivation, and intensification of production, broadening the range of product in
individual farms by crop diversification and adding new lines of production to the
existing ones. In the project area, as in most agricultural projects, it will probably
be necessary to resort to combination of these options. Intensification can take
many forms, such as the use of chemical fertilizers, irrigations or improved crop
varieties. This course of action i.e. the use of physical inputs is measurable and
controllable in the sense that resources can be allotted as required. However, the
newly available resources must be rendered in ways that are acceptable to
farmers, who need motivation to overcome their ingrained distrust towards
unfamiliar concepts. The acceptability of agricultural innovations by the intended
beneficiaries is therefore as important as the physical and ecological factors.
The link between the planning authority and the people at the farm level are
professionals – agronomist, extension agents, engineers etc. a shortage of
available professional manpower can thus impede the introduction of
innovations, even when the benefits of the proposed techniques can be proven.
Moreover, to attain the desire results, the professionals should be proficient not
only in their special fields but must also be familiar with the cultural background
of the local population.
1.2.2 Present Situation

The planners of irrigated agriculture in the project area must take as their starting point
the existing situation, paying particular attention to the following factors: climate,
population and available labour force, physical and institutional infrastructure, existing
agriculture and attitude of the farming population towards the proposed programmed.
The tropical climate of the Takai area is characterized by distinct wet and dry season
with an annual average precipitation of about 837.7mm of which 90 percent falls during
the 6 month rainy season (April-October). The mean annual temperature is 26 oC, and
The average household, consisting of 8 persons, can contribute 3 - 4 man-days per day.
However, taking into consideration time lost to sickness, rainy days, household work, etc,
the available labour for farm work is estimated at 2.5man-day per day per farm family.
Family farms grow mainly subsistence crops such as cereal, legumes, sugar cane and
vegetables like pepper and tomatoes. On these traditional farms all the work is done
manually. Livestock production is significant; however, fishing is a common part-time
occupation, especially among villagers living close to the project area.
Land tenure is based on a traditional system of communal ownership. The individual’s
right to land is usually temporally, however, land can be rented or pledged or transferred
by cash payment. Legally, the communal tenure system was replaced in 1978 by the
land use Decree.
1.2.3 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture

Irrigation is required wherever moisture deficiency constitutes a constraint to agricultural
production. In the Takai irrigation scheme area, the traditional cultivation schedule has
been adapted to natural soil-moisture regime, even that production is usually
handicapped by lack of moisture however, under the present system, land resources are
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not exploited sufficiently and irrigation is therefore proposed in order to intensify land use
and increase the agricultural production.
The plan for irrigated crop production makes use of farming methods that are not
relatively new and untried in the project area. The plan combines irrigation, the
introduction of new crop varieties with improved crop care (fertilizer application, crop
rotation, weed and pest control, etc) and mechanization of several farming operations.
Eventually it will become necessary to improve post-harvest activities such as threshing,
drying, storage and marketing of produce.
A description of the various considerations relating to the plan for irrigated agriculture is
given below.
Crop Selection
The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Takai irrigation
project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from an
agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
including potential marketing outlets, possibilities for processing of the primary product
and farmers’ willingness and ability to accept the innovations of a more market-oriented
form of agriculture, i.e. emphasis on production of cash crops.
The crop studied included the following:
- Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, groundnut and ridi (sesame seed)
which are the predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of these the
grain food, mainly guinea corn and maize, are especially suitable for cultivation under
irrigation since improved varieties of these crops respond well to a controlled moisture
regime (as well as to other agro –technical improvements). The responses of root and
tuber crops to irrigation are not known and these crops will therefore not be included in
the present plan.
 Vegetable and fruit crops
 Cowpea as a wet season crop
 Groundnuts, grown as a single crop in the wet season.
Cropping Programme
The cropping programme is a cultivation schedule which takes into consideration the
timing of farming operations and the relationship between these operations and the
annual rainfall regime. As far as possible, harvesting operations and land preparation
should coincide with relatively dry periods, while sowing should take place at the
beginning of the wet season. The cropping programme also serves to determine the
aggregate water demand and to correlate it with the availability of water for irrigation.
The crop water demand is outlined in detail in the next chapter.
The cropping programme also enables the labour situation to be anticipated. Where it is
foreseen that the available labour will not suffice (as, for example, during short peak
seasons, when demand surges) mechanization of some operations may be called for.
Farm Mechanization
At present, no mechanized equipment is used on small family farms in the project area.
As mentioned above, mechanization may help to resolve labour problems on the farms,
especially when these occur seasonally. Moreover, mechanization is indispensable for
activities which cannot be performed manually. Mechanization in irrigated agriculture
becomes a crucial factor since land preparation must be done as effectively as possible
in the limited time available.
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The introduction and use of farm machinery requires not only investment capital for its
purchase but also trained manpower for its operation and maintenance. Moreover
adequate supplies of fuel, lubricants and spare parts must be assured. Any shortcoming
in the upkeep of the equipment or the provision of supplies will render mechanization
ineffectual, thus inevitably affecting project benefits.
Use of Fertilizers
Traditional farming methods make use of the bush fallow system to restore plant nutrients
in the topsoil. However, once this system is replaced by a more intensive cropping
pattern, it becomes necessary to replenish plant nutrients by other means. Where
livestock is kept, manure may be used to some extent; otherwise the soil will be enriched
with chemical fertilizers. The farmers around the project area are conversant with the use
of fertilizer to a very large extent.
1.3 Irrigation and Drainage System
1.3.1 Introduction
The irrigation and drainage component of the project involves the development of the
farm land in Takai, on the left and right flanks of Takai River. The scheme will be by gravity
as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of about 10ha been
proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of irrigation and
drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.
1.3.2 Cropping Pattern

In deciding on the cropping pattern, consideration was given to the ability of the soil
and the prevailing climatic factors to sustain the proposed agricultural system and also
to the existing agricultural practices in the area of study.
It is evident from the soil and agricultural survey that the project area is suitable for
cultivating rice, maize and vegetables. Most of these are presently grown as intercrops
during the rainy season.
1.3.3 Irrigation Layout

In order to have an effective layout, the farms have been divided into main and
secondary blocks. The basis for the layout also included efficient management, irrigation
canals and drainage requirements, physical and topographic limitations. The main and
secondary canals have been limited in length to allow for operational efficiency. A
simple and fair flow division within secondary and tertiary blocks has been ensured.
1.3.4 Irrigation Water Requirements

The efficiency of an irrigation system will depend, to a large extent, on the correct
evaluation of the water requirement. This will include the water required for
evapotranspiration (consumptive use), by the crops (crop water requirement) and the
water lost in the fields and in the conveyance system, less the contribution from rainfall.
In trying to provide an adequate irrigation system, it is necessary to know the water
requirements of the selected crops during the various stages of their growth for which
knowledge of their cropping calendar and pattern is required. Also, it is necessary to
assess and understand the characteristics of the recommended cultivation practices
such as land preparation, puddle, etc. for which water is required, so that an adequate
water/irrigation management practice can be proposed for the project. All these were
computed using CROPWAT.
The irrigation water requirements of the recommended crops was calculated using the
estimated monthly potential evapotranspiration values of the project area, the individual
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crop coefficients, an overall field efficiency of 40% (water conveyance & application
efficiencies) for the irrigation system and based on a 8 hour irrigation/day. A peak
irrigation requirement of 1.17 l/sec/ha was estimated by the CROPWAT software but for
lack of experience in handling of conventional irrigation facilities 1.50 l/Sec/ha was
adopted for the detailed designs of the irrigation system.
Table 1.2: Irrigation Water Supply
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CROPWAT
CROPWAT is a computer programme for the calculation of crop water requirements and
irrigation requirements from existing or new climatic and crop data. Furthermore, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management
conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns.
This Windows version used for this project is based on the DOS versions CROPWAT 5.7 of
1992 and CROPWAT 7.0 of 1999. Apart from a completely redesigned user interface,
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows includes a host of updated and new features.
These include:
 monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
 backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
 possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
 decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
calculation algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values
 calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
and for paddy & upland rice
 interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
 daily soil water balance output tables
 easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
 graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation
schedules
 easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
 extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
 context-sensitive help system
All calculation procedures as used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the FAO guidelines as
laid down in the publication No. 56 of the Irrigation and Drainage Series of FAO "Crop
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements
Evapotranspiration
The effect of climate on crop water requirement is given by the reference (or
potential) crop evapotranspiration, ET0. The effect of the characteristics of the selected
crops on crop water requirements is given by the crop coefficient kc. The relationship between
ET0 and actual evapotranspiration (ETcrop) is thus:
ET Crop = ETo * kc
Reference Evapotranspiration
The selection of a prediction method for evaluating the reference evapotranspiration
(ET0) depends on the type of climatic data available, and the accuracy required in
determining water needs The modified Penman method, which would offer the best
evaluation procedure with minimum possible error (of about 10%), is generally used for
calculating the reference evapotranspiration in Nigeria.
The following available meteorological data for Takai was used in the estimation of the
evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement Model
(CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
 Evaporation
 Air Temperature
 Sunshine Hours
 Wind Speed
 Relative Humidity
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Crop Coefficients
The crop coefficient (kc) relates to evapotranspiration of a disease- free crop grown in
large fields under optimum soil water and fertility conditions and achieving full
production potential under the growing environment. Crop coefficients which normally
differs for the different crops depends on the length of the growing season, planting or
sowing date, and rate and stage of crop development.
Table 2 shows the crop coefficients for different crops in relation to the their length of
growing season, planting date and stage of development
The estimated evapotranspiration values based on the modified Penman equation

(Table 1) with necessary crop coefficients (table 3) are used for the estimation of crop
water demands using CROPWAT. Automatic necessary deductions were made to the
calculated values to cater for the contribution by rainfall as part of the crop water
requirement met by rainfall.
Table 1.3: Crop Water Requirement
1.3.5 Crop Water Requirements

The amount of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the
cropped field is defined as crop water requirement. Although the values for Crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (Etc) and crop water requirement are
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identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that needs to be
supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost through
evapotranspiration. The crop water requirements have been evaluated at intervals for
the selected crops. Table 2 shows the crop water requirements as obtain from
CROPWAT. It has been assumed that within each secondary and tertiary block the
farmers would wish to arrange their activities such that both water and labour
requirements are spread over a period for each operation
Table 1.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Takai
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1.3.6 Field Irrigation Requirement

Field irrigation requirements for the selected crops have been obtained by summation of
their partial requirements.The partial requirements are equal to the crop water
requirement multiplied by the area under the crop at different stages of growth.
1.3.7 Irrigation Method

The irrigation of the project area will be carried out by surface irrigation method solely;
the most suitable method found for the specific conditions of the project area (soil,
topography, and water quality and plant requirements) is furrow irrigation.
Principles
 The furrows are running along the major slope
 The maximum furrow slope is the natural slope of the ground.
 The maximum furrow length is limited to 100 m, shorter runs are sometimes
necessary because of the awkward topography.
 The maximum non erosive furrow stream is given as 1l/s
 The furrow spacing to achieve maximum wetting of the root zone is taken as
0.75m.
These have all been confirmed by simulating the above conditions using the SIRMOD
program (Surface Irrigation Simulation Model) developed at the Biological and Irrigation
Engineering Department of the Utah State University, USA. This model is based on the
FAO publication No 45 which deals with the guidelines for designing and evaluating
surface irrigation systems.
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1.3.8 Frequency and Efficiency of Irrigation
A guide to good water management is the establishment of an appropriate frequency

of irrigation and depth of water to be applied. These are dependent on soil
characteristics, the depth of root zone and the crop water requirements.
The efficiency of irrigation would depend mainly on the soil characteristics, the method
of irrigation, the farmer's ability and the losses in the conveyance system.
The soil characteristic which is relevant for calculating irrigation frequencies is the
available water per metre depth of soil. In order to determine the available water, the
moisture contents at field capacity and wilting point are required. The average depth
of available water per metre depth of soil as determined from the laboratory tests is in
the range 100 – 150mm. Refer to Soil report in the annex of this report for details.
Actual irrigation scheduling is a day to day decision after the project is in operation.
Daily readings of climatological values including daily evapotranspiration, temperature,
wind speed, rainfall, stage of growth and related crop water requirement etc. will give
the essential background for the irrigation management to decide about application
time, rate and intervals.
For planning purposes, theoretical calculations taking meteorological data into account
and also considering the soil properties and crop management factor, were carried out
to determine the theoretical irrigation interval. The calculated intervals serve as
determining factors to compute the maximum daily possible water demand to be
discharged through a canal system, which must be capable to carry that specific flow
rate. The theoretically calculated irrigation intervals will therefore be just a guideline for
the later irrigation management. Refer to CROPWAT output in the Annex of this report for
the irrigation schedule.
For convenience of irrigation management, an overall irrigation interval of 7 days for all
crops and for all the months was estimated. Exceptions from the above are periods after
planting and shortly before harvesting, when irrigation intervals of 3 - 5 and 8-14 days
respectively were taken to satisfy crop and agricultural requirements respectively. The
required maximum gross application depth of 85 mm to satisfy the plant requirement
and to take account of all losses occurring during conveyance and distribution was
found accordingly.Irrigation Schedule
Efficiency of the Irrigation System

Considerable amounts of irrigation water are lost due to poor handling of water during
application in the field and also due to losses in the conveyance system.
The losses in the fields are due to surface run-off and/or deep percolation of excess
water and depend on the frequency of irrigation and on percolation rates.
The application efficiency in the project area due to water losses by surface run-off
and/or non-uniform application of water is estimated to be 55% and the distribution
efficiency of 45% (FAO paper No. 24) giving an overall project efficiency of 50%. The
efficiency of the field application depends on the soil, irrigation method and
management. The application efficiency is low in the project area due to the soil type
that abound in the area and the general lack of experience of the farmers in
conventional irrigation operation practices leading to anticipated communication
problems.
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1.3.9 Irrigation and Drainage Layout

The irrigation and drainage layout show the location of canals, drains, farm units and
most of the associated structures. The layout is based on the irrigable area identified by
the soil survey studies and the topography.
Due to the not well defined canal and drainage lines over each of the area, regular
shaped fields were not always possible and varying dimensions had to be adopted.
1.3.10 Irrigation Water Supply

Water supply for irrigation is proposed to be obtained by gravity flow from an artificial
Night Storage Reservoir (NST) located at the highest elevation within the irrigation area.
The NST is supplied water by pumping from the reservoir of the dam.
1.4 Design Criteria

The general criteria utilized in designing flood irrigation layouts to meet these basic
irrigation aims include:
 Soil types being irrigated
 Irrigation requirements - flexibility and frequency
 Labour available, now and in the future
 Energy costs - great savings from gravity flow
 Drainage off the irrigation bays and off the farm
 Other factors, such as the rate and volume of water supply, and water quality.
The objective is to develop a system that will:

 Provide an optimum amount of moisture within the root zone of the crop or
pasture so as to maximize production
 Apply the irrigation water efficiently to avoid long-term problems such as high
water tables and salinity, and short-term problems such as water logging
 To apply the irrigation water using a system that is efficient in terms of labour and
money.
1.4.1 Canal Flow

Empirical formula below can be used to determine canal flow per unit area of
crop by assuming a continuous flow to supply the required depth. This is given in
litres/sec/ha as
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 =
259 × 𝑒
For rice, dc = net Irrigation requirement (mm)
e = Overall efficiency (%)
1.4.2 Velocity
Based on manning's formula, canal velocity is given by
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𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛
Where V - velocity (m/s)
R - Hydraulic radius (m)
S - Canal bed slope (m/m):
n - Manning’s roughness coefficient
Permissible velocity is that velocity that would not cause eroding of the canal material or
excessive deposition of silt or growth of aquatic weeds.
Maximum permissible velocities in canals are given as follows:
Earth canals - 0.8m/s
Concrete canals - 2.0m/s
Velocities of 0.10m/s - 0.75m/s are adopted.
1.4.3 Roughness Coefficient (n)

The values of n adopted are:
Earth lined canals - 0.023
Concrete lined canals - 0.014
1.4.4 Side Slopes

The values of side slopes adopted are:
For Canals (inside) 1:1
Main canal (outside) 1 :1.5
Other canals (outside) 1 : 1.2
Drains (inside) 1: 1.2
1.4.5 Canal/Drain Gradients

Canal gradients are selected to ensure that allowable velocities are not exceeded.
The values adopted are as follows
Main canal - s = 0.0006
Tertiary canals - s = 0.0002
Drains - s = 0.0002
1.4.6 Canal Bed Width and Depth of Flow

A ratio of b/d = 1, is adopted generally for the canals
where b = bedwidth
d = depth of flow
1.4.7 Freeboard
The value of freeboard is given by f = cd
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Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
c = a coefficient varying from 0.46 to 1.0 depending on flow.
1.4.8 Canal Turnout

The turnout is designed to pass the maximum design at control water surface in the
parent/supply canal.
The turnout adopted consists of an inlet made of cast iron slide gate with screw lift hoist
to control/admit water flow, after the gate follows the concrete pipe conveying water
across and under the supply canal bank/road. The discharge is measured at the
downstream end of pipe by observing depth of flow over a weir.
1.4.9 Regulator/Check Structure

Regulators are designed to maintain full supply depth at the regulator and 2/3 supply
depth at the last upstream turnout served by the regulator.
The gated type of regulator is adopted with spacing computed as follows:

𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3𝑆
Where, FSD= Full Supply Depth
S = Canal gradient
1.4.10 Canal Drop Structure

Drop Structures have been designed to discharge water in a canal from a higher level to
a lower one in places where the ground profile slope is steeper than the canal bed
slope.
The drop structure adopted is a concrete lined with the energy dissipated within the
concrete box.
1.4.11 Access Road

Access roads have been provided along the main canal and Secondary canal
A total Right of Way of 5.5m comprising of 4.0m road and 0.75m shoulders on both sides.
The road thickness is made up of compacted subgrade, a 150mm thick sub¬base and
wearing course of lateritic material.
Field roads of 4m total width are provided alongside the field canals.
1.4.12 Summary of Proposed Project Design

A Summary of the major components of the irrigation system that would be provided is
as follows:
 main canal, length 1,200m;
 10 secondary canals, (6.6 km);
 Turnouts,
 Drop Structures etc.
The proposed drainage system consists of:
 5 field drains (1.50 km);
 Bottom falls etc
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Table 1.5: A detailed inventory of canals

Inventory of canals
Main Canals length (m) Area(ha) Remarks
1 MC1 - 450 15 survey limit
2 MC2 - 650 28 survey limit
5 Secondary Canals
6 SC2-1 - 460 3.0
7 SC2-2 - 510 5.0
8 SC2-3 - 810 5.5
9 SC2-4 - 620 5.5
10 SC2-5 - 400 5.5
11 SC2-6 - 420 4.5
12 SC1-1 - 330 3.5
13 SC1-2 - 360 3.8
14 SC1-3 - 390 3.0
15 SC1-4 - 410 3.5
19 Sub Total 4710 42.8
1.5 Design
1.5.1 Canal Design

Canal flow is computed as
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 = l/s/ha for continuous flow
259×𝑒
Where dc = Net irrigation requirement (mm)

e = Overall efficiency of system (55%)
For this project the Canal flow was computed using the CROPWAT software
which arrived at 1.17l/sec/ha, but due to lack of experience in handling
conventional Irrigation facilities 1.5l/sec/ha will be use. The design also assumed 8
hrs pumping of irrigation per day and 6 days per 7 day week.
Canal flow = 1.5*(24/8)*(7/6) = 4.5 l/s/ha
The flows in the canals are as follows;
Main Canal MC1 = 171 l/s

Type
Secondary Canal SC2-1 = 18 l/s A
Secondary Canal SC2-2 = 22.5 l/s B
Secondary Canal SC2-6 = 33.8l/s B
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Main Canal MC2 = 68l/s

Secondary Canal SC1-1 = 15.8 l/s A
S/No DESIGN FLOW(l/s) Ha COMMANDING TYPE

1 1 - 20 Less than 4.5 A
2 20 – 45 4.6 - 10 B
1.5.2 Details of the main canal are as follows

MC2
Flow (Q) = 171 l/s (0.171m3/s)
Bed width (B) = 0.45m
Flow depth (d) = 0.35m
Freeboard-f = 0.35m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0006
Velocity (V) = 0.68m/s
MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
1.5.3 Details of Secondary canals are as follows

Type A
Flow (Q) = 20l/s
Flow depth (d) = 0..25m
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
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Freeboard-f = 0.3m
1.5.4 Drainage Design

The drainage system has been incorporated to conduct away from the field any
un¬utilized or undesirable water. The design of the drain follows the same pattern except
that the flow in the drain is derived from the rainfall runoff.
The parameters for designing the drain are as follows;
Flow (Q) = 70 l/sec

Total D = 0.7m
Side slope = 1: 1.2
Bed slope S = 0.0002
1.5.5 Land Levelling

Land levelling is the reshaping of field surface to a planned grade. This is necessary for
control of flow of water in the irrigated field. The type and extent of levelling required
depends on topography, depth and type of soils, crops to be grown and method of
irrigation.
Levelling operations required are grouped into three categories;
 Rough Levelling
 Medium Levelling
 Land Smoothening
Rough levelling is the removal of abrupt irregularities such as bunds, ridges, dunes and
filling of pits and depressions such as old river courses, gullies et cetera.
Medium levelling follows rough levelling and is intended to shape the field to a planned
grade.
Smooth levelling is the final operation to remove any irregularities left over from the first
two operations and leaves the field to a true grade desired.
In land levelling, it is desired that the cut should balance the fill within the area such that
no additional quantity is brought in from outside the area to avoid high transport costs.
Prior to levelling operations the topsoil should be removed and replaced after
completion of levelling operations.
It is proposed that the rough and medium levelling be carried out under the project
construction contract while smoothening operation be left to the individual farmers.
Machinery and equipment required for rough and medium levelling include bull dozers,
tractor drawn or wheeled scrapers, land graders and levellers. The equipment used for
smoothening is land plane and land leveller.
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1.6 Operation and Maintenance
1.6.1 Operation of the System

It is necessary that operational guidelines be developed and implementation
procedures established be strictly followed if adequate operation of an irrigation
scheme is truly envisaged.
For the Takai scheme, it is proposed that the farming community takes full responsibility
with very little support from the Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority. Initial
training on the operation of the scheme should be given by the contractor on the
construction contract while supervision should be vested on the LNRBDA.
The farming community should be assisted in forming Water Users Association (WUA),
comprising three Farmers Irrigation Groups (FIGs) established on the basis of command
of the four tertiary canals.
At the start of an irrigation season, the schedule of deliveries should be worked out with
diversion requirement for each turnout diverted in line with the scheduling of water
requirement for each level of the system.
Water management at on-farm level should be practiced to conform to the proposed
distribution schedule and irrigation rule which is shown as follows;
 Execution of irrigation water supply in accordance with the planting stage of the
crop
 Strict adherence to the rotational irrigation schedule
1.6.2 Water Users Association (WUA)
In general, in developing countries the principal role in irrigation development rests with
the government and it is the government and its irrigation agency that prescribes the
role of Water Users Association (WUA) in the adoption and implementation of
participatory irrigation management.
The factors which affect the role of WUAs are:
 Laws and policies of the country and its irrigation agency;

 Size and complexity of the irrigation systems;
 Physical condition of the irrigation systems;
 Size of irrigated farm holding;
 Farmers net income;
 Capability of irrigation agency and its staff;
 Capability and organizational arrangements of the WUA;
 Local politics;
 Local social customs and practice
 Environmental problems.
Depending on the mix of the above factors in a given situation, the role of the WUAs
could include any of the following as may be agreed between the NEWMAP and the
farmers:
 The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
responsible for the entire irrigation system and delivers water at the turnout.
 The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and drainage
ditches, distribute water among them, and pay the irrigation fees prescribed by
26 | P a g e
the government. Under this arrangement farmers are usually organized into
informal groups in preparation for the establishment of WUA for water distribution
and maintenance of farm and drainage ditches.
 Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
irrigation fee collectors.
 NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and Type
2 contracts.
o Under Type 1 contract, the WUA undertakes canal maintenance, which

do not require heavy equipment. Such activities may include clearing,
desilting, embankment repair etc., for which NEWMAP pays the WUA an
agreed amount per km of canal, on a monthly basis.
o Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the various
turnouts, prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA), distribute
ISF bills prepared by NEWMAP, collect payment of ISF from farmers and
remit the collection to NEWMAP. For this activity they are entitled to a
share in the amount collected in accordance with the following
tabulation:
Percentage Collected WUA Share (percent)
50-60 percent of billings 2

Above 60-70 percent of billings 5
Above 90 percent of billings 15
 Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
O&M of a lateral canal that irrigate the area of the WUA. NEWMAP remains
responsible for the O&M of the main canal and the headworks and delivers
water to each WUA at the head gate of each lateral canal.
 ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the WUA
and verified by NEWMAP staff.
 ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
the WUA in accordance with a formula designed to cover the O&M expenses of
NEWMAP and provide incentives for increased collection by the WUA
 The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
percentage of the ISF to be collected which is subsequently billed by NEWMAP to
the WUA. The WUA bills each individual member.
 The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
irrigation system in accordance with an agreement on irrigation management
transfer that stipulates the responsibilities of the WUA and the NEWMAP.
Guidelines for establishing joint management of irrigation systems between government and
farmers irrigation associations
The process of organizing the farmers is crucial. It is necessary to build the irrigation
associations (IA) from the bottom by first organizing Turnout Service Areas (TSAs) through
farmer participation in activities that develop the farmers' capacity to make group
decisions and to establish proper criteria and procedures for choosing TSA leaders.
In most cases, these activities would be on planning and implementation of
improvements to the irrigation facilities to make the system responsive to farmers' needs.
Farmer participation should include decision making in the identification and
prioritization of problems, planning solutions and improvements and arrangements for
takeover of O&M by the farmers.
27 | P a g e
Organizing the farmers should be done with a well-trained catalyst. An alternative to

professional catalysts (community organizers) is the use of well-trained farmer. In
government-managed irrigation systems, potential farmer organizers can be selected by
the irrigation agency staffs that are familiar with the farmers and the problems and
needs of the irrigation system.
The higher levels of the organization should be established only after the TSAs have been
established with good, responsible leaders. The role and selection of the TSA leaders is
crucial in planning and implementation of water distribution, maintenance, and conflict
management and irrigation fee collection.
The TSA leaders should be members of the board of directors (BOO) or of the
management and decision-making body of the organization and the operative
committees at the top should be replicated from the base so that plans and decisions
can be effective.
The importance of the standing committees should be emphasized as it provides for

leadership development within the TSAs and the entire IA.
Sufficient lead-time should be provided for organizing the farmers before they go into
contracts for joint management and undertake construction of improvements to the
irrigation system. Sometimes, this takes about a year.
Organizing of farmers should not be contracted out in the same manner as construction
or other projects. The best contract provisions cannot provide sufficient flexibility to meet
field conditions that are difficult to predict and are likely to change in place and in time,
especially in the coordination of technical and institutional activities essential to
successful promotion of farmer participation.
The IAs should be given proper training in irrigation system management, financial
management, leadership development and holding regular meetings at IA and TSA
levels, including review and planning Workshops after every cropping season. However,
no amount of training or strengthening will be effective if the organizational structure of
the IA is deficient. As an example, rotation of water deliveries for equity of water
distribution is possible only if the IA is properly structured. The role of the Irrigation
Superintendent and his staff is crucial to successful establishment and implementation of
joint management. Farmers can be organized into IAs that can go into joint
management only if the task is adequately supported by the Irrigation Superintendent. In
the process of improving an irrigation system to make it responsive to farmers' needs, the
Irrigation Superintendent should foster farmer participation in all aspects of system
improvement. He should consider and take action on all legitimate and feasible farmers'
requests for system improvement and use these as opportunities for developing farmer
responsibilities and capacities. Thus all improvements should be joint undertakings
between the irrigation agency and the farmers with both sharing work responsibilities
and affordable investment of resources. The Irrigation Superintendent and his staff and
the IAs should work out jointly all procedures for managing the irrigation system and see
to it that the procedures are properly implemented, periodically reviewed; and
improved upon as needed.
Two other crucial requirements are the policy and incentives on joint management
adopted by the irrigation agency at the central level and the support given to the
Irrigation Superintendent from the regional level when such intermediate levels exist. At
the central level, it is essential that there is clear operational policy requiring farmer
participation in all aspects of irrigation systems development and improvement, and that
the policy is backed by adequate budgetary support for properly organizing and
training IAs.
28 | P a g e
Budgetary releases for such activities should be ahead of physical improvements to

ensure that farmers are properly organized and ready to participate effectively in the
physical improvement of the system. Sufficient funds should be made available on time
to enable the Irrigation Superintendent to meet schedules of improvement work agreed
upon with IAs to establish and sustain agency credibility with farmers. When the time is
right for IAs to take responsibilities in the O&M of the system, the central office should see
to it that a fair arrangement for sharing responsibilities and benefits is established
between the IAs and the agency.
Where the level of irrigation fees is properly set and collection is efficient in an irrigation
system under joint management, it could generate substantial financial surplus in O&M.
A major part of this surplus should be retained in the system for emergency and for
further improvements.
When the system under joint management is under the supervision of a regional office of
the NEWMAP, regional level support is crucial as the implementation of supervision and
training activities are delegated to the regional office by the central office.
For small- and medium-sized systems, agency capacity for training of staff and IAs, and
for repair and improvement work requiring heavy equipment, are usually in the regional
offices. Thus, regional level support is necessary for effective joint management.
1.7 Maintenance of the System

Most failure in the irrigation system can be attributed to poor maintenance of the
irrigation facilities which lead to low water utilization and to a loss in expected benefits.
One of the important ways of ensuring that maintenance costs are kept as low as
possible is by operating the canals and drains on a schedule conforming to the design
assumptions. Additionally, an effective system of inspection should be established and
implemented.
Routine inspection should be carried out and reports made at regular intervals and
supplemented by major engineering inspections once per season during closure periods.
Typical maintenance works to be undertaken include;
 Repairs to earthworks
 De-silting and grass removal from canals and drains
 Repairs to service roads
 Repairs to appurtenant structures
 Lubrication of gate lifting devices
 Servicing of electromechanical equipments
Prior to irrigation water releases, all facilities must be in good condition. At the
commencement of irrigation, farmers shall not be allowed to take water from the canal
unless farm ditches are properly cleaned and ready to receive irrigation water. This
would oblige the end users to undertake their part of maintenance of the system.
1.8 Financial Analysis

The following group of data from various sources was utilized to carry out benefit cost
analysis for the project.
1. Administrative Cost; this is not chargeable to construction or Maintenance. Under

this head the following are inclusive;
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 Personnel Services
 Equipment and construction operations
 Office including building
 Insurance and other overhead costs.
2. Irrigation Operation; Under this head the following items are included
 Irrigation operation capital cost
 Equipment and building cost
 Fuel services
 Office requirement and services
 Insurance and other overhead cost
3. Irrigation Maintenance cost; under this head following items are included
 Equipment
 Material
 Office and services
 Personnel services
 Insurance and other overhead charges
4. Initial Cost; this comprised of up to date cost of land acquisition, compensation

money, legal and administrative cost of construction of the scheme.
5. Production cost; this comprise of the production cost of the individual crop
30 | P a g e
2 TOFA IRRIGATION
2.1.1 Rainfall
The dry and hot season runs from the months of November to April.
In the months of December and January, the dry and dust-laden Eastern and North –
Easterly winds blows from Sahara desert towards the project area.
The main rainy season is July to October but occasional showers fall in May- June
particularly in the higher rainfall areas in the South with maximum precipitation in August.
The rainy season usually commences with local thunderstorms and line squalls.
Most rain falls in the summer months of May to October, followed by a 6 month dry
season, during which time the woody vegetation loses its leaves and the grasses dry up
and may burn. The Mean Annual Rainfall for the project area is
837.7mm
The movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) determine the quantity of
rainfall in a particular year - if it penetrates far to the north there will be a long rainy
season and good rains; if it does not move sufficiently far north, then the rains may fail
totally. During the winter, hot dry winds (known in much of West Africa as the
"Harmattan") blow from the north, often bringing dust and sand from the Sahara with
them.
Table 2.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano

MONTH AVE. RAINFALL (mm) MIN. TEM 0C MAX. TEM 0C RELATIVE
HUMIDITY (%)
Jan 0 14.2 31.6 54.4
Feb. 0 16.4 34.8 56.5
Mar. 3 20.4 37.6 63.4
Apr. 14 24.2 38.7 72.2
May 39 24.8 37.4 78
Jun 79 22.9 34 81.5
Jul. 117 21.8 30.9 83.1
Aug. 150 21.2 29.5 83.1
Sep. 78 21.2 31.5 81.9
Oct. 15 19.8 34.4 79.9
Nov. 0 15.9 33.9 70.6
De. 0 14 32.6 61
2.1.2 Temperature
The mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Tofa for the period of 50 years as
obtained from the FOA climate software for use in irrigation design (CLIMWAT for
CROPWAT) have been averaged and presented in Table 1. The mean monthly minimum
temperatures show that during the first part of the year, there is a gradual increase then
gradual reduction in temperature. In January, the mean monthly maximum
temperatures are about 31.60C, and by March, these values rise to 37.60C. The onset of
intense rains has a cooling effect with maximum temperatures dropping to 29.50C in
August; the peak of the rainy season. During the rainy season, minimum temperatures
are fairly steady. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in January may
be as much as about 31.6 and 140C respectively. Following the rains, there is a slight
increase in temperature range as minimum temperature is reduced by the effect of the
dry dust harmattan. By April the south-westerly air mass is dominant over the harmattan
from then until the onset of the rains, the hottest season occurs with mean maximum
temperature of 38.70C.
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2.1.3 Humidity
Humidity is relatively high as a result of influence by humid maritime air mass that blows
from the Atlantic for some period of the year. Mean monthly value for humidity ranges
from a minimum of 40% in January to a maximum of 83.1 in August (Table 2.1). The
factors responsible for humidity include evaporation, solar radiation, vegetal cover and
wind action.

Rainfall
The major limitation to crop growth in the tropics is the amount, time and spread of
rainfall. The rainfall expected at the project site in an average year is about 837.7mm.
The spread of rainfall covers at least 96 days. The rainfall amount and spread in relation
to evaporation at the project site, more than provide for most cereal crops in year. The
variability in annual rainfall from year to year however can be pronounced. This can
result in season, which can alternatively be too wet or dry and calls for good water
management.
The dry season begins about October when most cereal/legumes are ripening. This has
an advantage of reducing the cost and time of drying most crops. There are only six
months in a year when rainfall is in excess of evaporation, over the remaining six months,
there is water deficit in the soil. This means that in a normal year, irrigation would be very
much required from October to April.
Temperature
Next to rainfall, the climatic factor that determines what type of crop may be grown at
the project site is temperature. Generally, there is no problem with the growth of any
tropical cereal, legumes and fibre crops during the rainy season. The temperature
requirement for most common tropical crops is adequate.
2.1.5 Source of Water

based scheme. Water from the dam shall flow by gravity into the main canals and
running through the irrigation area.

The primary aim of agricultural development in the project area has been defined as
follows:
 Increase the income and consequently raise the living standard of small farmers
32 | P a g e
 Increase the production of basic foods and improve the diet and nutritional
standard of the rural population
 Increase the production of vegetables and other cash crops
 Improve livestock husbandry or pisciculture as supplementary farm enterprises.
The aims of agricultural development cannot be spelt out in terms of production only,
especially in terms of production channelled to urban markets. One of the prime
objectives of development is to bring about a transformation of traditional farming
practices leading to viable enterprises, which will provide fair return on the farmers
labour and raise their standard of living comparable to that of the non agricultural
sectors of the economy.
The means for realizing these aims includes bringing new virgin land under cultivation,
and intensification of production, broadening the range of product in individual farms by
crop diversification and adding new lines of production to the existing ones. In the
project area, as in most agricultural projects, it will probably be necessary to resort to
combination of these options. Intensification can take many forms, such as the use of
chemical fertilizers, irrigations or improved crop varieties. This course of action i.e. the use
of physical inputs is measurable and controllable in the sense that resources can be
allotted as required. However, the newly available resources must be rendered in ways
that are acceptable to farmers, who need motivation to overcome their ingrained
distrust towards unfamiliar concepts. The acceptability of agricultural innovations by the
intended beneficiaries is therefore as important as the physical and ecological factors.
professionals – agronomist, extension agents, engineers etc. a shortage of available
professional manpower can thus impede the introduction of innovations, even when the
benefits of the proposed techniques can be proven. Moreover, to attain the desire
results, the professionals should be proficient not only in their special fields but must also
be familiar with the cultural background of the local population.

The tropical climate of the Tofa area is characterized by distinct wet and dry season with
an annual average precipitation of about 837.7mm of which 90 percent falls during the
6 month rainy season (April-October). The mean annual temperature is 26OC, and the
mean monthly maximum temperature ranges between 39OC in April and 30OC in August.
land use Decree.
33 | P a g e

production. In the Tofa irrigation scheme area, the traditional cultivation schedule has
been adapted to natural soil-moisture regime, even that production is usually
given below.
Crop Selection
The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Tofa irrigation
project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from an
agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
 Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, groundnut and ridi (sesame seed)
which are the predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of
these the grain food, mainly guinea corn and maize, are especially suitable for
cultivation under irrigation since improved varieties of these crops respond well to
a controlled moisture regime (as well as to other agro –technical improvements).
The responses of root and tuber crops to irrigation are not known and these crops
will therefore not be included in the present plan.
 Vegetable and fruit crops
 Cowpea as a wet season crop
 Groundnuts, grown as a single crop in the wet season.
Cropping Programme
34 | P a g e
Farm Mechanization
Use of Fertilizers
2.3.1 Introduction
farm land in Tofa, on the left and right flanks of Tofa River. The scheme will be by gravity
as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of about 10ha been
proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of irrigation and
drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.


35 | P a g e
2.3.4 CROPWAT
These include:
 monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
 backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
 possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
 decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
 calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
 interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
 daily soil water balance output tables
 easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
 graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements/irrigation
schedules
 easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
36 | P a g e
 extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers context-sensitive

help system
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements.
Evapotranspiration
ET Crop = ETo * kc
determining water needs. The modified Penman method, which would offer the best
The following available meteorological data for Tofa was used in the estimation of the
evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement Model
(CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
 Evaporation
 Air Temperature
 Sunshine Hours
 Wind Speed
 Relative Humidity
Crop Coefficients
37 | P a g e
Table 2 shows the crop coefficients for different crops in relation to their length of
growing season, planting date and stage of development. The estimated
evapotranspiration values based on the modified Penman equation (Table 1) with
necessary crop coefficients (table 3) are used for the estimation of crop water demands
using CROPWAT. Automatic necessary deductions were made to the calculated values
to cater for the contribution by rainfall as part of the crop water requirement met by
rainfall.
Table 2.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Tofa
the selected crops. Table 2.3 shows the crop water requirements as obtain from
requirements are spread over a period for each operation.
38 | P a g e

their partial requirements. The partial requirements are equal to the crop water

Principles
 The furrows are running along the major slope

 The maximum furrow slope is the natural slope of the ground.
 The maximum furrow length is limited to 100 m, shorter runs are sometimes necessary
because of the awkward topography.
 The maximum non-erosive furrow stream is given as 1l/s
 The furrow spacing to achieve maximum wetting of the root zone is taken as 0.75
m.
Irrigation Schedule
39 | P a g e
found accordingly.

problems.
Due to the not well-defined canal and drainage lines over each of the area, regular

Water supply for irrigation is proposed to be obtained by gravity flow from an artificial
Night Storage Reservoir (NST) located at the highest elevation within the irrigation area.
The NST is supplied water by pumping from the reservoir of the dam.
2.4 Design Criteria

40 | P a g e

 Provide an optimum amount of moisture within the root zone of the crop or
 Apply the irrigation water efficiently to avoid long-term problems such as high
 To apply the irrigation water using a system that is efficient in terms of labour and
money.
2.4.1 Canal Flow

Empirical formula below can be used to determine canal flow per unit area of crop by
assuming a continuous flow to supply the required depth. This is given in litres/sec/ha as
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 =
259 × 𝑒

2.4.2 Velocity
𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛


2.4.4 Side Slopes

41 | P a g e

Tertiary canals - s = 0.0002
Drains - s = 0.0002

where b = bedwidth
d = depth of flow
2.4.7 Freeboard
Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
2.4.8 Canal Turnout


𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3𝑆
S = Canal gradient

slope.
concrete box.
2.4.11 Access Road

42 | P a g e

A Summary of the major components of the irrigation system that would be provided in
the un eroded portion before the road in from of the damis as follows:
 main canal, length 2,420m;
 10 secondary canals, (6.6 km);
 Turnouts,
 6 field drains (1.20 km);
 Bottom falls etc
A detailed inventory of canals is as listed in table 5.
Table 2.5: Inventory of canals

1 MC1 - 1,300 22 survey limit
4
5 Secondary Canals
6 SC2-1 - 460 5.0
7 SC2-2 - 510 7.0
8 SC2-3 - 810 7.5
9 SC2-4 - 620 7.5
12 SC1-1 - 560 5.5
13 SC1-2 - 260 5.8
14 SC1-3 - 350 5.0
15 SC1-4 - 380 5.5
19 Sub Total 4710 48.8
2.5 Design
2.5.1 Canal Design

𝑑𝑐
259×𝑒

43 | P a g e
Canal flow = 1.5*(24/8)*(7/6) = 4.5 l/s/ha

Type


i 1 - 20 Less than 4.5 A
ii 20 – 45 4.6 - 10 B
Details of the main canal are as follows

MC2
Flow (Q) = 171 l/s (0.171m3/s)
Freeboard-f = 0.35m
MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Details of Secondary canals are as follows

Type A
Flow (Q) = 20l/s
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
44 | P a g e

Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
Freeboard-f = 0.3m

Flow (Q) = 70 l/sec
Total D = 0.7m
Side slope = 1: 1.2

irrigation.
 Rough Levelling
 Medium Levelling
 Land Smoothening
grade.
45 | P a g e

For the Tofa scheme, it is proposed that the farming community takes full responsibility
with very little support from the Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority. Initial
training on the operation of the scheme should be given by the contractor on the
construction contract while supervision should be vested on the LNRBDA.
 Execution of irrigation water supply in accordance with the planting stage of the
crop
 Strict adherence to the rotational irrigation schedule
Water Users Association (WUA)

 Laws and policies of the country and its irrigation agency;

 Size and complexity of the irrigation systems;
 Physical condition of the irrigation systems;
 Size of irrigated farm holding;
 Farmers net income;
 Capability of irrigation agency and its staff;
 Capability and organizational arrangements of the WUA;
 Local politics;
 Local social customs and practice
 Environmental problems.
farmers:
46 | P a g e
 The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
 The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and
drainage ditches, distribute water among them, and pay the irrigation fees
prescribed by the government. Under this arrangement farmers are usually
organized into informal groups in preparation for the establishment of WUA for
water distribution and maintenance of farm and drainage ditches.
 Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
 NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and
Type 2 contracts.
 Under Type 1 contract, the WUA undertakes canal maintenance,

which do not require heavy equipment. Such activities may
include clearing, desilting, embankment repair etc., for which
NEWMAP pays the WUA an agreed amount per km of canal, on a
monthly basis.
 Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the

various turnouts, prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas
(LIPA), distribute ISF bills prepared by NEWMAP, collect payment of
ISF from farmers and remit the collection to NEWMAP. For this
activity they are entitled to a share in the amount collected in
accordance with the following tabulation:

 Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
 ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the
WUA and verified by NEWMAP staff.
 ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
the WUA in accordance with a formula designed to cover the O&M expenses
of NEWMAP and provide incentives for increased collection by the WUA
 The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
percentage of the ISF to be collected which is subsequently billed by NEWMAP
to the WUA. The WUA bills each individual member.
 The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
47 | P a g e

can be effective.

48 | P a g e
training IAs.

2.6.2 Maintenance of the System

assumptions. Additionally an effective system of inspection should be established and
implemented.
 Repairs to earthworks
 De-silting and grass removal from canals and drains
 Repairs to service roads
 Repairs to appurtenant structures
 Lubrication of gate lifting devices
 Servicing of electromechanical equipments
49 | P a g e


 Personnel Services
 Equipment and construction operations
 Office including building
 Insurance and other overhead costs.
 Irrigation operation capital cost

 Equipment and building cost
 Fuel services
 Office requirement and services
 Insurance and other overhead cost
 Equipment
 Material
 Office and services
 Personnel services
 Insurance and other overhead charges

50 | P a g e
3 MAKODA IRRIGATION
3.1 Introduction

 Rainfall
management.
 Temperature
 Source of Water
based scheme.
irrigation area.

follows:
 Increase the income and consequently raise the living standard of small farmers
 Increase the production of basic foods and improve the diet and nutritional
 Increase the production of vegetables and other cash crops
51 | P a g e
 Improve livestock husbandry or pisciculture as supplementary farm enterprises.

3.3 Present Situation

The tropical climate of the Makoda area is characterized by distinct wet and dry season
the 6 month rainy season (April-October). The mean annual temperature is 26oC, and
the mean monthly maximum temperature ranges between 39oC in April and 30oC in
August.
land use Decree.
3.4 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture

production. In the Makoda irrigation scheme area, the traditional cultivation schedule
52 | P a g e
has been adapted to natural soil-moisture regime, even that production is usually
given below.
3.4.1 Crop Selection

The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Makoda
irrigation project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from
an agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
- Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, and groundnut which are
predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of these the grain food,
mainly guinea corn and maize, are suitable for cultivation under irrigation since
improved varieties of these crops respond well to a controlled moisture regime (as well
as to other agro –technical improvements). The responses of root and tuber crops to
irrigation are not known and these crops will therefore not be included in the present
plan.
 Vegetable and fruit crops
 Cowpea as a wet season crop
 Groundnuts, grown as a single crop in the wet season.
3.4.2 Cropping Programme

3.4.3 Farm Mechanization

53 | P a g e

3.4.4 Use of Fertilizers

3.5.1 Introduction
farm land in Dawankaya/Jigawa Sateme on the left flank of the River. The scheme will
be by gravity as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of
about 35Ha been proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of
irrigation and drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.



54 | P a g e
Table 3.1: : Irrigation Water Supply
CROPWAT
These include:
 monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
 backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
 possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
 decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
 calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
 interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
 daily soil water balance output tables
 easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
 graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation
schedules
 easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
 extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
 context-sensitive help system
55 | P a g e
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements.
Evapotranspiration
ET Crop = ETo * kc
The following available meteorological data for Makoda was used in the estimation of
the evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement
Model (CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
 Evaporation
 Air Temperature
 Sunshine Hours
 Wind Speed
 Relative Humidity
Crop Coefficients
56 | P a g e

the selected crops. Table 3.3 shows the crop water requirements as obtain from
Table 3.3: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Makoda
57 | P a g e

their partial requirements.The partial requirements are equal to the crop water

Principles
 The maximum furrow length is limited to 100 m, shorter runs are sometimes
 The maximum non erosive furrow stream is given as 1l/s
m.
Irrigation Schedule
time, rate and intervals.For planning purposes, theoretical calculations taking
meteorological data into account and also considering the soil properties and crop
management factor, were carried out to determine the theoretical irrigation interval.
The calculated intervals serve as determining factors to compute the maximum daily
possible water demand to be discharged through a canal system, which must be
capable to carry that specific flow rate. The theoretically calculated irrigation intervals
58 | P a g e
will therefore be just a guideline for the later irrigation management. Refer to CROPWAT
output in the Annex of this report for the irrigation schedule.
found accordingly.

problems.

Due to the not well-defined canal and drainage lines over each of the area, regular

Water supply for irrigation is proposed to be obtained by gravity flow from an the release
outlet located at the downstream elevation within the irrigation area. The release is to
supply water by gravity from the reservoir of the dam.
3.6 Design Criteria


59 | P a g e
money.
3.6.1 Canal Flow

qc=dc/(259×e)
3.6.2 Velocity
𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛

3.6.4 Side Slopes

60 | P a g e

Secondary canals - s = 0.0002
Drains - s = 0.0002

where b = bed width
d = depth of flow
3.6.7 Freeboard
Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
3.6.8 Canal Turnout



𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3𝑆
S = Canal gradient

slope.
concrete box.
61 | P a g e
3.6.11 Access Road


 2 main canal, length 2,300m;
 8 secondary canals, (3,000m);
 Turnouts,
 field drains (2.30 km);
A detailed inventory of canals is as listed in table 3.5.
Inventory of canals
2 MC2 - Future Dev Future survey limit and for
Dev future development
4
5 Secondary Canals
6 SC1-1 - 196 18
7 SC1-2 - 109 20
8 SC1-3 - 167 24
9 SC1-4 - 100 20
12 SC1-5 - 125 20
13 SC2-1 - 153 18
14 SC2-2 - 140 16
15 SC2-3 - 214 17
16 SC2-4 - 126 18
17 SC2-5 - 100 17
18 SC3-1 - 125 21
19 SC3-2 - 148 18
20 SC3-3 80 15
21 SC3-4 90 18
22 SC3-5 100 14
23 SC4-1 120 16
62 | P a g e
24 SC4-2 118 20
25 SC4-3 115 17
26 SC4-4 95 16
27 SC4-5 78 15
28 SC5-1 96 18
29 SC5-2 78 17
30 SC5-3 87 14
31 SC5-4 84 15
32 SC5-5 75 16
19 SC2-6 2,919 438
3.7 Design
3.7.1 Canal Design

𝑑𝑐
259×𝑒

Canal flow = 1.5*(24/8)*(7/6) = 4.5 l/s/ha

Type

63 | P a g e

1 1 - 20 Less than 4.5 A
2 20 – 45 4.6 - 10 B
MC2
Flow (Q) = 171 l/s (0.171m3/s)
Freeboard-f = 0.35m
MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
Freeboard-f = 0.3m

Type A
Flow (Q) = 20l/s
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
64 | P a g e

Flow (Q) = 70 l/sec

Total D = 0.7m
Side slope = 1: 1.2

irrigation.
 Rough Levelling
 Medium Levelling
 Land Smoothening
grade.

For the Makoda scheme, it is proposed that the farming community takes full
responsibility with very little support from the Lower Niger River Basin Development
Authority. Initial training on the operation of the scheme should be given by the
65 | P a g e
contractor on the construction contract while supervision should be vested on the

LNRBDA.
 Execution of irrigation water supply in accordance with the planting stage of the
crop
 Strict adherence to the rotational irrigation schedule
 Local politics;
 Environmental problems.
farmers:
 The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
 The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and drainage
 Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
66 | P a g e
 NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and Type
2 contracts.
 Under Type 1 contract, the WUA undertakes canal maintenance, which do not
require heavy equipment. Such activities may include clearing, desilting,
embankment repair etc., for which NEWMAP pays the WUA an agreed amount
per km of canal, on a monthly basis.
 Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the various turnouts,
prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA), distribute ISF bills prepared
by NEWMAP, collect payment of ISF from farmers and remit the collection to
NEWMAP. For this activity they are entitled to a share in the amount collected in
accordance with the following tabulation:

 Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
 ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the WUA
 ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
 The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
 The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire


67 | P a g e
can be effective.

training IAs.

68 | P a g e


assumptions. Additionally, an effective system of inspection should be established and
implemented.
 Repairs to earthworks
 De-silting and grass removal from canals and drains
 Repairs to service roads
 Repairs to appurtenant structures
 Lubrication of gate lifting devices
 Servicing of electromechanical equipments

 Personnel Services
 Equipment and construction operations
 Office including building
 Insurance and other overhead costs.
 Irrigation operation capital cost
 Equipment and building cost
69 | P a g e
 Fuel services
 Office requirement and services
 Insurance and other overhead cost
 Equipment
 Material
 Office and services
 Personnel services
 Insurance and other overhead charges

70 | P a g e
4 SHANONO IRRIGATION
4.1 Background Data

a) Rainfall
management.
b) Temperature
1.5 Source of Water

based scheme.
irrigation area.

follows:
 Increase the income and consequently raise the living standard of small farmers
 Increase the production of basic foods and improve the diet and nutritional
 Increase the production of vegetables and other cash crops
71 | P a g e
 Improve livestock husbandry or pisciculture as supplementary farm enterprises.

The tropical climate of the Shanono area is characterized by distinct wet and dry season
the 6 month rainy season (April-October). The mean annual temperature is 26 oC, and
the mean monthly maximum temperature ranges between 39 oC in April and 30 oC in
August.
land use Decree.

production. In the Shanono irrigation scheme area, the traditional cultivation schedule
has been adapted to natural soil-moisture regime, even that production is usually
72 | P a g e
given below.
Crop Selection
The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Shanono
irrigation project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from
an agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
- Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, and groundnut which are the
predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of these the grain food,
mainly guinea corn and maize, are especially suitable for cultivation under irrigation
since improved varieties of these crops respond well to a controlled moisture regime (as
well as to other agro –technical improvements). The responses of root and tuber crops to
irrigation are not known and these crops will therefore not be included in the present
plan.
- Vegetable and fruit crops

- Cowpea as a wet season crop
- Groundnuts, grown as a single crop in the wet season.
Cropping Programme
Farm Mechanization
73 | P a g e
Use of Fertilizers
4.3.1 Introduction
farm land in Yartiti on the left and right and left flanks of the River. The scheme will be by
gravity as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of about
35Ha been proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of irrigation
and drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.



74 | P a g e
CROPWAT
These include:
 monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
 backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
 possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
 decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
 calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
 interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
 daily soil water balance output tables
 easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
 graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation
schedules
 easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
 extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
 context-sensitive help system
75 | P a g e
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements .
4.3.5 Evapotranspiration
ET Crop = ETo * kc
4.3.6 Reference Evapotranspiration

The following available meteorological data for Shanono was used in the estimation of
the evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement
Model (CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
 Evaporation
 Air Temperature
 Sunshine Hours
 Wind Speed
 Relative Humidity
Crop Coefficients
76 | P a g e


the selected crops. Table 2 shows the crop water requirements as obtain from
Table 4.3: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Shanono

their partial requirements. The partial requirements are equal to the crop water

77 | P a g e
Principles
 The maximum furrow length is limited to 100 m, shorter runs are sometimes
 The maximum non erosive furrow stream is given as 1l/s
m.
Irrigation Schedule
found accordingly.
78 | P a g e

problems.

Due to the not well defined canal and drainage lines over each of the area, regular

Water supply for irrigation is proposed to be obtained by gravity flow from an the release
outlet located at the downstream elevation within the irrigation area. The release is to
supply water by gravity from the reservoir of the dam.
4.4 Design Criteria


money.
4.4.1 Canal Flow

79 | P a g e
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 =
259 × 𝑒
4.4.2 Velocity
𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛
Permissible velocity is that velocity that would not cause eroding of the canal
material or excessive deposition of silt or growth of aquatic weeds.

4.4.4 Side Slopes


SEcondary canals - s = 0.0002
80 | P a g e
Drains - s = 0.0002

where b = bed width
d = depth of flow
4.4.7 Freeboard
Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
4.4.8 Canal Turnout



𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3𝑆
S = Canal gradient

slope.
concrete box.
4.4.11 Access Road

81 | P a g e

A detailed inventory of canals is as listed in table 5.

Table 5: Inventory of canals
2 MC2 - 1,100 15 survey limit and for
future development
4
5 Secondary Canals
6 SC1-1 - 196 3
7 SC1-2 - 109 4
8 SC1-3 - 167 2.8
9 SC1-4 - 100 3
12 SC1-5 - 125 4.2
13 SC1-6 - 153 3
14 SC2-1 - 140 2.7
15 SC2-2 - 214 2.8
16 SC2-3 - 126 3
17 SC2-4 - 100 3.5
18 SC2-5 - 125 3.6
19 SC2-6 - 148 4
28
29
30
19 Sub Total 1,703 40
 2 main canal, length 2,300m;
 8 secondary canals, (3,000m);
 Turnouts,
 field drains (2.30 km);
82 | P a g e
4.5 Design
4.5.1 Canal Design

𝑑𝑐
259×𝑒

For this project the Canal flow was computed using the CROPWAT software which
arrived at 1.17l/sec/ha, but due to lack of experience in handling conventional Irrigation
facilities 1.5l/sec/ha will be use. The design also assumed 8 hrs pumping of irrigation per day
and 6 days per 7 day week.
Canal flow = 1.5*(24/8)*(7/6) = 4.5 l/s/ha

Type


1 1 - 20 Less than 4.5 A
2 20 – 45 4.6 - 10 B

MC2
Flow (Q) = 171 l/s (0.171m3/s)
Freeboard-f = 0.35m
MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
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Freeboard-f = 0.3m

Type A
Flow (Q) = 20l/s
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) =
Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
Freeboard-f = 0.3m

Flow (Q) = 70 l/sec

Total D = 0.7m
Side slope = 1: 1.2

irrigation.
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 Rough Levelling
 Medium Levelling
 Land Smoothening
grade.

For the Shanono scheme, it is proposed that the farming community takes full
responsibility with very little support from the Lower Niger River Basin Development
Authority. Initial training on the operation of the scheme should be given by the
contractor on the construction contract while supervision should be vested on the
LNRBDA.
 Execution of irrigation water supply in accordance with the planting stage of the
crop
 Strict adherence to the rotational irrigation schedule

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 Local politics;
 10Environmental problems.
farmers:
 The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
 The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and drainage
 Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
 NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and Type
2 contracts.
 Under Type 1 contract, the WUA undertakes canal maintenance, which do

not require heavy equipment. Such activities may include clearing, desilting,
embankment repair etc., for which NEWMAP pays the WUA an agreed
amount per km of canal, on a monthly basis.
 Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the various
turnouts, prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA), distribute ISF
bills prepared by NEWMAP, collect payment of ISF from farmers and remit the
collection to NEWMAP. For this activity they are entitled to a share in the
amount collected in accordance with the following tabulation:
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 Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
 ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the WUA
 ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
 The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
 The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
Guidelines for establishing joint management of irrigation systems between government andfarmers
irrigation associations
can be effective.
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responsibilities and capacities. Thus, all improvements should be joint undertakings
training IAs.

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assumptions. Additionally an effective system of inspection should be established and

implemented.
 Repairs to earthworks
 De-silting and grass removal from canals and drains
 Repairs to service roads
 Repairs to appurtenant structures
 Lubrication of gate lifting devices
 Servicing of electromechanical equipments

 Personnel Services
 Equipment and construction operations
 Office including building
 Insurance and other overhead costs.
 Irrigation operation capital cost
 Equipment and building cost
 Fuel services
 Office requirement and services
 Insurance and other overhead cost
 Equipment
 Material
 Office and services
 Personnel services
 Insurance and other overhead charges

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Irrigation Report v2

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Irrigation Report v2

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NEWMAP –

Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project

Consultancy Service for Engineering Design for

Irrigation Design Report

1.7 Maintenance of the System ........................................................................... 29

3.2.1 Planning Concepts ................................................................................................. 51

4.3.2 Cropping Pattern.................................................................................................... 74

 field drains (2.30 km); 82

DFI - Development Finance Institution

1.1.1 Physical Setting of Project Area

Location and Extent

Geology & Topography

1.1.2 Climate and Weather Conditions

Table 1.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano

1.1.4 Crop Growth and Climate

1.1.5 Source of Water

1.2 Agricultural Plan

1.2.1 Planning Concepts

 Increase the production of vegetables and other cash crops

 Improve livestock husbandry or pisciculture as supplementary farm

The aims of agricultural development cannot be spelt out in terms of production

prime objectives of development is to bring about a transformation of traditional

1.2.2 Present Situation

1.2.3 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture

The crop studied included the following:

 Vegetable and fruit crops

 Cowpea as a wet season crop

 Groundnuts, grown as a single crop in the wet season.

1.3 Irrigation and Drainage System

1.3.2 Cropping Pattern

1.3.3 Irrigation Layout

1.3.4 Irrigation Water Requirements

Table 1.2: Irrigation Water Supply

The estimated evapotranspiration values based on the modified Penman equation

Table 1.3: Crop Water Requirement

1.3.5 Crop Water Requirements

Table 1.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Takai

1.3.6 Field Irrigation Requirement

1.3.7 Irrigation Method

1.3.8 Frequency and Efficiency of Irrigation

A guide to good water management is the establishment of an appropriate frequency

Efficiency of the Irrigation System

1.3.9 Irrigation and Drainage Layout

1.3.10 Irrigation Water Supply

1.4 Design Criteria

The objective is to develop a system that will:

1.4.1 Canal Flow

For rice, dc = net Irrigation requirement (mm)

e = Overall efficiency (%)

Where V - velocity (m/s)

R - Hydraulic radius (m)

S - Canal bed slope (m/m):

n - Manning’s roughness coefficient

Maximum permissible velocities in canals are given as follows:

Earth canals - 0.8m/s

Concrete canals - 2.0m/s

Velocities of 0.10m/s - 0.75m/s are adopted.

1.4.3 Roughness Coefficient (n)

1.4.4 Side Slopes

1.4.5 Canal/Drain Gradients

1.4.6 Canal Bed Width and Depth of Flow

1.4.8 Canal Turnout

1.4.9 Regulator/Check Structure

The gated type of regulator is adopted with spacing computed as follows:

Canal flow = 1.5(24/8)(7/6) = 4.5 l/s/ha