FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

Rolling

Forging

Wire drawing
Extrusion Deep drawing
 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
FORMING

• Overview of Metal Forming

• Material Behavior in Metal Forming
• Temperature in Metal Forming
• Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
 Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal work
pieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed yield strength of metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of
the die
 Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations

and massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively
low surface area to volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical
billets and rectangular bars
 Metal Working Classification

• Direct-compression-
type process
• Indirect-
compression process
• Tension-type process
• Bending process
• Shearing process

Basis: type of force applied to the work piece

Basic bulk deformation processes:
Rolling
Basic bulk deformation processes:
Forging
Basic bulk deformation processes:
Extrusion
Basic bulk deformation processes:
Drawing
 Sheet Metalworking

• Forming and related operations performed on metal

sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area to volume ratio of starting metal,
which distinguishes these from bulk deformation
• Often called press-working because presses perform
these operations
− - Parts are called stampings
− - Usual tooling: punch and die
Basic sheet metalworking operation:
Bending
Basic sheet metalworking operation:
Deep Drawing
Basic sheet metalworking operation:
Shearing
 Stresses in Metal Forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal
are usually compressive
− - Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
− - Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
− - Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
− - Still others apply shear stresses
Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:
− - Low yield strength and high ductility
• These properties are affected by
temperature:
- Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is
raised
• Other factors:
− - Strain rate and friction
 Material Behavior in Metal Forming
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary
interest because material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by
the flow curve:

σ t = Kε n

where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain

hardening exponent
• Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and
true strain
 Typical values of K and n (σt = K·εn)
MATERIAL K (MPa) n
Aluminum, 1100-O 180 0.20
2024-T4 690 0.16
5052-O 210 0.13
6061-O 205 0.20
6061-T6 410 0.05
7075-O 400 0.17
Brass, 70-30, annealed 895 0.49
85-15, cold-rolled 580 0.34
Bronze (phosphor), annealed 720 0.46
Cobalt-base alloy, heat treated 2070 0.50
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Molybdenum, annealed 725 0.13
Steel, low-carbon, annealed 530 0.26
1045 hot-rolled 965 0.14
1112 annealed 760 0.19
1112 cold-rolled 760 0.08
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 640 0.15
17-4 P-H annealed 1200 0.05
52100 annealed 1450 0.07
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
Engineering stress – strain curve
True Stress (σt) & Strain (ε)

Flow curve
 Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength increases
when deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material

where Yf = flow stress (true stress), that is, the yield

strength as a function of strain

Y f = Kε n
 Average Flow Stress
Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between zero
and the final strain value defining the range of interest
Where ε = maximum strain during deformation process

_
Kε n
Yf =
1+ n

True strain
 Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
ƒ Both strength and strain hardening are reduced at
higher temperatures
ƒ In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
 Temperature in Metal Forming

• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with

lower forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
− - Cold working
− - Warm working
− - Hot working
 Influence of Annealing Temperature on the
Tensile Strength and Ductility of a Brass Alloy
 Influence of Annealing Temperature on the
Tensile Strength and Ductility of a Brass Alloy
 Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization
temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
1. In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
2. Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level