ADVANCE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

UNIT I
Hot machining, Machining of Plastics, Unit heads, Plastics cooling, electro forming, Surface
Cleaning and Surface Treatments, Surface Coatings, Paint Coating and Slushing, Adhesive
Bonds, Adhesive Bond Joints, Adhesives, Surface Coating for Tooling, Graphite Mould Coating,
Vacuum Mould Process.
Introduction, Types of Composites materials, Agglomerated Materials, Reinforced materials,
Laminates, Surface Coated Materials, Production of Composite Structures, Fabrication of
particulate composite Structures, Fabrication of reinforced Composite, Fabrication of
Laminates, Machining, Cutting and Joining of Composites.

UNIT II
Introduction, Polymers, Polymerization, Addition of Polymers, Plastics, Types of plastics,
Properties of Plastics, Processing of Thermoplastic Plastics, Injection Moulding,
Extrusion Process, Sheet forming processes, Processing of Thermosetting Plastics,
Compression Moulding, Transfer Moulding, Casting of Plastics, Machining of plastics, other
processing methods of plastics
Introduction, casting, thread chasing, Thread Rolling, Die Threading and Tapping, Thread
Milling, Thread Measurement and Inspection

UNIT III
Theoretical basis of metal forming, classification of metal forming processes, cold forming,
hot working, Warm working, Effect of variables on metal forming processes, Methods of
analysis of manufacturing processes, Open Die forging, Rolling Power Rolling, Drawing,
Extrusion.

UNIT IV

Introduction, Product Application, Limitation of Die Casting, Die Casting Machines, Molten
metal Injection systems, I lot chamber machines, Cold chamber machines, Die casting
Design, Design of Die casting Dies, Types of Die casting Dies, Die design, Die material,
Die Manufacture, Die Lubrication and Coating, Preheating of Dies, Vacuum Die Casting,
Recent trends In Die Casting Process.

Definition, Cost accounting or costing, Elements of costing, cost structures, Estimation of cost
elements, Methods of estimating, Data requirements of cost estimating, Steps in making cost
estimate, Chief factors in cost estimating, Numerical examples, calculation of machining times,
Estimation of total unit time.

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UNIT-I
Hot machining, Machining of Plastics, Unit heads, Plastics cooling, electro forming, Surface Cleaning and
Surface Treatments, Surface Coatings, Paint Coating and Slushing, Adhesive Bonds, Adhesive Bond Joints, Adhesives,
Surface Coating for Tooling, Graphite Mould Coating, Vacuum Mould Process.
Introduction, Types of Composites materials, Agglomerated Materials, Reinforced materials, Laminates,
Surface Coated Materials, Production of Composite Structures, Fabrication of particulate composite Structures,
Fabrication of reinforced Composite, Fabrication of Laminates, Machining, Cutting and Joining of
Composites.

1.1 HOT MACHINING

A considerable percentage of the parts of up-to-date machinery are made of heat resisting
stainless steels, heat-resisting super alloys and similar materials. This is due to the increased
production of machines operating at high loads, pressures, speed and temperatures, as well as in
chemically active media.
The machining of work pieces of such materials, by conventional methods, is extremely difficult
and many cases, impossible. Very low cutting speed and feeds will have to be employed,
resulting in heavier loads on machine bearing and sides. Also, it will be quite a problem to
correctly select cutting tool materials, tool life or tool geometry. Heat-resistant materials contain
considerable amount of alloying elements, have a tendency to weld onto the cutting tool, loose
very little of their strength, even when heated to temperatures as high as 800 oC, have a very high
shear strength, combine high tensile strength with high toughness, are susceptible to considerable
work-hardening and have low thermal conductivity. All these features lead to the development of
high cutting forces, and temperature, and to intensive cutting tool wear. In addition, the surface
finish obtained in machining is poor. Consequently, tools for machining heat- resistant materials
should be very carefully sharpened and lapped. Tool geometry should be properly selected.
To overcome these problems, entirely new machining methods have been developed. Some of
these : ECM, EDM and USM have already been discussed. The method of “Hot Machining”
basically consists of applying localized heat, ahead of cutting tool, to reduce the shear strength of
the work piece metal (thus improving its machinability), and to permit the easy formation of the
cutting chip. The chip is usually produced in the form of a long smooth chip with lessened shock
to the tool.
The application of correct amount of heat, in the required place, is of maximum importance.
Hence, the type of heat and its application needs to be studied with care. Heating of the work
piece also influences tool wear. Therefore, heating in the cutting process improves
machinability; when the increase in tool life, due to the reduction of the work done in cutting, is
greater than the detrimental effect of the high temperature on the tool, leading to increase wear. It
has been established that the temperature – interval in machining with heating of the work piece
should be taken 35 to 40oC lower than the temperature – interval for annealing and aging.
The heating temperature depends upon the cutting speed and the rate of feed, since the amount of
heat generated in cutting increases with the speed and feed. Thus in truing a particular grade of
stainless steel, heating temperature is:
> 500oC at cutting speed of 19m/min
= 350oC at cutting speed of 300m/min
= 230oC at cutting speed of 375m/min

Advantages:
1. The process id economical and in many case has reduced the operating costs.
2. Production gets increased.
3. Good surface finish can be obtained, superior to that obtained on these materials at room
temperature.
4. Little evidences any adverse micro structural change.
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1.1.1 Heating devices: The work piece can be heated by various methods of heating as high-
frequency induction heating or electric – arc heating devices mounted on the carriage, by
resistance heating with the application of an electric current in the cutting zone, by flame
heating, by Plasma arc heating. Sometime, the blank is preheated in a furnace before being
loaded into the machine tool.

1.2 UNIT HEADS

Basically a unit head is a power operated slide with provisions for advancing different types of
cutting tools to the component. Unit heads are mounted on Standardized bases. A unit head
consists of a cast iron body which houses the gears driven from the motor to rotate the spindle.
The body has longitudinal movement along the base which is affected from the main motor
through a lead screw and nut.

Fig 1.1 Unit Head

The idle motions are carried out with the help of a traverse motor and its electrical brake. Depths
of cut and various intermittent motions are controlled by a series of trip stops secured to the
head. While a dead stop can be used to ensure the accuracy of cutter depth. The longitudinal
movement of the head can be actuated also through the rotation of a plate or cylindrical cam, or
when required for arduous duties, by hydraulic power.
The “Unit Head” has opened up avenues of multiple- operation machines for the completion of
components which would need a line of machine tools, each of which would need to be fully
tooled and manned. Also inter stage handling and storage has been eliminated.
It is possible to load one or more components and not to remove them from the fixture on the
machine until the completion of a wide range of operations. On the completion of the machining
of these parts, the heads can be dismantled from the bases, and these with the bases, passed into
stores until required for the machining of other components. The “Unit Heads” have made
considerable headway in the production of medium to large- scale components.
Advantages:
1. Unit heads allow for maximum versatility.
2. They can be mounted and remounted in a variety of positions on standard interchangeable
bases.
3. High production rates, along with consistent high accuracy.
4. Number of handling times reduced.
5. Less floor space needed for machines and for spring.
6. Operators more fully employed.
7. Physical efforts of operators reduced.
8. Good economical recovery rate.
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The unit head is available in a wide range of sizes. Power rating of driving motors ranges from
about 0.2kW to 22kW, with spindle speeds from 41 to 200 rev/min, and with feeds of 0.025 to
3.50 mm/ rev.
Each unit head needs a control panel and such panels can be housed in separate cabinets or
enclosed within a standard base. When a machine setup includes several heads, a combined
control board can be enclosed within the framework of the base.
The majority of the unit heads are designed for boring, broaching, chamfering, counter boring,
countersinking, drilling, end milling, face milling, gage milling, reaming, and sawing, shot-
facing, tapping, thread rolling and turning. The front faces of most of the heads are provided with
means to allow the fixing of multiple-spindle drilling heads, to permit the drilling of more than
one hole simultaneously. The versatility of drilling unit heads has been discussed under art.

1.3 PLASTIC TOOLING

Certain types of non-cutting tools are made nonmetallic materials including plastics. The most
common materials are epoxide resins, because of their better mechanical properties (excellent
properties when loaded in compression) than other plastic materials.
Epoxide resins are more costly than any other tool material. But they are lighter then other
materials, being 1/4th weight of Zinc alloys and less than 1/4th weight of cast iron. Also the cost
saving due to the reduction in time and labour involved in marking plastic tools outweighs the
material cost. Other properties of plastics have been discussed. Reinforcing with fiberglass can
increase their tensile strength.
Epoxide resins can be poured, cast, laminated or moulded into intricate shapes with negligible
shrinkage and finish with a minimum amount of surface finishing. Consequently, the greatest
saving in cost is obtained with tools of complex shape, for which the cost of machining and final
finishing will be very high.
Compared with any of the tooling metals, plastics are soft and have a much shorter life than
comparable tools in steel. It is not economical, therefore, to use plastic tools when: tool shapes
are conventional, the component material is thick and quantities and large. Faulty handling too
can damage plastic tools, more easily.

1.3.1 Applications:
Plastic tools are being used in many industries:
1. For drilling jigs, routing jigs and fixtures for assembling, brazing and welding. In the
majority of cases inserts are provided to prevent endure wear.
2. In plastic industry for the production of moulds for both thermosetting and thermoplastic
materials, for vacuum forming and for the injection blow moulding of polythene products.
3. In foundries for the production of patterns and core boxes. The entry orifice of the latter is
normally fitted with a hardened steel insert to counteract the abrasive affect of the blown
sand.
4. Metal forming tools for drop hammers, hammers blocks multipart press tools, piercing –
punch plates, rubber press tools, spinning chucks and stretch press formers. Most of these
tools can be given extra support by the inclusion in the mould of metal or fiber glass frames
or supports.
5. Plastic tool also offer many advantages where short runs and prototypes are required or
where a set of tools is required very quickly.

General tapers and blending radii assist in producing a strong tool. The thickness of component
metal should rarely exceed about 1.5 mm while radii less than 4.75 mm are to be avoided.
The metal formed by plastic tools includes:
Aluminum alloys, brass and other copper alloys, mild steel, nimonic, stainless steel and titanium.

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1.3.2 Production of plastic tools: Plastic tools can be produced by two methods: by Casting and
building up reinforced layers of resin and glass fiber. The casting process is used for the
production of tools of large mass, such as forming dies and punches. Selected fillers are added to
the resin to reduce the cost of the mass and provide the properties required in the tool. Inserts and
supports can be embodied in the casting to provide strength where required. Casting is least time
– consuming and the more reproducible of the two methods.

1.4 MACHINING OF PLASTICS:

Plastic can be machined, but in most cases, machining of plastics is not required. Moulding and
forming methods can obtain acceptable surface quality and dimensional accuracy. However,
there are certain plastics like PTFE (Polytetra fluoroethylene) which are sintered products and
are not mould able by usual techniques, as they do not melt. For such “thermo stable plastics”
machining is a viable alternative to moulding.
The machining of plastics (by operation such as turning, drilling and milling) has special features
due primarily to the structure of the material. It also depends upon the binder upon the binder
and the filler and the method of moulding the component. For example, the machining of
thermosetting plastics allows optimum cutting variables and tool geometry to be employed
because these do not soften on heating, whereas thermoplastic resins soften under heat. The
permissible maximum temperature in the cutting zone is 160OC for thermo-setting resins and
only 60OC to 100OC for thermoplastics.
Special features of the machining of plastics are:-
1. The tendency of certain plastics to splitting.
2. High elasticity (40 times as much as that of steels). Therefore, they must be carefully
supported, to avoid their deflection during machining.
3. Non-homogeneous structure of the material, with components of different hardness. This
results in poor surface finish after machining.
4. Plastics have a strong abrading action on cutting tools.
5. Their low thermal conductivity results in poor heat dissipation from the cutting zone and in
over-heating of the cutting edges.
6. The intense dust formation, especially for thermosetting plastics, makes it necessary to use
special dust -removing devices.
7. The hygroscopic of plastics excludes the use of liquid cutting fluids. Compressed air is
commonly used for cooling.
8. Reinforced plastics are very difficult to machine.

Plastics can be machined with H.S.S. and cemented -carbide tools. In machining a plastic
material with a filler of glass, quartz or mica type, a satisfactory tool life can be obtained only
with carbide -tipped tools. Only diamond tools are suitable for turning high-strength plastics of
this type. The strength of cast parts of laminate plastics is 40 to 50 percent less than that of the
parts made by compression moulding. Therefore, higher cutting speeds and feeds can be used in
their machining than for strong thermo-setting plastics. The main trouble in turning laminated
plastics is the peeling of the surface layer.
The cutting variables are also influenced by the life of cutting tool which is subject to abrasive
wear in machining most engineering plastics. Dulling of the cutting tool leads to a poor surface
finish and to breaking out of the material at the points the cutting tools enters and leaves the cut.
This makes it necessary to use more keenly sharpened cutting tools for plastics. The need for
sharp cutting edges follows from the high elasticity of plastics.
The selection of cutting variables is also influenced by the low heat conductivity of the plastics,
since; in machining the tool may be within a closed volume (as in drilling) with no cooling
facilities. This may lead to charring of the machined surface.
The cutting tool angles for machining plastics are made somewhat different than those of tools
for ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The rake angles are positive and relatively larger. Because of

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the visco elastic behavior of thermoplastics, some of the local elastic deformation is regained
when the load is off. Therefore tools must be made with large relief angles (200 to 300).
Abrasive machining of plastics has many advantages over machining with metal cutting tools.
These include the absence of splitting and crack formation, and the better surface finish that can
be obtained.
In grinding, the contact between the wheel and the surface being ground, should be as short as
possible, to avoid burns. Organic glass is commonly ground with coated abrasive, applying an
ample amount of water as a coolant. If possible, however, grinding should be replaced by
polishing with a felt, broadcloth or flannel wheel charged with lapping paste, the process is
known as “Buffing”. The buffing wheels are of diameter 250 mm, 40 to 60 mm wide and of
speed 2000 rev/min. Medium and fine lapping pastes are used as the buffing compound for
plastics. Laminate fabric base, asbestos-fiber and glass -fiber laminate can be cut with abrasive
wheels (SiC) of grain size 24 to 46 and with a 5% emulsion as the cooling fluid.

1.5 ELECTRO- FORMING

Electro-forming is a process of precision metal parts that are usually thin in section, by electro-
deposition on to a form which is shaped exactly to the interior form of the product & which is
subsequently removed

In the process, a slab or plate of the material of the product is immersed into electrolyte & is
connected to the positive terminal of a low voltage, high current d.c power. So it becomes an
anode. A correctly prepared mandrel or a pattern of correct
Shape & size is immersed at some distance from the anode &is connected to the negative
terminal. The mandrels are made from variety of materials both metallic & non-metallic. If the
material is non-conducting, a conductive coating must first be applied to perform electroplating.
The mandrel should poses mirror like finish. When the circuit are closed metal ion are removed
from the anode, transported from the electrolyte towards the cathode and deposited there. After
the deposition the master is removed or destroyed. A metal shell is confirms exactly the masters.
It may take hours or day to deposit of sufficient thickness. The thickness of electroforms ranges
from0.25-25 mm. The processes very much simple electroplating with the diff. That where is the
electroplating, the deposit stays in place (on the cathode), in electroforming, it is stripped from
the form, the electroformed products are typically from nickel, iron, copper, and more recently
from copper-tin, nickel, cobalt and nickel,
1.5.1 Advantages:
1. Low plant cost, cheap tooling & absence of heavy equipment
2. Low labor operating cost
3. The process can be designed to operate continuously throughout day and night
4. Electro deposition can produce good dens deposit, and compared with casting,
electroforming offers high purity, freedom from porosity with the homogeneous structure
these important quality are seldom obtained to such a degree in machine parts, stamping or
forging
5. There is no restriction the internal complexity of electro-forms and this advantage
eliminates in many instances, the costly joining processes.
6. The process has no equal for the reproduction of fine or complex details
7. The use of inserts has widened the application of the process. Metal inserts are attached
to or are embedded in a wax or fusible alloy master, &, when the master is melted, the inserts
remain attached to the electro-form.
8. A high quality surface finish is both obtained on interior &external surfaces of the electro
forms. Accuracies as close as .005 mm
9. complex thin –walled parts can be produced with improved electrical properties
10. Shell-like parts can be produced

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 11. Quickly &economically
1.5.2. Mandrels:

The mandrels, the mould or the matter, is the most expensive item in the process of electro-
forming. Mandrels can be made of several metallic &non-metallic materials the metallic
materials are aluminum, brass, and carbon steel. a common feature of these mandrels is their
oxide formation film –which facilitates their separation from electro form with out any surface
treatment.
Depending on shape of electro –form mandrels are of three types-permanent; semi permanent &
expandable

1.5.2.1 Permanent mandrels

These mandrels are usually made of metals or glass or rigid plastics .the surface of non-metallic
mandrels is made conductive by metalizing by electro-forming or a chemical deposition
technique. For close tolerances work such as gear &gauges, stainless steel is recommended. Such
materials can be used indefinitely, with a minimum treatment to preserve the smooth surface.
Adhesion is minimized by the application of thin coating of a parting compound
1.5.2.2. Semi-permanent mandrels
for straight sided components or components which have several cuts up to about .013 mm,
semi permanents mandrels are used .these are made of steel with fusible coating, compounded
usually made from wax &graphite .,to remove electro-form the fusible layer is melted &after
removal , mandrels is cleared & rebuilt
1.5.2.3. Expendable mandrels
For complex electro-form are made from
(1) Plaster, which after electro-forming are removed by breaking.
(2) Plastic resins &fusible alloys which are melted.
(3) Aluminum & zinc which are dissolved chemically
(4) Brass
Plastic resins are commonly used for decorative work where tolerances are wide without
undercuts. The surface finish of mandrels made from fusible metal alloys can be removed by
electroplating a layer of copper .025 to .050 this copper layer is dissolved from electroform after
fusible alloy is melted

1.5.3 Applications
1. Moulds & dies feature high in the list. Moulds for the production of artificial teeth rubber
7 glass products, & high strength thermosetting plastics are now commonplace. The moulds
can be made with undulating parting lines which have made a considerable impact upon the
production of thermoplastic toys & novelties.
2. Radar 7 electronic industries –radar wave-guides, probes, complicated grids screens 7
meshes can be produced easily
3. Spline, thread & other types of form gauges
4. Cathode for e c m & electrodes for E D M
5. Electro-formed core boxes with inbuilt heating elements.
6. Electro-formed precision tubing, parallel & tapered formed to different shapes to
eliminate the need for bending which the bore.
7. Electrotypes floats bellows, venturi tubes, fountain pen caps, reflectors, heat exchanger
parts honey comb sandwich, parts for gas appliances 7 musical instruments, radio parts ,
filter & dies .

1.5.4 Electro-Forming Is Particularly Used For:

1. High cost metals

2. Low production quantities
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 3. Quantity of identical parts, for example a multi –impression mould
4. The possibility of using a single master for production of a number of electro-forms
5. Where as intricate female impression is required, son that it would be much easier to
produce a male form

1.6 SURFACE CLEANING AND SURFACE TREATMENTS

During the manufacture of virtually all metal; parts, filling, fine metal chips , pieces of chips ,
remnants of wastage or abrasive grit may get into holes or channels of parts . Also oil, dirt,
grease, scale, and other foreign materials remain affected to the main part surface the
purpose of surface cleaning &getting rid of all above materials is two fold – firstly they may
get into holes or channels of part. Subsequently, in operation finished goods they may be
carried by lubricants into the bearings, where they may lead to overheating & premature
wear of the bearing & even to breakdown of the whole machine. This can be properly
avoided by cleaning. Thorough cleaning of parts is essential for high quality of their
performance.

The second purpose of surface cleaning is to prevent corrosion, & to combine a decorative
appearance with protective coating. All metals will oxide & corrode, when expose to certain
environments, unless protected with an air thrust. Before application of any protective coating, it
is essential that the surfaces of the part be prepared by proper cleaning to good adhesion. Various
surface cleaning methods are:

1.6.1 CHEMICAL CLEANING METHODS

1.6.1.1 Alkaline Cleaning: In this method dipping them in aqueous solution of alkaline silicates,
caustic soda, or similar cleaning agents cleans parts. Some type of soap is added to aid in
emulsification. Wetting may be added to the solution to help in thorough cleaning of the parts.
The method satisfactorily removes grease &oil. The cleaning action is by emulsification of oils
& grease. Special washing machines are employed in lot &mass production. Washing m/c may
be of single, two or three chambers types.

(a) In a single chamber washing m/c, washing chamber is equipped with a bank of pipes with
nozzles. A pump delivers the cleaning fluid, drawn up from main tank to the pipes. The nozzles
are arranged so that the part or unit is washed from all sides simultaneously with powerful
streams of fluid. The parts may be transferred in washing machine by chain conyver. The
cleaning fluid is heated by a steam coil of 60 to 80, & therefore parts ejected from the machine
dry fairly soon.

(b) A two-chamber washing machine has two washing chambers. The parts are cleaned in first
chamber & then rinsed of washing solution in the second chamber.

(c) In three –chamber machines third chamber is used for drying.

1.6.1.2. Solvent Cleaning: Small parts are cleaned of oils, dirt, grease, and fats by dipping in
commercial organic solvents, such as naphtha, acetone, carbon tetra chloride. The parts are then
rinsed once or twice in a clean solution of same solvent. The vapors of these solvents are toxic &
therefore require ventilation. The method is particularly suitable for aluminum, brass, lead,
which are chemically active & might get attacked by alkaline cleaners

1.6.1.3. Emulsion Cleaning: In this method of cleaning, the action of organic solvent is
combined with that of an emulsifying agent. The solvent is of generally of petroleum origin &

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emulsifying agent, which are soap or a mixture of soap & kerosene oil, include nonionic
polyesters, high molecular weight sodium, amine salts of alkyl aryl sulphonetes, acid esters of
polyglycerides, glycerols & polyalcohols. Cleaning is done either by spraying or dipping the
metal parts in solution & then rinse & drying. The method is suitable for parts & aluminium, lead
or zinc while are attached by alkaline solution

1.6.1.4. Vapor Degreasing: Vapor Degreasing is a similar process, except that the solvent vapors
are used as the cleaning agent. The solvent is heated to its boiling point and the parts to9 be
cleaned, are hung in its vapors. The vapor condenses on the surface of the parts wash off the oil
and grease.

1.6.1.5. Pickling: The process is used to remove dust or oxide scale from surface of components.
The parts are filled in a tank filled with an acid solution, which is 10 to 12% of sulphuric acid in
water, & is at temp from 65 to 85 C. the solution acts to loosen the hard scale from the
components surface & removes it. The acid solution should not react with metal while from the
scale. For this an inhibitor agent is added to9 the solution. Pickling process only removes oxide
scale.

1.6.1.6. Ultra- Sonic Cleaning: Very dirty small parts, especially those of intricate shape with
hard-to-access inside surfaces, are difficult to clean in ordinary washing facilitates. Such parts
are cleaned much more efficiently by ultra sonic cleaning method. The method is effected in
three stages – prelimary, ultrasonic, & rinsing of parts in a clean washing medium (kerosene,
trichloroethylene)
Ultrasonic energy is produced by a high frequency generator, which feeds high frequency
electric energy to transducers that transforms electric energy into inaudible sound energy. The
transducers are fixed to the bottom or the sides of a stainless steel tank designed to afford the
optimum acoustic conditions. High velocities are imparted to particles of cleaning liquid in the
tank. Cavitations bubbles of microscopic dimensions are formed on the surface of the
components. The cleaning action is done by formation of bubbles, which practically blast all
contaminants from all types of components in seconds, penetrating every crack or crevice &
removing all loose parts. The cleaning liquid includes water, water based solutions, mild acid &
caustic soda, which are thermostatically controlled to operate at temp of about 45 C. The
effectiveness of this method is 99%.
Rinses are required in all cases to ensure through removal of cleaning agent before coating. After
being washed, machines parts are dried carefully. This is done by compressed air.

1.6.1.6.1 ADVANTAGES

1. The process can be manned easily by trained labour.

2. The process reduces the time element.
3. The process produces cleaner surfaces & eliminates many manual operations & the
quality hazards.
4. The cleaning of intricate assemblies after final assembly can reduce testing time.

1.6.1.6.2 APPLICATIONS

The process can be used in all types of engineering factories, cafes, dairies, hospitals, & hotels &
by manufacturing jewellery. Components, which have been cleaned by the process, include –
ceramics, cutlery, electronic equipment, machine tool equipment, watch parts.
Other components, which need to be scrupulously cleaned, include air craft, ball race assemblies,
engine components, fuel gauges, gas turbines, gears, glass components, hydraulic devices, jet
engine parts, refrigerator parts, satellite components, & parts for semi conductors, teliprinters
parts.
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1.6.1.7 Surface Polishing: Mechanical polishing of pressed or extruded metal products & many
such articles is by using a wide range of wire brushes or mops, in conjunction with specially
blended greases & oils the two non –mechanical techniques are chemical polishing &
electrolyte polishing. Chemical polishing has made greater advantages due to increased use
of aluminum for a variety of applications. Electrolyte polishing has made less progress,
because it is more expensive to install.

(a) Chemical Polishing

In the process, the metallic objects are immersed in bathtubs of selected acids. During process
certain amount of metal; mainly peaks are dissolved, producing a bright surface with out the
formation of etched pattern. For chemical polishing of aluminum alloys the most successful of
the solution used contain phosphoric, nitric acid, sulphuric acids. Production cycle consist of
following steps
(1) Immerse for 1 to 3 min at 100 C.
(2) Remove & rinse in hit water to remove the viscous film formation.
(3) Rinse in a mixture containing equal amount of water & I, 42 sp. Gr. Nitric acid at Room
Temperature
(4) If anodizing required, rinse in cold water.
(5) If lacquering is called for, rinse in cold water

The resultant surface finish is of order of .45 to .50 with a high reflection factor of 88%.

1.6.1.7.1 ADVANTAGES

1. The process is comparatively cheap, with low operating cost

2. The equipment has along life.
3. It is very suitable for delicate, thin –walled, embossed.
4. Both the inside & outside surfaces are cleaned easily
5. The process can be combined with barrel – polishing to reduce time & cost.
6. The process can be included in aluminum anodizing cycle
7. Improved reflectivity usually is obtained.

(b) Electrolyte Polishing

The principle of electrolyte polishing is the same as that of ECM. a surface layer of the work
piece is removed by anodic dissolution of the metal , leaving the component with a highly
polished surface . This depleting process is known as ELECTROLYTE POLISHING

When a metallic component is immersed in electro polishing electrolyte, the current line leads
from surface peaks, tangentially, causing a higher current density on the peaks than on valleys.
Thus greater metal dissolution takes place on peaks to take smoother surface than on valleys.
This viscous film protects the micro valleys from the action of current but permits minute peaks
to dissolve. The rate of metal removal is 3 to 10 microns.

A wide range of metals & alloys can be electro typically polished, but the main industrial uses of
the process are for polishing of alloys & stainless steel, copper alloys, nickel, & aluminum
alloys.

1.7 CLEANING AND FINISHING OF FORGINGS

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1) Removal of oxide scales: A thin layer of scale which is caused by contact of heated steel with
air is formed on surface of steel forgings. Amount of scale depends upon the forging temperature
& length & time of operation. The simple way to remove the scale is by employing steam or
compressed to blow away the scale.

2) Cleaning by pickling: Process is used to remove hard scale from surface of forging. It
consists of immersing the forgings in a tank filled with an acid solution, which is 12 to 15 %
concentrate of sulphuric acid in water. The acid solution should not react with clean metal while
removing the scale. For this an inhibitor is added to solution.

3) Tumbling process: Process is used to remove the scale & for general cleaning of the
forgings. The forging along with abrasive materials such as coarse sand or small particle is
placed in barrel. The tilted barrel is rotated at low speed s. the forging & abrasive roll over
themselves. This action loses the scale from surface of forging & removes it along with affecting
a general cleaning of forging.

4) Blast cleaning: Process consists of directing a jet of sand, grit or metallic shots against the
forging. The blast force is obtained from compressed air or centrifugal force through suitably
designed apparatus. This process removes the scale & a smooth surface finish is imparted to the
forging.

1.7.1 CLEANING AND FINISHING OF CASTING

After casting is solidified & cooled down sufficiently in an expandable mould, the first is
freezing the casting from mould. The operation is called as “SHAKE OUT OPERATION” since
a great deal of heat & dust are involved in this operation, the operation is usually mechanized.
Shake out is usually done by means of vibratory knockouts, jolting grids & vibrators. The mould
is intensively jolted & broken up. After shaking the casting out of mould, it is conveyed to the
fettling shop for cleaning and finishing. The process consists of following operations – core
removal, cleaning of surfaces, and removal of gates, risers & fins.

1) CORE REMOVAL OR CORE KNOCKOUT: This operation is also done manually.

Hampering & vibrations will loosen & breaks up cores. Stationary 7 portable vibrators are
employed for this purpose. To knockout from heavy engines, it is disadvantages to use air drills.
Removal of cores by hydro blasting is more sanitary process keeping in view dust problems. The
operation consists of breaking up & washing out the cores with a jet of water delivered at a
pressure of 25 to 100 mm.

2) CLEANING OF SURFACES: The process involves the removal of all adhering sand
&oxide layer & produces a uniformly smooth surface. Mechanical methods are employed for
this purpose, since cleaning by hand with wire brush is tedious & costly.

I) Tumbling: This method is used for cleaning & light casting. The Castings are loaded into a
tumbler or barrel along with white iron picks. Rotation of barrel causes casting & jack stars to
tumble. Jack stars abrade the surface of casting &also abrade surface of one another. This
operation removes adhered sand & oxide scale from the surface of the casting. The rotational
speed of barrel is 30 rev/min.

Ii) Sand Blasting and Shot-Blasting: This method is widely used to clean surfaces of light,
medium & heavy castings. In these machines, dry sands or shots is blown by stream of
compressed air against the surfaces of casting. The impact of abrasive particles traveling at a
high speed, on the surface removes adhering sand & oxide layer. Velocity of abrasive particles
leaving the nozzle of m/c ranges from 35 to 75 m/s & pressure 0.7 MPA

11
iii) Airless Shot Blasting: In this shots are hurled on the surface of casting by a fast rotating
paddle. For harder castings, the shots are made up of white iron, steel, whereas for softer non
ferrous castings, these are made up of copper, bronze, glass or mild iron,. The wheel rotates at
1800 to 2500 rev /min. The velocity of shots striking the surface is about 60 to 72 m /s.

Iv)Hydro Blasting: This is most effective surface cleaning method. Here two operations are
accomplished simultaneously –core knockout & surface cleaning. Casting are placed on a rotary
& stationary table & high velocity jets containing about 15% sand & 85 % water under a
pressure of 10 to 20 mpa . The jet velocity can be up to 100 m/s.

v) Removal of Gates and Risers: Gates, runners, risers, and spure can be removed before or after
cleaning operations. In brittle materials, these are simply broken off from the castings. in more
ductile materials , following the following methods are used to remove them –power hacksaws ,
band saws , disk type cutting edges , abrasive cut of edges , flame cutting with an oxyacetylene
cutting torch & arc cutting for heat resistant steels which are not amiable to gas cutting .

vi) Powder Cutting: Process by which risers & gates can be easily removed from castings made
of oxidation resistant alloys. Preheated iron powder is introduced in oxygen stream. This burning
iron then attacks the metal riser by a process of fluxing & oxidation.

vii) Some minor defects defected may sometimes be repaired by welding without affecting the
function of finished castings.

viii) Finished castings are subjected to various heat treatments to modify mechanical properties
or reduce residual stress.

1.8 SURFACE COATING:

The various surface coating on machine parts are used for protective, decorative, wear resistant
and processing purpose. The different types of surface coatings used for this purpose are:
metallic coatings, phosphate coatings, oxide coatings and plastic coatings etc.

1. Electro – deposited coatings: This process of coating also known as “electroplating”,

comprises preparation of the surface to the plated, plating itself, and degreasing of the surface.
The part to be electro-plated is made the cathode and the metal to be deposited is made the anode
and both are placed in a tank containing an electrolyte. The process is carried out at a voltage of
10 V (D.C.) and current density of upto 10A/dm². When the circuit is closed, metallic ions from
the anode migrate to the cathode and get deposited there. Some characteristic of electrodeposited
coatings as given below:

a) Copper plating: Used for masking of steel parts from carbonization a case of hardening heat
treatment, plating for improved running- in of plated surfaces as an under layer for multi-layer
coatings. Coating thickness: 5 to 25µm.

b) Chrome plating: Wear – resistant protective and decorative coating. It result in improved
retention of lubricant and lower co-efficient of friction. Coating thickness: 30 – 40µm.

c) Cadmium plating: Coating for protection against corrosion of steel in moist atmosphere
(marine corrosion) and for improved running in of mating surfaces. Plating thickness: 15 µm.

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d) Nickel plating: Undercoat of chrome, corrosion protection for steel, wear qualities and for
decoration. Plating thickness: upto 25µm.

e) Lead plating: Resistance to chemical corrosion.

f) Zinc plating: Low- cost protection of steel and iron against atmosphere corrosion and fro
decoration. Plating thickness: upto 15µm.

g) Silver plating: Electrical contacts. Good anti galling and seizing qualities at high temperature.
Plating thickness: 2.5 to 12.5µm.

h) Tin plating: Coating for protection against weak acidic media, non-toxic protection in food,
for subsequent soldering and for masking in nitriding. Plating thickness: 3 to 12µm.

i) Gold plating: Infrared reflectors, electrical contacts, jewellery.

j) Borating: High hardness coating.

k) Lead-indium plating: Electro-deposit of lead on a silver plated surface followed by indium

plating forms a satisfactory bearing surface.

l) Phosphating: Anti-corrosive coating. Plating thickness: 0.5 - 1µm.

m) Brass plating: Brass plating is frequently used as a base for bonding rubber and rubber like
materials to the metal. It improves appearance, provides soldering surface, which is abrasive
resistant. Since brass tarnishes (it is satin yellow to bronze initially and when turns to black to
green on exposure), it must be covered with lacquer, when used for decorative purposes. Brass
plating is used on steel, zinc aluminium, and copper plate.

1 8.1 Electro-less plating: The method of plating differs from the conventional method of
plating that is electro-plating, in that no external source of electricity is used in the process. The
plating is obtained with the help of chemical reaction. For example, for nickel plating, a metallic
salt of nickel, nickel chloride is reduced with the reducing agent, such as sodium hypophosphate.
Nickel metal so obtained is deposited on the work piece. Nickels are two most commonly used
metal, for this process.

1.8.1.1 Advantages:

1. This process can be used for plating non-conducting materials such as plastic and
ceramics.
2. This process does not produce hydrogen embitterment.
3. Cavities, recesses and inner surface of tubes can be plated successfully.
4. The coating has excellent wear and corrosion as compared to electro-plating.

1.8.1.2 Disadvantages

The process is costlier as compared to electro-plating. Some times; some portions of the base of
a work piece are not to be electro-plated for decorative purpose or for the sake of economy. This
is known as “blacking out”. For this the complete base is prepared for electro-plating. The base
is heated to 100ºc. Paraffin wax is applied to the portion to be black out and then the work piece
is completely cooled. After that the electro-plating is carried out.
Electro-plated parts are usually dull and posses little or no metallic luster. To provide finish,
shine and luster to the electro-plated parts, mops and “compos” finish them. The mop should be
moved slowly over the surface to avoid removal of any portion of electro-plated layer, the final
13
finish/colors be obtained by mopping with chalk. Compos, which contain abrasive, should not be
used with soft metals.

1.8.2. Phosphate coating: A coating for steel as a preparation for painting, adhesive bonding or
rust proofing. The process involves the chemical development of a film, which contains ferrous
insoluble phosphate of manganese and ferrum, or ferrum and zinc, by treatment with a dilute
acid phosphate solution. Depending on the phosphate structure and the method of surface
preparation, the phosphate film may be from 2 to 15 µm thick. A rapid phosphating process is
known as “bonderizing”. Phosphate coating can also be used for non-ferrous and light metals.

1.8.3. Oxide coating: Oxide coating of steel parts is done for decoration, rust proofing and to
obtain low friction surface. The coating is obtained by thermal, chemical and electro-chemical
methods.
The thermal method involves heating the part in air, steam or molten nitre. An oxide film 1µm
thick is formed on the part surface: the film color varies with the process temperature. Heating in
the air serves to form thin oxide films on electrical components.
The chemical methods include alkaline and acidic oxidation. In the first method steel parts are
treated with a hot concentrated solution of caustic alkali containing oxidants. In the second
method, solution contains ortho-phosphoric acid and oxidants. The acidic oxidation is much
quicker as compared to alkaline oxidation and provides a stronger oxide film with improved
corrosion resistance. The oxide films on steel parts are (0.8 - 3µm) and porous, and therefore do
not reliably protect the parts from corrosion. Their corrosion – resistance can be increased by
subsequent varnishing.
The chemical methods are used to oxidant parts made of aluminium, manganese copper, zinc and
their alloy. The field of the process application is the manufacture of instruments, tools and
consumer goods.
Electro-chemical oxidation of the parts is made of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloy is
carried out in solutions of caustic alkali. The parts being processed form an anode. The process
runs at lower temperature and requires less chemical agents than the chemical alkaline oxidation.
Prior to treatments of parts, these are cleaned of corrosion spots and degreased, and after
oxidation they are rinsed in water. Decorative oxidation takes from 30 to 40 min; corrosion –
resistant films require upto 1.5 – 2 hours for their formation.

1.8.4. The coating of nickel – cobalt, zinc- cadmium and tin – lead is obtained by methods,
which are called “thermo electro- plating” or “thermo-diffusion”. The latter consists in that
individual metals are successively deposited on the parts and in the course of subsequent heating
these diffuse and form plating of some alloy. Nickel – cobalt plating increases hardness, zinc-
cadmium plating upgrades corrosion resistance and tin-lead plating reduces porosity and
improves appearance.

1.8.5. Plastic coating: Plastic is used as decorative, anti-corrosive, and anti-friction coatings.
These are applied in liquid and powder form. The primary materials used are thermo-plastics
such as: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane, fluroplastic
and caprolactum etc. these are used in form of fine powders which on heating. Change to plastic
state. The coast thickness ranges from 0.15 to 0.35 mm. before coating the parts are heated to
180- 300ºc depending on the plastic to be used. The treatment itself lasts from 2 to 5 s. plastic
coating makes it possible to use carbon steels or non-ferrous metals.

1.8.6. Metallization: Metallization means spraying molten metal with the aid to compressed air.
The metal particle moving at a speed of 100 to 150m/s strike the surface of a part being coated
and adhere to it, thus forming a layer of strong, finely porous metal coating. The layer has a
fairly high compressive strength, even though it is brittle. The coating thickness varies from a
few hundredths of an mm to 3-4 mm. parts after being coated can be turned and ground. The
method is used to obtain decorative, protective, antifriction and heat-resistant coatings, to restore
14
worn out parts and correct defects of castings. The metal being sprayed is melted OA flame (gas
metallization) or by electric arc (electro-metallization). The initial material is metal wire.
Sometimes uses are made of equipment operating on metable powders. The surface to be coated
is cleaned of oil and oxides. Sand blasting and rough turning is employed for better adhesion of
the metal being sprayed to the surface.

1.8.7. Anodizing: Anodizing or anodic coating is a process of providing corrosion resistant and
decorative films on metals, particularly aluminium. The process is the reverse of electro-plating,
in that the part to be coated is made anode, instead of cathode, as in electro-plating. When the
circuit is closed, a layer of aluminium oxide is formed on the anode (aluminium) by the reaction
of aluminium with the electrolyte. The layer of aluminium oxide on the surface is highly
protective.
There are two process used for anodizing.

1.8.8) Chromic acid process: In this process, 3% solution of chromic acid is made as the
electrolyte at a temperature of about 38ºC. This process is applicable only to those aluminium
alloys containg not more than 5% copper or a total alloy content of more than 7½%. The process
produces a light yellow colour.

1.8.9) Sulphuric acid process: The electrolyte is 15 to 25% solution of sulphuric acid. The
process is applicable to aluminium alloys containg more than 5% copper or a total alloy content
of more than 7½%. The process produces a light yellow colour. This process shall not be applied
to parts having joints or recesses in which solution may be retained. Normal anodized coatings
are 0.0050 to 0.0075 mm thick.

1.8.10) Hot- dip coatings: Many metal parts are used for making food containers due to the non-
toxity of tin. To remove the excess tin, the sheets are passed through rollers after these come out
of the bath.

(i) Zinc coating: Giving a coating of zinc is called “Galvanizing”. One method of doing so is by
“electro-plating”. In the hot dip method, the parts or steel sheets are fluxed by immersing them
into a solution of zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid. After that they are dipped into a molten
zinc bath. Again, to remove excess zinc, the sheets are passed through rollers after they leave the
bath. Galvanized steel sheets (and more recently, also one sided galvanized sheet) find increased
use in automotive and appliance industry in addition to their use for roofing.

(ii) Lead coating: Load- coated sheet provides anticorrosion properties in some media. Where
tin coated and zinc coated sheets can not resist corrosion. However, lead coated sheets cannot be
used for food applications, because lead is toxic. An alloy of 15% to 20% tin and the remaining
lead can also be used for this coating. Lead coating method is also called “terne” coating.

(iii) Aluminum-coating: Aluminum – coated sheets can resist corrosion by hot gases. Due to
this, these are suitable for heat exchanges, automotive exhaust systems and grill parts etc.

1.8.11. Conversion coatings: These are the coating produced when a film is deposited on the
base material as a result of chemical or electro-chemical reaction. Many metals particularly steel,
aluminium and zinc can be conversion coated. The coatings can be phosphate coatings, chromate
coatings oxalate coatings. After degreasing and cleaning in alkali, the part is soaked in suitable
acid bath, for example, for chromate coatings, in chromic acid bath.
Conversion coatings are obtained for corrosion protection, prepainting and decorative finish.
Another important application of this coating is as a lubricant carrier in cold forming operations,
such as wire drawing.

15
Oxides that form naturally on the surface of metals are a form of conversion coating. Oxide
coatings discussed above and also “anodic coatings” fall under the category of “conversion
coatings”.

16
Bicycle wheel rim plating plant process chart
The rims are loaded on the fixture. The fixture can carry upto twenty rims at a time and after the
loading is done, the robot is switched on which takes control of the whole process. The rims
undergo various processes before being unloaded for use in body assembly shop. The various
process of electroplating of the rims is as in the table below:

Table 1.1 Various process of electroplating

S. Process Chemical concentration Temperature Density Checking

No. sequence (Deg. Celsius) (Deg. Be)
1 Kerosene oil M.T.kerosene oil 100% Room - Once daily
cleaning
2 Abrasive Surclean-504-70-80cc/lit. 60-80 8-10 Once daily
cleaning NAON-80-100-80 ltr
3 Water rinse Running water Room - -
4 Soak cleaning Steelex 80-10gm/ltr 60-80 8-10 Once daily
5 Water rinse Running water Room - -
6 Electro cleaning Ginbond- 808 60-80 8-10 Once daily
Water rinse 80-100gm/ltr
7 Acid dipping Running water Room - -
8 Water rinse (1) HCI 30-40% Room 8-10 Once daily
9 Electro cleaning Running water Room - -
10 Water rinse (ii) Ginbond- 808 60-80 8-10 Once daily
Acid dip 80-100gm/ltr
11 Water rinse (ii) Running water Room - -
12 Acid dip Sulphuric acid 10-15% Room 8-10 Once daily
13 Water rinse (ii) Running water Room - -

14 Semi-bright Ni Nickel sulphate 45-55 18-25 Once daily

plating(ii) 250-300gm/ltr
15 Tri-Nickel Nickel sulphate 45-55 18-25 Once daily
plating 250-300gm/ltr
16 Bright Nickel Nickel sulphate 45-55 18-25 Once daily
plating 250-300gm/ltr
17 Drag out D.M.water tank Room - Once daily
18 Water rinse (iii) Running water Room - -

19 Chrome plating Chromic acid 40-50 24-30 Once daily

275-325gm/ltr
20 Drag out D.M.water tank Room - Once daily
21 Drag out D.M.water tank Room - Once daily
22 Water rinse (iv) Running water Room - -
23 Unloading of
the rim

Nickel plating: is done as a protective coating as it has excellent adhesive properties which
form good base fro chrome plating.
Chrome plating is corrosion resistant and also enhances the looks of the component.

1.9 PAINT COATING & SLUSHING:

Metals parts are painted to protect their surfaces against corrosive action of surrounded medium
& also to improve their appearance. The process of coating with paints & varnishes is carried out
on 3 stages:

17
 1. Preparation of the surface to be coated.
2. Painting.
3. Drying with finishing.
Preparation for painting consists in cleaning & degreasing surfaces. The surface so prepared is
then primed for better adhesion of the subsequently deposited coating. Use is made of oil
varnish, oleo vituminous, water-soluble & nitro soluble primers. The prime surface is then trited
with a filter, whose layer should be as thin as possible. Oil varnish filters & quick drawing
proxylin filter are commonly used. The clearance surfaces are painted & the preparation for
painting consists in cleaning and degreasing the surfaces, priming, luting, and smoothing down
the luted surfaces with emery clothe.

1.9.1 METHOD OF PAINTING:

Following are the methods of industrial painting:

a) Brush painting: the brush painting is used in piece & small lot production. It is done by hand
& is slow cumbersome method, where quick drawing paints are used. The method requires
minimum of eq. But max. Of labour. The point losses are upto 5%.

b) Spray painting: The method consists in applying fluid paint in the atomized form. This
method is the most common & productive, but requires premises equipped with exhaust devices
& spraying eq. There are various ways of painting:

i) Mechanical spraying: in this method paint is delivered to spray gun by pump.

ii) Air spraying: the paint I sprayed by jet of compressed air, which carries the paint mist to the
surface being painted. The method is capable of coating 30-80 mt sq. Of surface/hour but losses
is high 40-50%.

iii) Airless spraying: in this method paint heated to 70-90C IS FORCED through a nozzle at
pressure of 2-4 n/mm sq. the production rate can be 50-200mtsq. Of surface/hour & paint losses
are amt. to 25-50%.

iv) Electrostatic spraying: in this method a negative charge delivers paint, which gets on to the
surface of charge metal part being painted. The charging is provided by high voltage const.
current source. Setting up metal screens behind the parts can also use the method for non-
metallic parts. The paint losses are less than 5%. The method makes it possible to improve
working condition to provide for fairly high productivity.

c) Dip coating: this coating is used in automatic production. The method consists in dipping the
parts suspended from chain conveyor, in bathtub. The method is used in large lot and mass prod.
For painting parts of simple shape. The paint losses are 5%.

1.9.2 ADHISIVE BONDS

Adhesive joints can be made by applying adhesive in thin layer b/w the connected parts. They
are fastening metallic as well as non-metallic (textile laminate, foam plastic) materials.

1.9.2.1 ADVANTAGE: -
(1) Reliable connection of parts made of very thin sheet materials.
(2) Dissimilar metal can be joining.
(3) The process is used to reduce production cost
(4) It ism used to lessen the mass of parts.

18
 (5) Highly skilled labor is not required to bonding.
(6) The process provides for tight and corrosion free joints.
(7) Smooth bonded surface.
(8) Exterior surface remain smooth.
(9) Only low temp are involved so absence of stress or their lower concentration.
(10) Heat sensitive material can be joined easily without any damage.
(11) Complex assemblies can be at low cost.
(12) Adhesive contribute towards the shock absorption and vibration.
(13) It can tolerate the thermal stress of different expansion and contraction.
(14) Because the adhesive bonds the entire joint area, good load distribution and fatigue
resistance are obtained.
(15) The joints are sufficiently strong in shear and with stand with dynamic and
variable load.
(16) Compared to welded soldered and riveted joints, adhesive bonded parts have uniform
spread stresses and do not tend to warp.
(17) The process is very fast.

1.9.2.2 DISADVANTAGE: -

1. Comparatively low operational temp. (Maximum up to 100c fort most adhesive).

2. Low resistance to tear off.
3. Reduce strength of some adhesive in the course of timing (ageing).
4. Tendency to creep, if subjected to long-standing and heavy load.
5. The need of extended polymerization time.

1.9.2.3 APPLICATION: -

Adhesive have particular develop in air –craft industry: the appearance of honeycomb structure
is due to this method. The method is used in uncritical structure such ask control surface in
aircraft body. In machine tools, adhesive are employed to bond carriage-guide –ways to beds,
and in automobile industries to fasten the friction lining to clutch- disk brake –bands. Adhesive
bonds are also used in appliance and c consumer goods fields and also sealing, vibration
damping and insulating etc.

1.9.3 ADHESIVE BONDED JOINTS: -

Adhesive-bonding of is affected on following types of surfaces:-

(1) In cylindrical type of surfaces, for example, placing bushings into the holes in the
housing –types and parts discs onto the shafts, coupling pipes together, fitting plugs and
fastening lining to brake blocks.
(2) On flat surface, for example, lap-type joining of sheet parts with one or two straps and so
on.

Typical adhesive bonded joints are shown in figure: -

19
 Fig. 1.2 Main type of adhesive bonded joint

The strength of joints is dependent on the amount of clearance it which is normally kept at 0.05
to1.5mm.with increased clearance the strength of joints decreases, as the length of overlapping is
increases the force need to break down teethe joints increases asymptotically approaching a
certain limit. Surface rough ewes of the parts bonded should be held to within 6.3 to 1micro
meter. Increase in curing time has a favorable effect on the strength of adhesive-bonded joints.
With cold curing the strength grows continuously over a long period of time, the strength of
bonded with old curing adhesive increases if the polymer process is accompanied by heating.
Heating also greatly reduces the curing time.

1.9.3.1 Making an Adhesive Bonded joints

An adhesive-bonding process comprises the following steps:

(1) Preparation of part surfaces.
(2) Preparation and application of the adhesive.
(3) Assembly of parts under a pressure of determined by the grade of adhesive.
(4) Heating of assembly product.

Fig. 1.3 Hand Pneumatic Injector

The surface to be bonded must be cleaned and degreased. Cleaning is done with wiping wastes,
brushes or in sand blaster. The substance used for degreasing is: acetone, trichloroethylene,
carbon tetra chloride and other organic solvents. Aluminum alloys parts are prepared by pickling,
where necessary the surface to be joined is machined to obtain a surface finish to provide a better
holding if the adhesive.
Adhesive are prepared in special polychloroethylene or metallic containers; the will be chrome
plated or varnish with silicone. Hot curing adhesive can be stored in container for a long time.
Cold curing adhesive are prepared just before the uses there pot life is30 to 40 min.
The method of application on an adhesive is depending upon its viscosity. Liquid adhesive, tat
can be applied with brushes and sprays are uses most commonly. Some grades of adhesive are
convenient to apply with spatulas, roller or injectors.
The adhesive can be spread in a thin layer (0.1 to 0.2mm) with a bristle brush or a spatula. To
prevent frothing the adhesive must be applied moving the brush in one direction.
In hand pneumatic injectors, compressed air is supplied through an inlet connection. The air
extrudes the piston by means of piston through nozzle having a dia. of 1mm.
After the application of adhesive the parts are assembled in special fixture and clamped by
means of lever mechanism, spring or pneumatic clamping devices. Clamping force must ensure a
unit pressure of 0.05to 1MN/m2.
Lastly heat is heat is effected in cabinets equipped with electric or gas heater. The heating temp.
and the curing temp depend upon the composition of adhesive for intake a heating temp. of 150
to 160 c and a curing time is1.5 h is needed for a cold curing adhesive base on epoxy resin. For

20
a hot curing adhesive based on epoxy resin, a curing time of 3 to 4h at 150 to 160 or 1.5 to 2h
at180 to 190c is recommended.
Adhesive should be chandelled very care fully as their constituents are toxic. The work therefore
should be done with gloves on, under proper exhaust ventilation.

1.9.4 ADHISIVES: -
There is large variety of adhesive available for bonding with metal and metal with non-metallic
materials. They can be classified into the following main group:
(1) Adhesive Based On Epoxy Resins: -

The available epoxy resin based adhesives are both cold and hot curing. These are used to cold
and hot joining of metal ceramics plastic wood and other material.
In cold curing adhesive a curing element such polythene polyamide
98 to10 parts by mass) or hexamethyldiamine (20 parts by mass) is added to 100parts by mass of
resin. Maleic anhydride (40 parts by mass) is added as a curing agent to the resin in making hot
curing adhesive. There various epoxy resin are used as given below with the curing given within
the brackets: -
Epoxy (room temp. cure, 16to32c)
Epoxy (elevated temp. cure, 93 to 177c)
Epoxy nylon (121to 177c)
Epoxy phenoilic (121 to177c)

(2) Phenol-Resin Based Resins: -

Various compounds modify these. Curing take place 150cwith the joined component held against
each other. Phenol polyvinyl acetate is available readymade without subsequent introduction of
curing agent. These adhesive can sustain temp. Up to 100 c. phenolic rubber and phenolic resin
based adhesive s modified by organic solvent polymer or silicon compounds feature high temp.
resistance Phenol formaldehyde issued to bond foam plastic textile laminate. The common
adhesive in this group are:
Neoprene-phenolic (135-177c)
Niotrile_phenolc (135-177c)
Butryl-phenolc (135-177c)

(3) Polyurethane Adhesive: -

These adhesive have resistance to temp. up to 100 to 120 c and same strength as polyvinyl
acetate adhesive.

(4) Special Grade Adhesive: -

These are used to high temp. Resistance and poses high shearing strength.

1.9.4.1 Bonding Plastic Parts: -

The above-discussed adhesive and special purpose adhesive is used to bond plastic parts. For
many thermoplastic these solvent serve as a adhesive, or example dichloro ethane for organic
glass, benzol for polystyrene, acetone for viniplast etc. the scope of automation for adhesive-
bonding process is the application of adhesive to the mating surfaces, assembly and accurate
location of the parts bonded, and subsequent curing. Adhesive can be applied with roller and
feed with injector into the clearance b/w the mating parts; dipping the mating parts into it is also
practicable.

21
1.10 SURFACE COATING FOR TOOLING: -

In almost every type of production tooling the most desirable feature to have is a very hard
surface on allow strength but tough body. Toughness is needed to survive mechanical shocks that
are impact loading in interrupted cuts. Shocks occur in even continuous chip formation process,
when the counters the localized hard spot. The example of such tooling include metal cutting
tools rock drills, cutting blades, forging die, screw for extrusion of plastic and food products and
saw mills and so on. Other application include parts of earth moving machinery, valves and
valves seat for diesel engines and many such parts involving high heat application and in general
application requiring wear resistance. The various techniques employed for this purpose are
discussed below: -

1.10.1 Hard Facing: -

It is the technique of depositing a layer of hard metal on component to increase the hardness,
strength of base metal. The techniques is widely used in bearings, cam shaft, valves and valves
seats, hot extrusion dies, closed dies especially for abrasive powder, earth handling, and mining
equipment of many type such as rock drills stone crushers. Hammer mills shear blades and much
type of cutting and trimming dies.
The composing of surfacing metal differs from that of the base metal. Hard facing materials such
include satellite and other cutting and wear resistance alloys. Tip or rod from 5 to 10 mm thick,
cat from satellite alloys, or used for hard facing of tool y welding technique. The cutting tool
material with very hard phases has such as high alloying element concentration that they cannot
be manufacture into welding rods. The ingredients are incorporated in the flux coating or packed
inside tubular rods, and the alloys are formed in welding process itself.
Hard facing is by means of gas, arc or shielded arc welding techniques. Gas and shield arc
welding are more uniform composition of deposited layer. Surfacing by ordinary a arc welding is
cheaper and faster, but there is greater danger of dilution of metal with the base metal.
Deposition of tungsten carbide by an electric arc is called spark hardening. When thick layer are
deposit one speaks of weld overlays. However the thickness of deposit should not exceed than
2mm because the susceptibly to cracking increase with thicker layers.
Hard facing techniques and conditions should ensure a strong bond of the deposit with the base
metal, restrict their mixing and avoid the formation of cracks and other defects in the deposit
layer. Parts to be hard faced are first pre heated to 350 to500c; the hard faced parts are to be
cooled slowly.
Hard facing should increase the service life of certain part by 3 to 4 times and worn parts to be
repeatedly restored.

1.10.2 Nitriding Case Hardening: -

It is surface hardening processing which the surface of steel is saturated with nitrogen. In consist
of heating the part to a temp. Of 480c to 650c inside a chamber through which a stream of NH3
is passed ammonia gets dissociated:
2NH3 = 2N + 3H2.
The nitride parts very high surface hardness (730 to 1100 BHN). Nitriding increase the wear
resistance in air water and water vapor.
Nitriding is usually to medium carbon and alloy steels containing Al, Cr, Mo, and other elements
capable of forming nitrides. Prior to nitriding parts should be hardened tempered and undergo to
the complete sequence of machining process including grinding. Only finish grinding and
lapping is done after nitriding. The nitride case is usually0.2 to 0.4 mm thick.

22
Nitriding done at low temp. as compared to hardening and carburizing, so it requires more time.
But since no quenching is necessary as the high hardness is obtain directly after the operation.
The feature enables the hardening effects to be avoided.

a) Hard Chrome Plating: Hard chrome plating is done by electrolytic

electroplating technique. It is most common process for wear resistance.

b) Flame Plating: - Flame plating is a process develops to prolong the life of certain
type of tool and there wear applications. By this process, a carefully controlled coating of
tungsten carbide, chromium carbide (Cr3C2) or aluminum oxide is applied to a wide range of
base metals the more common material, which have been successfully, flame-plated include:
aluminium, brass, bronze, cast iron, ceramics, copper, glass/ H.S.S., magnesium,
molybdenum, nickel steel, and titanium and their alloys.
The uses a specially designed gun into which is admitted metered amount of oxygen and
acetylene. A change of fine particles of the selected plating mixtures is injected into the mixture
of oxygen and acetylene. Immediately a valve opens to admit he a stream of nitrogen to protect
the valve during the subsequent detonation. The mixture is now ignited and the explosion is take
place, which plasticizes the particles and hurls in them from gun with a velocity of 750 m/s. The
particle gets embedded into the surface and a microscopic welding take place, which produces a
highly tenacious bond.
Each particle in the coating is elongated and flattened into thin disc. The coating has a dense fine
and grain laminar structure with negligible porosity and absence of void and oxide layer.
The layer of the plated materials about 0.006mm, this layer can build up by repeating the
explosion, to thickness ranging from0.05 to0.75mm, according to the requirement of subsequent
operations. The resultant layer well dense, hard and well bonded.
Because of the hard dense structure of coatings, flame plating has provided industry with a
valuable tool for the solving of many abrasion, erosion and wear problem. For example bushes
for many applications, core pin for powder metallurgy, dies, gauges, journals, mandrels, and
seals for high duty pumps, have all being given much longer lives.
The process has influenced considerably certain type of cutting process, especially in the glass
leather, soap, and textile industries has proved to be great advantage for component involving
high heat application such as “hot-end” of gas turbine.
The coating shows an excellent resistance to galling and corrosion. Flame-plated coating can be
ground and lapped if necessary. Resultant surface be with in the reason of 0.025micro meter.
Another advantage is that the components can be enabling to mast the coatings to be placed
preciously where required.
The mixture of tungsten carbide coating can be consisting of cobalt ranging from 7% to17% and
rest of tungsten carbide.
Aluminum oxide plating mixture is almost of Al2O3 (above 99%). Chromium carbide plating
consist of about 75%yo 85% of Cr3C2 and balance of (Ni-Cr).

1.10.3 Chemical Vapor Decomposition: -

Chemical vapor decomposition uses volatile metal compounds, which are carried as a vapour in
a glass stream and deposit as metal upon any surface that is hot enough to produce the desired
reaction.

Vapor phase decomposition can be done by two methods:

i) In decomposition method a decomposition halide is vaporized metered and transported by
means of inert carrier gas to the heated component, where it decomposes at the surface of yield
pure metal.
ii) In the second method, a reduction process, hydrogen is used as the carrier gas through a
purifier and dry hydrogen chemically reduces the halide to pure metal on the part surface as

23
shown in fig. HFC, HFN. Multiple coating of Al2O3 can be given on top of Al2O3.coating
thickness is in micrometer
For depositing a layer of TiC on carbide tool inserts a mixture of hydrogen methane and titanium
trichloride gas is form in the mixing chamber. The mixture of these gases can flow through next
chamber enrich carbide inserts are heated up to about 1000c by induction heating or by
resistance heating. The following reaction takes near the surface of the parts:
TiCl4 +CH4 = TiC +4HCl.
TiC so produce get adhere to the surface of the substance that is WC. The main advantage of
CVD process is its ability to produce:
a) High density coatings because the coatings are built by atom by atom.
b) High purity materials.
c) High strength materials.
d) And complex shapes.

An emerging coating technology used particularly for multiphase coatings, is medium temp.
CVD (MTCVD). It is being developed to machine ductile iron and stainless steels and to provide
higher resistance to crack propagation than conventional CVD.

Fig. 1.4 Reduction Method of CVD

1.10.4 Physical Vapor Decomposition: -

In the basic form of PVD method applying sufficient heat with help of one of many techniques
evaporates metal or an oxide. The atom or molecule so produced move in all direction. When
they come into atomic or molecular attraction of the component that is the substrate they
condense onto it to form a uniform coating.
In a variation of method, a cathode target is bombarded by accelerated ion. This concept
dislodges or driving of single atom or small cluster into surrounding gas for deposition on a near
by substrate surface. To increase coating adhesion and improve film structure, the substrate
surface is heated to temp. From about 200c to500c.
PVD process particularly suited to tin coating of H.S.S. tools, because it being a relatively low
temp. Processes, the tempering temp. Point of H.S.S. is not reached. So after the PVD process
the heat treatment is not needed.
24
1.10.5 Diffusion Coatings: -

The surface hardness of low carbon steel (with carbon lees than 2%) can be increased by making
hardneble by diffusing carbon or nitrogen into the surface. On heating or quenching the carbon-
nitrogen enriched surface is very hard but core remains tough. The surface can also be hardened
by ‘ion nitriding’ method where the steel surface is bombarded by low energy nitrogen ions
produced in plasma.

1.10.6 Ion Plating: -

In this method high-energy ion are penetrated into the surface. For cutting tools, nitrogen ions
are almost commonly user. There is virtually no change in dimension in the last two processes.

1.11 GRAPHITE MOULD CASTING:

Graphite is high refractory substance. Graphite moulds are used for casting metals, such as
titanium, that tends to react with many common mould materials. Graphite is used for Moulding
in much the same manner as plaster. For this graphite is available in an investment type of
mixture, which is obtained by combining powdered graphite with cement, starch & water. This
slurry is compacted around a precision mc. metal pattern. The pattern is removed & mould is
fired at 1000 C, producing a solid graphite mould, which is then poured. After solidification of
the metal the moulds is broken for the removal of the casting. Graphite moulds have an
advantage over plaster moulds as they may be reused. Graphite moulds can also with stand with
heat of grey, ductile or malleable metals. However the size of moulds of graphite is limited is the
order of 50 x 45 x 25cm. casting upto a mass of about 23 kg can be produced.

1.12 VACCUM MOULDING PROCESS:

Sand can be lodged in place if air is removed from the sand mass. This principle is employed in
vacuum moulding process in which no binder is used.
1. A thin plastic sheet is draped over pattern positioned over the mould board. Vacuum is
drawn on the pattern. This makes plastic to be tightly drawn over the pattern surface.
2. A vacuum flask is placed over the pattern & is filted with clean unbounded sand. Pouring
basin & the sprue are formed and another plastic sheet is placed over the sand.
3. Vacuum is drawn on the sand. This makes sand very hard.
4. Vacuum is now released on the pattern & it is withdrawn.
5. Similarly the second half of the mould is made.

25
 Fig. 1.5 Vacuum Moulding Process

The two moulds halves are assembled & molten metal is poured. The plastic sheet will burn up.
When the casting is solidified, vacuum on the flask is released. The sand collapse and the casting
are taken out.
The process is also known as V-process & has followed.
1.12.1 Advantages
1. Saving on the binder cost, as no binder is used in process.
2. No defect released to moisture & binder fumes.
3. Any sand can be used
4. Easy shake out. However the process is quit slowly.

26
1. 13 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

Composite materials can be defined as the structures made up of two or more distinct starting
materials. The starting materials can be organic, metals or ceramics. The components of
composite materials do not occur naturally as an alloy, but are separately manufactured before
these are combined together mechanically. Due to this, they maintain their identities, even
after a composite material is fully formed. However the starting materials combine to rectify a
weakness in one material by strength in another material. Hence composite material exhibits
properties distinctly different from those of individual materials used, to make composite.
Thus composite material or structure possesses a unique combination of properties such as
stiffness, strength, hardness, weight, conductivity, corrosion resistance & high temp.
Performance etc. that is not possible by individual materials. Thus the search for materials
with special properties to suit some specific stringent conditions of use has given rise to
development of materials called “COMPOSITE MATERIALS”.

1.13.1 TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

Composite materials may roughly be classified as:

1) Agglomerated materials/ Particulate composites.

2) Reinforced materials.
3) Laminates.
4) Surface coated materials.

The particulate composite and reinforced composites are constituted by just two phases, the
matrix phase. The aim is to improve the strength properties of matrix material. The matrix
material should be ductile with its modulus of elasticity much lower then that of dispersed
phase. Also the bonding forces between the two phases must be very strong.
In fact the particulate composite also fall in the category of reinforced composites. Depending
upon the nature of reinforced materials (shape and size), the reinforced composites can be
classified as
1. Particle reinforced composites or particulate reinforced composites.
2. Fiber reinforced composite.

In particulate reinforced composites, dispersed phase is in the form of exi-axed particles,

whereas in fibre-reinforced composite, it is in the form of fibers.

1.13.1.1 AGGLOMERATED MATERIALS:

Agglomerated materials consist of discrete particles of one material, surrounded by matrix of

another material. The material is bounded together in an integrated mass to classic eg. Of such
composite material are: concrete formed by mixing gravel, sand, cement & water &
agglomeration of asphalt & stone particles, that is used for paving the high surfaces. Other eg. Of
particulate composite material includes:

1) Grinding and cutting wheels, in which abrasive particles (Al2O3, Sic, CBN or carbon)
are held together by a vitreous or a resin bond.
2) Cemented carbide, in which particles of ceramic materials such as WC, TaC, TiC & of
cobalt & nickel, are bounded together via Powder metallurgy process to produce cutting tool
materials. Many powdered metal parts & solid sintering produces various magnetic &
dielectric ceramic materials, which requires diffusion.
3) Electrical contact point from powder of tungsten & silver or copper is process via
powder metallurgy method.

27
 4) Electrical Brushes for motored & heavy duty & frictional materials for brake & clutches
by combining metallic & non-metal. Materials.
5) Cu infilterated iron & silver, tungsten.
6) Heavy metal (w+6%ni+4%cu)
7) Electrical resistance welding electrodes from mixture of cu & tung.
8) Shell moulding sand, using a resin binder, which is polymerized by hot pattern.
9) Metal polymer structers (metal bearing in filtered with nylon or PTFE).
10) Particleboard, in which wood chips are held together by suitable glue.
11) Elastomers & plastics are also reinforced with suitable particle material. The eg. Is
addition of 15-30 of carbon black in the vulcanized rubber for automobiles types?
12) Dispersion strengthened materials: in these materials hard, brittle and fine
particles are dispersed in softer or more ductile matrix.
Because of their unique geometry, the properties of particulate composite can be isotropic. This
property is very important in many engineering applications

1.13.1.2 REINFORCED MATERIAL:

Reinforced materials from the biggest and most important group of composite materials. The
purpose of reinforcing is always to improve the strength properties. Reinforcement may involve
the use of a dispersed phase (discussed in the last article) or strong fiber, thread or rod.

Fiber-reinforced materials: in a larger number of applications, the material should have high
strength, along with toughness and resistance to fatigue failure. Fiber reinforced materials, offer
the solution. Stronger or higher modulus filler, in the form of thin fibers of one material, is
strongly bonded to the matrix of another. The matrix material provides ductility and toughness
and supports and blinds the fibres together and transmits the load. The toughness of the
composite material increases, because extra energy will be needed to break or pull out a fibre.
Also, when any crack appears on the surface of a fibre, only that fibre will fail and the crack will
not propagate catastrophically as in bulk material. Failure is often gradual, and repairs may be
possible.
Due to the above mentioned desirable properties of the matrix materials, the commonly used
matrix materials are; Metals and polymers, such as, Al Cu, Ni etc. and commercial polymers
strong fibers in the relatively weak matrix. Like this, it is possible to produce parts where
strength control is developing in different directions. if the part is loaded parallel to the fibers
will be much greater than in the matrix . Even if the fibre breaks, the softness of matrix hinders
the propagations of crack .The fibre direction are tailored to the direction of loading.

Reinforced Fibers: A good reinforcing fibre should have: high elastic modulus, high strength,
low density, reasonable ductility and should be easily wetted by the matrix. Metallic fibres such
as patented steel; stainless steel, tungsten and molybdenum wires are used in a metal matrix such
as aluminum and titanium. Carbon fibers and whiskers are also used in a metal ultra –high
strength composite. Fibres need not be limited to metals. Glass, ceramic and polymer fibers are
used to produce variety of composite having wide range of properties .The high modulus of
ceramic fibers make them attractive for the reinforced of the metal. The ductile matrix materials
can be aluminum magnesium, nickel or titanium and the reinforcing fiber may be of boron ,
graphite , aluminum or SiC.

Forms of reinforcing fibres: The fibers used for reinforcing materials are available in different
forms:

(a) Filaments: these are very long and continuous single fibres.
(b) Yarns: this is twisted bundles of filaments.
(c) Roving: These are untwisted bundles of gathered filaments.
28
 (d) Tows: These are bundles of thousands of filaments.
(e) Woven fabrics: These are made from filaments, yarn or roving which have been woven
at 90 degree to each other.
(f) Mats: Fibre form is said to be mat form when the continuous fibre is deposited in a swirl
pattern or chopped fibre is deposited in a random pattern.
(g) Combination mat: Here, one ply of woven roving is bonded to a ply of chopped strand
mat.
(h) Surface mats: These are very thin, monofilament fibre mats for better surface
appearance.
(i) Chopped fibre or roving: These are 3 to 50 mm in length.
(j) Milled fibres: These are of brittle materials, usually 0.5 to 3 mm in length.
(k) Whiskers: whiskers are single crystal, in the form of fine filaments, a few microns in
diameter and short in length. These single crystal whiskers are the strongest known fibers.
Their high strength is due to the high degree of perfection and the absence of dislocation in
the structure. Their strength is many times greater than that of the normal metals. For ex The
strength of an iron whisker is found to be 13450MN\m2, compared to about 294MPa for a
piece of pure iron,. Besides metal whiskers, long non metallic, whiskers and of graphite are
being produced. They are introduced in to resin or metallic matrix for the purpose of high
strength and high stiffness at high temperatures.
The properties of reinforced materials will depend on:
• The properties of matrix materials.
• The properties of the fibre materials.
• The proportions of the reinforcement in the composite materials. It is never less than 20%
and may go up to 80% in oriented structures.
• The orientation of the fibre, relative to the load application and relative to one another.
• The degree of bonding between the fibers and the matrix material.
• The length to diameter ratio of the fibers.There has to be some minimum fibre length,
known as, critical length, lc, to get the desired strength and stiffness of the composite
materials. It is given as:

L c = σ f .d / ‫ح‬

Where, σf =Tensile strength of fibre materials

d =diameter of fibre
‫= ح‬shear yield strength of the fibre matrix bond

29
 Fig. 1.6 Reinforcing Fibers

For example, for carbon and glass fibers, the critical length is of the order of 1mm, which may be
20 to150 times the diameter of the fibre.

The fibre reinforcement can be done in three ways:

1. Continuous and aligned, Fig a
2. Discontinuous and aligned, Fig b
3. Continuous and randomly oriented, Fig c

If the fibre length is considerably greater than Lc e.g., 15 times or more, it is called a
“continuous fibre”, otherwise it is called “short” or “discontinuous fibre as noted above, the
properties of a composite having aligned fibre reinforcements, are highly anisotropic, that is,
they depend upon the direction in which these are measured. Their maximum strength is along
the direction of alignment. They are very weak in the transverse direction. The arrangement is
best suited for application involving multi- direction applied stresses, for e.g., bi-axel stresses in
pressure vessel or tube. The same results can be achieved by using bi- axially oriented or cross –
ply fibers. It is apparent that the strength of the discontinuous and aligned arrangement will be
less than of the continuous and aligned arrangement.

Applications: As discussed in the beginning, composite structures combine the desirable

properties of two or more materials. This has greatly expanded the scope of application of all
engineering materials. This has greatly expanded the scope of application of all engineering
materials. We can produce components with exceptional strength –to –weight and stiffness –to-
weight ratio (many composite are stronger than steel, lighter than steel and stiffer than titanium).
Also, they have low conductivity, good heat resistance, good fatigue life, adequate wear
resistance and are free from corrosion.
Reinforced concrete is a classic example of reinforced materials. Steel rods used in the concrete
to reinforce the material take all tensile loads since concrete weak in tension but strong in
compression.

1. Glass- fibre reinforced Plastics: Here, we have glass fibres in a matrix of unsaturated
polyester. To get better qualities to use at high temperature, high temperature polyamide
resin is used with pure SiO2 fibres. A special type of glass fibre can be used with cement
bond to form flexible type of concrete. Glass fibre reinforced plastics are used to make: boat
hulls, car bodies, truck, cabins and aircraft fittings. The other matrix materials can be: vinyl
ester and phenolic.
2. C-C composites: These composites have graphite fibres in a carbon matrix. This material
is being used to make: Nose cone and leading edge of missiles and space shuttles, racing car
disks brakes, aerospace turbine and jet engine components, rocket nozzles and surgical
implants.
3. Graphite fibre- reinforced epoxy :( Organic or Resin matrix composites): This
material is being used to make many parts of a fighter plane: Wing span, outrigger flaring.
Overwing flaring, engine access doors, nose cone, forward fuselage. Lid fence and strakes-
flap. Flap slot door, aileron seals, Horizontal stabilizer (Full span) and rubber. The other
fibre-matrix combination can be: Aramid fibre-Phenolic resin matrix, Boron fibre-
Bismaleimide resin matrix.
4. Automative uses: Body panels, drive shafts, spring and bumpers, Cab shell and bodies,
oil pans, fan shrouds, instrument panels and engine covers.
5. Sports equipment: Golf club shafts, base ball parts, fishing rods, tennis rackets, bicycle
frames, skis and pole vaults.
6. Rubber used for making automobiles tyres is now reinforced with fibres of nylon, rayon
steel or Kevlar, to provide added strength and durability. Kevlar is an organic aramid fibre
30
 with very high tensile strength and modulas of elasticity. Its density is about half of that of
aluminum and it has negative thermal expansion. It is flame retardant to radio signals. This
makes it very attractive for military and aerospace applications. It is also being used for
making bullet proof jackets. The trade name “Kevlar” is given by Du Pont.
7. Metal matrix composite (MMC): As already noted, these composites are obtained by
impregnating high-strength fibres (of stainless steel, boron, tungusten, molybdenum,
graphite, AL2O3, SiC and Si3N4 etc.) with molten metal ( aluminuim , titanium, Ni and cobalt
etc). These composites offer higher strength and stiffness especially at elevated temperatures
and lower co-efficient of thermal expansion as compared to metals. And as compared to
Organic-matrix composites, these composites offer grater heat resistance and improved
thermal and electric conductivity. Hence metal matrix composites are used where operation
temperature is high or extreme strength is desired. These will find applications in a variety
segments like automobiles and machinery.
Aluminum oxide reinforced aluminum is used for making automotive connecting rods.
Aluminum reinforced with SiC whiskers is used to make air craft wing panels. Fibre reinforced
super alloys are used for making turbine blades. Graphite fibres in aluminum matrix are used for
Satellite, missile, helicopter structures.Graphite fibres in magnesium matrix is used for space and
satellite structures. Graphite fibres in lead matrix are used for Strong –battery plates. A graphite
fibre in copper matrix is used for bearings and electrical contacts. Other e.g. of MMC is:
(a) Boron fibre in aluminum: Compressor blades and structural supports.
(b) ““ “ magnesium : Antenna structures.
(c) “””” Titanium: Jet-engine fan blades.
(d) Alumina ““ Lead: Strong-battery plates.
(e) ““ “ Magnesium: Helicopter transmission structures.
(f) SiC “‘ Super alloy (Cobalt based): High temperature engine components.
(g) Tungsten and Molybundum fibres in Super alloy matrix: High temperature engine
components.

8. Ceramic-matrix composites: (CMC): AS already noted, ceramics are strong, stiff, can
resist high temperatures, but generally lack toughness. Ceramic matrix materials are:
AL2O3, SiC and Si3N4, and mullite (a compound of Al, Si, and O2). They can retain their
strength upto 1700 degree C, and also resist corrosive environments.
Typical product applications of ceramic matrix composite are: in jet and automotive engines,
deep-sea mining equipment, pressure vessels, structural components’ cutting tools, and dies for
extrusion and drawing operations.
Composite in development stage:
1. Advance bismaleinmide resin matrix series for high temperature service.
2. Polyether ether ketone thermoplastic matrix series for higher temperature service.
3. Hybrid reinforcements and Knitted/stacked ply fabrics and three-dimensional woven
fabric reinforcements.
4. Selective stitching of collated ply kits.

1.14 LAMINATES:

Laminates or laminar composites are those structures which have alternate layers of materials
bonded together in some manner some common examples of laminar composites are given
below:
1. Plywood: it is most common material under this category. Here, thin layer of wood
veneer are bonded with adhesives. The successive layers have different orientations of the
grain or fibre; Structural parts capable of carrying a load are made of multi-plywood board
from 25 to 30 mm thick.
2. Bimetallic strips used in thermostats & other heat sensing application.

31
 3. Safety glass
4. Sandwich material: Here, low density core is placed between thin, high strength
High-density surfaces, for example, corrugated cardboard. Cores of polymer foam or
honeycomb structures can be used. Wood substitutes based on red mud polymer have been
developed to be used for door shutters, windows, partitions and false ceilings.
5. Roll cladding (bonding) and explosive cladding (welding) of one metal upon
another: The main aim of clad material is to improve corrosion resistance while retaining
low cost, high strength and /or lightweight. Mild steel –stainless steel combination, copper
stainless steel combination are examples of metal-to-metal laminates. Another example is
“Alclad”, which is formed by cladding duralumin with thin sheets of pure aluminium. The
material is high strength composite in which aluminium cladding provides galvanic
protection for the more corrosive duralumin. The above claddings are done by “hot roll
bonding” method.
6. Laminated Plastic Sheet: This structure is usually made from sheets of paper or
cloth and suitable resin. The resin used includes: phenolics, polyster, silicones and
epoxide. The paper and cloth provides bulk of strength, while the resin acts as a semi rigid
binder. Laminated plastic sheet can be machined, drilled, punched and pressed to shaped. It
is used in the production of gears, bearings, electrical components, and small cabinets.
Laminate fabric base gears have the advantages over metal gears of being silent in operation
and stable against the attack of various. Aggressive media. In many cases, laminated fabric
base gears have completely replaced nonferrous gears. They are employed to transmit
rotation from electric motor in high-speed machine tools; they are mounted on the camshafts
of internal-combustion engines etc. In chemical industry, laminate fabric base gears are used
in various apparatus & instruments where they resist corrosive attack much more efficiently
then gears of bronze brass or leather. In addition to gears, certain other transporting devices:
roller, rings etc. are also made of laminated fabric base. Laminated sheets /plates are
available in sizes of: 900*900 mm, 900 *1800 mm, and 1200*2400 mm. The minimum
thickness of sheet is 0.8 mm & it varies as follows: -

Thickness range (mm) 0.8-1.6 1.6-4.8 6.4-9.6 12.8- 19.2 25.6- 38.4
Step(mm) 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4
7. Tufnol: this is a laminated material consisting of layers of woven textiles impregnated
with a thermosetting resin. The polymer imparts rigidity, while the woven textile
provides great tensile strength. Paper or asbestos may also be used as alternative
reinforcements. The material (with woven textile) can be used for making seat covers
&carpets.
8. Laminated carbides: In laminated carbides, laminates consisting of a hard thin surface
layer TiCand the form of throw away tips, are bonded by epoxy resin to the rake face of a
tip body of WC. This increases the crater wear of WC cutting tool.
9. Laminated wood : this sheets of wood (veneer ) , impregnated with special resins &
compressed hot , form what is called ‘laminated wood ‘, which find extensive application
in textile machinery & electric engineering , as well as substitute for nonferrous metal in
bearing of hydraulic machinery &mechanisms operating in abrasive media . Parts of
wood are machined in ordinary machine tools &wood working machinery.

Surface coated materials: the surface coating is applied to the materials for various purposes: -
protection of the material against corrosion; for decorative, wear resistant &processing purpose.
They may also be used to :(i) improve visibility through luminescence & better reflectivity (ii)
provide electrical insulation , & (iii) improve the appearance. Surface coating are usually
classified as: metallic coatings, inorganic chemical coating & organic chemical coating

1. Metallic coating: metallic coating of copper, chromium nickel, zinc, lead & tin etc. are
applied by hot dipping , electro- plating or spraying techniques to protect the base metal from
corrosion & for other purpose .
32
 2. Inorganic chemical coating: This surface coating may be divided into: Phosphate coating,
oxide coating & vitreous coating. Oxide & phosphate coating are done to make iron or steel
surface free from rust & this is done by chemical action. These coating also provide
protection against corrosion. Vitreous coating are commonly applied to steel in the form of a
powder or frit & are then used to the steel surface by heat. These coating are relatively brittle,
but offer absolute protection against corrosion. Enamel is an example of ceramic coating on
metal & glaze on tiles is an example of glassy ceramic on crystalline ceramic base. The
glazing as a protective coating on porcelain & stoneware ceramic is performed for the
purpose of protection from moisture absorption in ceramic materials. Coating of TiC , TiN ,
Al2o3 or HFN on WC base are examples of ceramics on ceramic & coatings of TiC & TiN
on HSS base are examples of ceramics on steel. These coatings increase the life of cutting
tools.
3. Organic Coatings: It includes paint, varnishes, enamels & lacquers. They
serve to protect the base metal & to improve its appearance.

Polymer coating on paper are used for making milk cartons. Polymer coated textiles are used for
making seat covers & carpets. Polymer Coatings on metals act as wire insulation. Polymer
coated metals are used for making beverage cans.

1.15 PRODUCTION OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Fabrication of particulate composites: As discussed in above art. A majority of the particulate

composites are made via the powder metallurgy route. So, for details readers should refer to
chapter 10. However, a few particulate composites are made by dispersing the particles in the
matrix materials through introduction into slurry or into a liquid melt (agglomeration of asphalt
and stone particles).

Fabrication of Fibre reinforced Composites: Many processes have been developed to

fabricate fibre-reinforced composite structures. Their aim is to combine the fibre and the
matrix into a unified form. The various fabrication techniques depend on: the size and the
form of the fibres and their orientation in the matrix material; the shape, size and form of the
product. The common fabrication processes are: Open-Mould process, Filament winding,
Pultrusion and Matched-die-Moulding, and Laminating. Before these processes are
discussed, the following terms should be understood:
• Prepergs: Prepergs means “Preimpregnated with resin”. It is ready to mould material in
the sheet form. Impregnated rovings and mats make these with resin matrix under the
condition in which the resin undergoes only a partial cure. These are stored for subsequent
use. These are supplied to the fabricator, who lays up the finished shape in stacks, which is
subjected to heat and pressure. This completes the curing of the resin into a continues solid
matrix. “Lay-up” is positioning of the reinforcement material, sometimes resin-impregnated,
in the mould.
• BMCs: are “Bulk Moulding Compounds”. These are thermosetting resins mixed with
chopped reinforcements or filters and made into a viscous compound for compressing
moulding.
• SMCs: are “Sheet Moulding Compounds”. These comprise chopped fibres and resin in
the sheet form approx. 2.5 mm thick. These are3 processed further to fabricate large sheet
like parts. They can replace sheet metal, where lightweight, corrosion resistance and integral
colour are attractive features.
• Thick Moulding Compounds: Thick Moulding Compounds (TMC) combines the lower
cost of BMC and higher strength of SMC. These are usually injection moulded using
chopped fibres of various lengths. Used for electrical components due to their high electrical
strength.

33
1) Open – Mould Process ~ In this process, only one mould (Die) is employed to fabricate the
reinforced part. The mould may be made of: wood, plaster or reinforced plastic material. The
various techniques in this category are:-
a) Hand lay-up technique: In this method, the successive layers of reinforcement mat or web
(which may or may not be impregnated with resin) are positioned on a mould by hand. Resin
in used to impregnate or coat the reinforcement. Curing the resin to permanently fix the
shape then follows it. Curing may be at room temperature or heating may speed it up. The
technique in which resin-saturated reinforcements are placed in the mould is called “Wet
lay-up”.
b) Bag Moulding: This is a technique of moulding reinforced plastics composites by using a
flexing cover (bag) over a rigid mould. The composite material is positioned in the mould
and covered with the plastic film (bag). Pressure is then applied by a : Vacuum, auto-clave,
press or by inflating the bag . An auto-clave is a closed pressure vessel for inducing a resin
cure or other operation under heat and pressure.
i) Vacuum-bag moulding: In this technique for moulding reinforced plastics, a sheet of
flexible, transparent material is placed over the lay-up on the mould. After sealing the edges
the entrapped air between the sheet and the lay-up is mechanically worked out and removed
by the vacuum. Finally, the part is cured.

Fig. 1.7 Vacuum Bag Moulding

ii) Pressure-bag Moulding: It is a process for moulding reinforced plastics in which a tailored,
flexible bag is placed over the contact lay-up on the mould, sealed and clamped in placed.
Compressed air forces the bag against the part to apply pressure while the part cures.
iii) Spray-up: In this technique, a spray gun supplies resin in two converging streams into which
chopped roving fiber is forced with the help of a chopper. The composite material stream is then
deposited against the walls of the mould cavity. It is a low-cost method of fabricating medium
strength composite structures.
All the above open-mould techniques are extensively used for fabricating parts such as: boats,
tanks, swimming pools, ducts and truck bodies.

2) Matched-die moulding: Matched metal dies are used for moulding composite structure
when: production quantities are large, tolerances are close and surface quality has to be the best.
The dies are heated to complete the curing of the product during the moulding process.

i) Compression Moulding is essentially employed for moulding BMCs.

ii) Resin- Transfer Moulding or Resin Injection Moulding: In this technique (RTM or RIM),
two piece matched cavity dies are used with one or multiple injection points and breather holes.

34
The reinforcing material, which is either chopped or continuous strand material is cut to shape
and draped in the die-cavity. The die-halves are clamped together and a polyester resin is
pumped through an injection port in the die. The pressure used in the die is low, which allows
use of low cost tooling. The method is used for moulding small non-load bearing parts.
In a variant of the above technique, instead of the injection of only resin into the die-cavity, the
reinforcement (flake glass) is mixed with the resin in a mixing head and the mixture is injected
into the closed heated two-piece die. Flake glass is preferred to avoid directionality of
reinforcement. This method is known as “Reaction Injection Moulding” and is being
increasingly used for BMCs.

iii) SMCs cut to size, are fabricated into parts by methods similar to metal pressing. However,
curing of the part takes place outside the press.

Fig. 1.8 Compression Moulding

3) Pultrusion: This is the process of extrusion of resin-impregnated roving ( a bundle of fibres )

to manufacture rods, tubes and structural shapes (Channels, I-beams and Z- Sections etc.) o0f a
constant cross-section. After passing through the resin-dip tank, the roving is dawn through a
heated die (where curing takes place) and cured to form the desired cross-section, as it
continuously runs through the machine. After the Puller rolls, a saw cutter cuts the extruded
section to the required lengths.
In “ Pulmoulding”, the process begins with pultruding; then the part is placed in a compression
mould.
Product applications are: - Golf club shafts, because of their high damping capacity, and
structural members for vehicle and aerospace applications.

Fig. 1.9 Pultrusion

4) Filament Winding: In this process, resin impregnated strands are applied over a rotating
mandrel, to produce high strength, reinforced cylindrical shapes. Fibers or tapes are drawn

35
through a resin bath and wound onto a rotating mandrel. The process is relatively slow, but the
fiber direction can be controlled and the diameter can be varied along the length of the piece. In a
variation, the Fiber bundle (made up of several thousand carbon fibers) is first coated with the
matrix material, to make a prepreg tape (endless strip with width equal to several cms, by a
meter). With both the fiber and tape winding processes, the finished part is cured in an autoclave
and later removed from the mandrel. In axial winding, the filaments are parallel to the axis and in
circumferential winding; these are essentially perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Cylindrical, spherical and other shapes are made by filament winding, for example, pressure
bottles, missile canisters, industrial storage tanks and automobile drive shafts C- fibers with
epoxy- basin resin composite is used for fabricating strength- critical aerospace structures.

Fig. 1.10 Filament Winding Process

5) Laminating: In this process, composite parts are produced by combining layers of resin-
impregnated material in a press under heat and pressure. The parts include, standard for
comparatively flat pieces. Two principal steps in the manufacture of laminated fiber-reinforced
composite materials are:-
(a) Lay-up, which consists of arranging fibers in layers.
(b) Curing
We start with a preperg material (partially cured composite with the fibers aligned parallel to
each other). A pattern of product’s shape is cut out the preperg material is then stacked in layers
into the desired laminate geometry. Curing the stacked pile under heat and pressure in an
autoclave makes a final product, or by tool press moulding, winding the impregnated fibre on a
mandrel of suitable diameter produces tubes. The assembly is then cured in a moulding press and
then the mandrel is removed.

1.16 FABRICATION OF MMC:

Basically, three approaches are followed for fabricating MMC

1. Liquid phase approach: In this technique, the matrix material is the molten phase and the
reinforcement is in the solid state. Either one of the conventional casting process can be used to
fabricate MMC or “Pressure infiltration casting method “can be used. In this method, a perform
is made (usually a sheet or wire) of reinforcing fibres and the liquid metal matrix is forced into it
with the help of a pressurized gas.

2. Solid phase technique: Here the Powder Metallurgy route is used to fabricate MMC. The best
example is of manufacturing WC tool material where cobalt is used as the matrix material.

36
3. Two phase Processing: Here the metal matrix contains both the solid and liquid phases. The
reinforcing fibres are mixed with the matrix. The mixture is then atomized when it leaves the
nozzles and is sprayed and deposited over the surface of a mould cavity to fabricate MMC.
PROCESSING OF CMC

The most common method of fabricating CMC is of “Slurry infiltration”. A perform of

reinforcing fibres is prepared which is then hot pressed. Slurry containing matrix powder, a
carrier liquid and an organic binder is prepared. The perform is then impregnated with the slurry
to fabricate CMC.

1.17 MACHINING CUTTING AND JOINING OF COMPOSITES

Conventional processes and tools are generally not suited for machining, cutting and joining of
composites. Therefore, special methods are employed to the final processing operations for the
composites.

1. Machining: Machining of composite materials should ensure that there is no splintering,

cracking, fraying or delaminating of cured composite edges. Standard machine tools can be used
with appropriate modifications. Cutting tools for composites include: drills, reamers,
countersinks, cut-of wheels and router bits. Common cutting tool materials are: HSS and WC.
However, poly-crystalline diamond insert tool performs satisfactory and is cost effective. Tools
must be kept sharp, to provide quality cuts and avoid de-lamination. Tool and its geometry
should be carefully selected. Cutting speeds and feeds will depend on the type of composite
material, its thickness and the cutting method.

2. Cutting: The conventional methods for cutting uncured composites, such as preperg ply
include: manual cutting with Carbide disk cutter, scissors and power shears. For cutting uncured
composites, the main techniques are: reciprocating knife cutting, high pressure water jet cutting,
ultrasonic knife cutting and laser cutting.

3. Joining: The common joints provided for composites structures are: Bolted joints and
Adhesive bonded joints.

37
UNIT II

Introduction, Polymers, Polymerization, Addition of Polymers, Plastics, Types of plastics, Properties of

Plastics, Processing of Thermoplastic Plastics, Injection Moulding, Extrusion Process, Sheet forming
processes, Processing of Thermosetting Plastics, Compression Moulding, Transfer Moulding, Casting of
Plastics, Machining of plastics, other processing methods of plastics
Introduction, casting, thread chasing, Thread Rolling, Die Threading and Tapping, Thread Milling, Thread
Measurement and Inspection

2 INTRODUCTION OF PLASTICS AND POLYMERS

Plastics belong to the family of organic materials. Organic materials are those materials, which
are derived directly from carbon. They consist of carbon chemically combined with hydrogen,
oxygen and other non-metallic substances, and their structures, in most cases, are fairly complex.
The large and diverse organic group includes the natural materials: wood, coal, petroleum,
natural rubber, animal fibers and food, which have biological origins. Synthetics include the
large group of solvents, adhesives, synthetic fiber- s, rubbers, plastics, explosives, lubricants,
dyes, soaps and cutting oils etc. Which have no biological origins? Of them, plastics and
synthetic rubbers are termed as “polymers”.

2.1 POLYMERS
The term “polymer” is derived from the two Greek words: poly, meaning “many“, and meros
meaning “parts“ or “units”. Thus polymers are composed of a large number of repeating units
(small molecules) called monomers are joined together end-to-end in a polymerization reaction.
A polymer is, therefore, made up of thousands of monomers joined tog -ether to form a large
molecule of colloidal dimension, called macromolecule. The unique characteristic of a polymer
is that each molecule is either a ling chain or a network of repeating u -nits all covalently
bonded together. Polymers are molecular materials and are generally noncrystalline solids at
ordinary temperature, but pass through a viscous stage in course of their formation when,
shaping is readily carried out.
The most common polymers are those made from compounds of carbon, but polymers can also
be made form inorganic chemicals such as silicates and silicones. The naturally occurring
polymers include: protein, cellulose, resins, starch, shellac and lignin. They are commonly found
in leather, fur, wool, cotton, silk, rubber, rope, wood and many others. There are also synthetic
polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon, terylene, dacron etc., termed under plastics,
fibers and elastomers. Their properties are superior to those of the naturally occurring counter-
parts. Our concern, here, is therefore, with synthetic polymers, also called plastics (again from
Greek plastics, derived from plassein: to form, to mould) or resins.

2.2 POLYMERIZATION
The process of linking together of monomers, that is, of obtaining macro -molecules is called
“polymerization”. It can be achieved by one of the two processing techniques:

(a) Addition Polymerization. In addition or chain polymerization under condition of

temperature and pressure and in the Presence of a catalyst called an initiator, the polymer is
produced by adding a second monomer to the first, then a third monomer to this dimmer, and a
fourth to the trimmer, and so on until the long polymer chain is terminated. Polyethylene is
produced by the addition polymerization of the addition polymerization of ethylene monomers.
This linear polymer can also be converted to a branched polymer by removing a side group and
replacing it with a chain. It many such branches are formed, a network structure results.
“Co-polymerization” is the addition polymerization of two or more different monomers. Many
monomers will not polymerize with themselves, but will copolymerize with other compounds.

38
(b) Condensation polymerization. In this process, two or more reacting compounds may be
involved and there is a repetitive elimination of smaller molecules, to form a by-product for
example, in the case of phenol formaldehyde (bakelite), the compounds are: formaldehyde
and phenol. Metacresol acts as a catalyst and the by- product is water. The structure of the
‘mer’ is more complex. Also, there is the growth perpendicular to the direction of chain.
This is called ‘cross-linking’.
Size of a Polymer. The polymer chemist can control the average length of the molecules by
terminating the reaction. Thus, the molecular weight (the average weight, in grams, of 6.02×1023
molecules) or degree of polymerization, D.P., (the number of mers in the average molecule) can
be controlled. For example, the length of molecules may range from some 700 repeat units in
low-density polyethylene to 1,70,000 repeat units in ultrahigh molecule are weight polyethylene.

2.3 ADDITIONS TO POLYMERS

The properties of polymers can be further modified by the addition of agents, which are basically
of two types. Those that enter the molecular structure are usually called “additives”, whereas
those that form a clearly defined second phase are called “fillers”.
1. Plasticizers. Plasticizers are liquids of high boiling point and low molecular weight, which
are added to improve the plastic behavior of the polymer. The board role of a plasticizer is
to separate the macro- molecules of the polymer, that is, making deformation easier. They are
essentially oily in nature. Organic solvents, resins and even water are used as plasticizers.
2. Fillers. Filler is used to economize on the quantity of polymer required and / or to vary the
properties to some extent, for example, mechanical strength, electrical resistance etc. Filler,
whose function is to increase mechanical strength, is termed “reinforcing filler”. A filler is
commonly fibrous in natures and is chemically inert with respect to the polymer with
Which it is to be used? Common fillers are wood flour, cellulose, cotton flock, and paper (for
improving mechanical strength); mica and asbestos (for heat resistance); talc (for acid
resistance).
Wood flour is general purpose filler. It improves mould ability, lowers the cost with fairly
improved strength of the plastics. Mica also imparts excellent electrical properties to plastics and
results in low moisture absorption. The commonly used “reinforcing filler agents” with plastics
are: fibers/filaments of glass, aramid, graphite or boron. Reinforcing by metal and glass fibers
make plastics strong, flexible and light materials such as used in bullet proof vests. Cotton fibres
improve toughness. Carbon fibers are used for high performance installations such as aircrafts
etc. requiring high strength and stiffness.
3. Catalysts. These are usually added to promote faster and more complete polymerization and
as such they are also called ‘accelerators’ and ‘hardeners’ e.g., ester is used as a catalyst for urea
formaldehyde.
4. Initiators. As the name indicates, the initiators are used to initiate the reaction, that is, to
allow polymerization to begin. They stabilize the ends of the reaction sites of the molecular
chains. H2O2 is a common initiator
5. Dyes and pigments. These are added, in many cases, to impart a desired colour to the
material. For example, titanium dioxide is an excellent white pigment; iron oxides give yellow,
brown or red colour; carbon black is not only a pigment but also a UV light absorbent. Finely
divided calcium carbonate dilutes (extends) the colour and is used in large quantities as low –
cost filler.
6. Lubricants. Lubricants are added to the polymers for the following purposes: to reduce
friction during processing, to prevent parts from sticking to mould walls, to prevent polymer
films from sticking to each other and to impart an elegant finish to the final product.
Commonly used lubricants include: oils, soaps and waxes.
7. Flame-retardants. Most Plastics will ignite at sufficiently high temperatures. The non-
inflammability of the plastics can be enhanced either by producing them from less
inflammable raw materials or by adding “flame retardants”. The common flame retardants
are: compounds of chlorine, bromine and phosphorous.

39
8. Solvents. Solvents are useful for dissolving certain fillers or plasticizers and help in
manufacturing by allowing processing in the fluid state. For example, alcohol is added in
cellulose nitrate plastics to dissolve camphor. However, subsequently, the solvents must be
removed by evaporation.
9. Stabilizers and anti-oxidants are added to retard the degradation or polymers due to heat,
light and oxidation.
10 Elastomers are added to plastics to enhance their elastic properties.
Note. Above, excepting fillers, all other materials used fall under the category of “Additives”.

2.4 PLASTICS

Polymer can be divided in to three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers (polymer of
high elasticity, for example rubber). Synthetic resins are usually referred to as plastics. Plastic
derive their name from the fact that in a certain phase of their manufacture, they are present in a
plastic stage (that is, acquire plasticity), which makes it possible to impart any desired shape to
the product. Plastics fall in to a category known chemically as high polymers.
Thus, “plastics” is a term applied to composition consisting of a mixture of high molecular
compounds (synthetic polymers) is fillers, plasticizers, stains and pigments, lubricating and other
substances. Some of the plastics can contain nothing but resin (for instance, polyethylene,
polystyrene).

2.4.1 TYPES OF PLASTICS: Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes
them to set (thermosetting) or causes them to soften and melt (thermoplastic).

2.4.1.1 Thermosetting plastics: These plastic undergo a no. of chemical changes on heating and
cure to infusible and practically insoluble articles, the chemical change is not reversible
Thermosetting plastics do not soften on reheating and can not be worked. They rather become
harder to completion of any leftover polymerization reaction. The commonest thermosetting
plastics are: alkyds, peroxides, melamines, polyesters, phenolics and urea.

2.4.1.2 Thermoplastic Plastics: These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling, and can be
re softened under heat. Thus, they retain their fusibility, solubility and capability of being
repeatedly shaped. The mechanical properties of these plastics are rather sensitive to temperature
and to sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause thermal degradation. Common
thermoplastics plastics are: acrylics, poly tetra fluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chlorides
(PVC), nylons, polyethylene, polystyrene, etc.
Thermosetting plastics are cross-linked polymers and thermo-plastics are linear and branched-
linear polymers. The method of processing a plastic is determined largely by whether a plastic is
thermosetting or thermoplastics.

2.4.2 PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS: There is great variety of physico-chemical and

mechanical properties and the ease with which they can be made into various articles have found
plastics their wide application in the engineering and other industries.
1. Their comparatively low density substantial mechanical strength and high anti friction
properties have enable plastics to be efficiently used as substitute for metals, for example,
non-ferrous metals and alloy bronze, lead, tin, babbit etc., for making bearing.
2. With certain special properties (silent operation, corrosion resistance etc), plastics can
sometimes replace ferrous metals.
3. From the production point of view, their main advantage is their relatively low melting points
and their ability to flow into a mould.
4. Simple processing to obtain machine parts. Generally there is only one production operation
required to convert the chemically manufactured plastic into a finished article.
5. In mass production, plastics substituted for ferrous metals allow the production costs to be
reduced by a factor of 1.5 to 3.5 and for non-ferrous metals by a factor of 5 to 20.
40
6. Good damping capacity and good surface finished of the product.
7. The high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in the radio and
electrical engineering industries as and substitutes for porcelain, ebonite, shellac, mica,
natural rubber, etc.
8. Their good chemical stability , when subjected to the action of solvents and certain oxidizing
agents, water resistance, gas and steam proof properties, enable plastics to be used as
valuable engineering materials in the automo9bile and tractor, ship building and other
industries

2.4.3 DISADVANTAGES
1. Comparatively higher costs of materials.
2. Inability of most plastics to withstand even moderately high temperatures.

The factors which have determined the rapid growth of polymer materials in the recent past are:
1. Ready availability of the basic raw chemical materials in large quantities and, in general,
at the low cost.
2. The large no. of available starting materials for their production provide us with an
almost continuous spectrum of composition and structure, and hence of mechanical,
optical, electrical and thermal properties of the resulting polymers.
3. The engineer now has at his disposal many well developed processes and machines to
convert (as they from the factory and that he can choose according to the specification of
the ultimate product) into useful goods.

2.4.4 PROCESSING OF THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS

Thermoplastic can be processed to their final shape by moulding and extrusion processes.
However, extruding is often used as an intermediate processes, for example, vacuum forming or
machining.

2.4.4.1 EXTRUSION PROCESS:

The extrusion process, in many cases, produces material in an intermediate form for subsequent
reprocessing to its final component form. The process is the same as for metals, that is, the
expulsion of material through a die of the required cross-section .The earliest extrusion machines
were of the ram type .The cylinder of the machine is filled with prepared plastic and extruded
through a die under the pressure of the ram. The advantages of this machine are: simplicity in
operation and a controlled pressure which can be virtually as high as required. If the polymer can
be plasticized by pressure, then the ram
extruder is advantageous in view of its
simplicity. But for plastics which require heat,
the separate pre-processing may be regarded
as a drawback. Another major drawback of
this type of machine is reciprocating action of
the ram which is time wasting since the ram
must be withdrawn after its power stroke and
a new dolly of material inserted in the
container. Also, with many materials the die
orifice must be cleaned between each working stroke.
Fig. 2.1
Now a days, the ram machine is mainly used for “wet extrusion” that is for extruding plastics
which have been softened by the addition of solvents. Although useful in homogenizing
materials which contain hard inclusions, wet extrusion has the disadvantage of producing a
component from which the solvent has to be remolds.

41
For the extrusion of the plastics, single-screw machine has completely replaced the ram type
machine. There are two basic types of screw extrudes: the melt extruder and the plasticizing
extruder. In the former, the material is delivered to the extruder already melted and thus the
function of the extruder is merely to push the material to the die and through the orifice. In the
plasticizing extruder the material is in the form of granules or particle and so the extrude has to
compress and work it until it melts before delivering it, under pressure, to the die orifice.

Complex shapes with constant cross sections can be extruded with relatively inexpensive tooling.
The extruded product can be coiled or cut into desired lengths.

2.4.4.2 SHEET –FORMING PROCESS:

Many plastic articles are formed from sheet. The process resembles those for metals, but requires
very low forces. Even atmospheric pressure may be sufficient. In “Drape Forming”, the sheet is
heated to a moderate temperature. It is then clamped at the edges and stretch – formed over a die.
One of the encountered is that the portion of sheet first touching the die will be chilled and
remain thicker than the rest. This is overcome or
minimized by blowing hot air between the sheet
and the die. Vacuum forming is a process, in
which a heated plastic is changed to a desired
shape by causing it to flow against the mould
surface by reducing the pressure between one
side of the sheet and mould surface. The process
consist of clamping the heat heated plastic sheet
over a mould in such a way that the air b/w the
sheet and mould can be evacuated, this vacuum,
of increasing intensity, draws the sheet against
the surface of the mould, where it cools and
solidifies. The solidifies will take place earliest in those resigns which touch the mould first. This
will cause differential cooling and, as a result of non uniform temp. Distribution, there will be a
marked change in thickness along any given section of the component.

Fig. 2.2 Vacuum Forming Process

2.4.5 PROCESSING OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Compression molding and transfer molding are the most common methods of processing
thermosetting plastics. Although, suitable for thermoplastics also, the main application of these
methods is to thermo sets.
42
43
2.4.5.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING:

Fig. 2.3 Compression Moulding

Compression moulding is the equivalent of closed-die forging. In this process, a premature
quantity of plastic in the form of plastics or briquettes is placed in heated mould and compressed
at suitable pressure and temperature. Hydraulic pressure usually employed to provide the
pressure (which may range from 20 to 30 MPa or even higher up to 80 MPa in same case) for
compressing the plastic compound. Other equipment, such as friction and presses, can also be
used. The object of compression moulding is to bring the plastic to virtually molten state. Thus
the process is, effectively, forming from the liquid state, the material being healed in the mould
until the curing stage is over when polymerization is complete. The process is rather slow with
the phenolics and urea resin, but some of the newer resins have shorter curing time and this has
improved the production rates appreciably.

When the plastic is completely trapped between the male and female die, it is called as” positive
mould”. Cluster tolerances can be held if a small flash is allowed to extrude, usually along the
male die perimeter in “semi positive moulds”. More plastics is lost in “flash moulds”, similar to
those used in impression-die forging.
Typical product application are: disches, handles, container caps, fitting,. Electrical and
electronic components, washing machine agitators and housing etc.

2.4.5.2 TRANSFER MOULDING:

Transfer moulding is a modification of compression

moulding in which the moulding is first placed in
separate chamber (transfer pot), from which it
pushed through an orifice into the mould cavity as
the mould closes. The material to be moulded is
often preheated by radio frequency methods and,
where it is desired to improve toughness and
strength, reinforcing fillers may be used.
The process has got following advantages:

1. There is little pressure inside the mould cavity

until it is completely filled, at which stage the full
Fig. 2.4 liquid pressure is transmitted.

2. The plastic acquires uniform temperature and properties in the transfer pot prior to transfer
.The plastic is further heated by sheering through the orifice, viscosity is reduced, and the plastic
fills the intricate mould cavities.

3. It scores over normal compression moulding in that presses can be used, since; heating of
plastic is affected, not by press itself, but by a simple heating jacket round the transfer chamber.

44
2.4.6 CASTINGS OF PLASTICS:

Casting of plastics in moulds finds application when making parts of plastic material with a
binder but no filler. It is also used to obtain various kinds of casts thermosetting plastics, for
example, cast carbolite, as well as certain cast thermoplastic material, such as organic glass,
polystyrene and others.
The method is simple and cheap since no expensive tooling or equipment is required, and no
pressure needs to be applied to fabricate the part. There are many variations of the casting
method for plastics:-

(a) By using flexible moulds, very intricate shapes can be fabricated. The mould is peeled off
afterwards.
(b) Using plate glass moulds produces thick plastic sheets.
(c) Using moving stainless steel belts, which contain and cool the resin, produces thinner
plastic sheets.
(d) Hollow shapes can be obtained by centrifugal casting of the molten plastic material.
(e) Potting: In this method, the plastic material is cast around an electrical component,
which gets embedded in the plastic material. This is achieved by pouring the molten plastic
material in a housing or case, which is an integral part of the component and in which the
component is repositioned before pouring the plastic.
(f) Encapsulation: Here, the component is covered with a layer of cooled and solidified
plastic.
(g) Both potting and encapsulation are very important to the electrical and electronics
industry. The plastic material serves as a dielectric.
(h) Foam moulding / casting: In this method a foaming agent is mixed with the plastic
resin. The mixture is placed in a mould and heated. The foaming agent makes the material
to expand (even up to 50 times the original size) to take up the shape of the mould. The
amount of expansion can be controlled through temperature and time. Both rigid and flexible
foamed plastics can be obtained from thermo-plastics and the thermo-setting plastics. Rigid
construction is used for structural purposes and flexible for cushioning. Product application
include: Shaped packaging materials for cameras, appliances and electronics etc. insulating
blocks, food containers and Styrofoam cups.

2.4.7 MACHINING OF PLASTICS:

Plastic can be machined, but in most cases, machining of plastics is not required. Moulding and
forming methods can obtain acceptable surface quality and dimensional accuracy. However,
there are certain plastics like PTFE (Polytetra fluoroethylene) which are sintered products and
are not mould able by usual techniques, as they do not melt. For such “thermo stable plastics”
machining is a viable alternative to moulding.
The machining of plastics (by operation such as turning, drilling and milling) has special features
due primarily to the structure of the material. It also depends upon the binder upon the binder
and the filler and the method of moulding the component. For example, the machining of
thermosetting plastics allows optimum cutting variables and tool geometry to be employed
because these do not soften on heating, whereas thermoplastic resins soften under heat. The
permissible maximum temperature in the cutting zone is 1600C for thermo-setting resins and
only 600 C to 1000C for thermoplastics.

Special features of the machining of plastics are:-

• The tendency of certain plastics to splitting.
• High elasticity (40 times as much as that of steels). Therefore, they must be carefully
supported, to avoid their deflection during machining.

45
 • Non-homogeneous structure of the material, with components of different hardness. This
results in poor surface finish after machining.
• Plastics have a strong abrading action on cutting tools.
• Their low thermal conductivity results in poor heat dissipation from the cutting zone and
in over-heating of the cutting edges.
• The intense dust formation, especially for thermosetting plastics, makes it necessary to
use special dust -removing devices.
• The hygro scopicity of plastics excludes the use of liquid cutting fluids. Compressed air
is commonly used for cooling.
• Reinforced plastics are very difficult to machine.

Plastics can be machined with H.S.S. and cemented -carbide tools. In machining a plastic
material with a filler of glass, quartz or mica type, a satisfactory tool life can be obtained only
with carbide -tipped tools. Only diamond tools are suitable for turning high-strength plastics of
this type. The strength of cast parts of laminate plastics is 40 to 50 percent less than that of the
parts made by compression moulding. Therefore, higher cutting speeds and feeds can be used in
their machining than for strong thermo-setting plastics. The main trouble in turning laminated
plastics is the peeling of the surface layer.
The cutting variables are also influenced by the life of cutting tool which is subject to abrasive
wear in machining most engineering plastics. Dulling of the cutting tool leads to a poor surface
finish and to breaking out of the material at the points the cutting tools enters and leaves the cut.
This makes it necessary to use more keenly sharpened cutting tools for plastics. The need for
sharp cutting edges follows from the high elasticity of plastics.
The selection of cutting variables is also influenced by the low heat conductivity of the plastics,
since, in machining the tool may be within a closed volume (as in drilling) with no cooling
facilities. This may lead to charring of the machined surface.
The cutting tool angles for machining plastics are made somewhat different than those of tools
for ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The rake angles are positive and relatively larger. Because of
the visco elastic behavior of thermoplastics, some of the local elastic deformation is regained
when the load is off. Therefore tools must be made with large relief angles (200 to 300).
Abrasive machining of plastics has many advantages over machining with metal cutting tools.
These include the absence of splitting and crack formation, and the better surface finish that can
be obtained.
In grinding, the contact between the wheel and the surface being ground, should be as short as
possible, to avoid burns. Organic glass is commonly ground with coated abrasive, applying an
ample amount of water as a coolant. If possible, however, grinding should be replaced by
polishing with a felt, broadcloth or flannel wheel charged with lapping paste, the process is
known as “Buffing”. The buffing wheels are of diameter 250 mm, 40 to 60 mm wide and of
speed 2000 rev/min. Medium and fine lapping pastes are used as the buffing compound for
plastics. Laminate fabric base, asbestos-fiber and glass -fiber laminate can be cut with abrasive
wheels (SiC) of grain size 24 to 46 and with a 5% emulsion as the cooling fluid.

2.4.8 OTHER PROCESSING METHODS FOR PLASTICS

1. Calendering: It is an intermediate process where the extruded plastics sections are reduced
to sheet which may or may not, then be formed to final shape by vacuum forming. It is clear that
the calendering process can be used for thermoplastics and not for thermosetting plastics.

Calendering is some ways similar to rolling process in that the material is compressed between
rolls and emerges as sheet (Fig 1.a). However, there are differences. There is appreciable
thickening after the material has reached minimum thickness at the roll gap and the pre-
calendered material is not in sheet form, but of indefinite shape. The method of producing vide
sheet and foil is illustrated in Fig (1.b). The thermoplastic melt is fed to a multi roll calendar.
46
 Fig. 2.5 Calendering Process
The first roll gap serves as a feeder, the second as a metering device, and the third roll gap sets
the gauge of the gradually cooling plastic which is then wound, with about 25% stretching onto a
drum.
Calendering is a high -production rate (typically 100 m/min) process, mostly for flexible PVC,
for example, upholstery, rainwear, shower curtains, tapes, etc. and rigid PVC, for example, trays,
credit cards, lamination. PVC is also calendered into the well known transparent film widely
used for packaging.

2. Rotational Moulding: In this process, also called “rotomoulding”, large relatively thin
-walled hollow (open or closed) parts are made. A measured quantity of Polymer powder is
placed in a thin-walled metal would. The mould is closed and is rotated about two mutually
perpendicular axes as it is heated. This causes the powder of sinter against the mould walls,
building up the wall thickness of the component. At the end of the heating and sintering
operations, the mould is cooled while it is still rotating. Applying cold water and air to the
outside of the rotating mould does cooling. The rotation is then stopped and the component is
removed. To increase production rates, three moulds at the end of three arms joined together to
the central spindle (just like centrifuge casting) are used, with one mould for each stage of the
process, that is, load-unload, heat and cool positions.
The process is simple as no pressure is employed and the part is free of moulded in stresses. The
technique is extensively used for the production of toys in P.V.C. such as boats, horses etc.
Large containers of Polythene (or up to 20,000 liter capacity) and large components like
laminated petrol tanks for motor care are made from polythene (outer shell) and nylon (inner
shell). Other products include: Trash Cans, Boat hulls, buckets, housings and carrying cases etc.

3. Blow Moulding: In this process, a hot extruded tube of plastic, called a parison, is placed
between the two part open moulds (Fig 2.6 a).
The two halves of the mould move towards each
other so that the mould closes over the tube. The tube
gets pinched off and welded at the bottom by the
closing
Moulds (Fig. 2.6 b). The tube is then expended by
internal pressure, usually by hot air, which forces the
tube against the walls of the mould. (Fig2.c). The
component is cooled and the mould opens to release
the component (Fig. 2d). Typical products
applications are: Plastic beverage bottles and hollow
containers.Fig. 2.6
47
4. Reaction Injection Moulding (RIM) : The method differs from the conventional injection
moulding process in the sense that it is not molten polymer which is injected into a mould, but a
mixture of two or more monomers (reactants ) are forced into a mould cavity. Chemical
reaction takes place between the constituents of the mixture giving off heat to form a plastic
polymer, which solidifies producing a thermo set component. The major product applications
include: Automotive bumpers, and fenders, thermal insulation for refrigerators and freezers and
stiffness for structural components.

5. Solid State Forming: The term is a misnomer because the temperature of the polymer is just
(100 to 200C) below the melting point of the polymer. The main operations involved are: Sheet
metal techniques such as stretching, bending and deep drawing. Many food-packaging tubs and
containers are fabricated from Polypropylene. Forging is also used mainly for producing gears.

6. Cold Forming: All the cold working methods used for metals can be used for polymers.
Filaments and fibers are produced by “Cold drawing”, that is, continuous stretch drawing.
Conventional rolling can also be used for producing fibers. In “Cold pressing” or “Cold
moulding”, the raw thermosetting material (or mixed plastic compounds) are put in the mould
and cured in an oven. Pressure applied by the press range from 14 MPa to 84 MPa. The moulds
are made of abrasion resistant tool steel. The process is quite economical and the process cycle
is relative short. However, the surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the part is not very
good.

7. Thermoplastic Stamping: Thermoplastic Stamping or matched-die forming is a method in

which thermoplastic polymer sheet at melt temperature is worked between mating dies. The
cycle time is greatly reduced and the spring back is minimum.

8. Spinning: The extrusion process can be modified to produce filaments, fibers and yarns. The
molten thermoplastic polymer is extruded through a die containing holes. For obtaining
strands, the dies can be rotated to produce twists and wraps.”

48
2.5 THREAD MANUFACTURING
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Threads are prime importance to the engineering. These are used as fasteners, to transmit power
and motion and for adjustment. The subject of thread manufacture has assumed a great
significance because of the ever-increasing demand for high precision fastening devices and
power transmission devices. At present, the threads are manufactured by the following
processes:
1. Casting
2. Thread chasing
3. Thread rolling
4. Die thread and tapping.
5. Thread milling
6. Thread grinding

2.5.2 CASTING
The accuracy and finish of threads made by casting will depend upon the method of casting.
Threads made by sand casting are rough and are not used much, except sometimes in vises and
rough machinery. Threads made by die casting and permanent mould casting are very accurate
and high finish, if properly made. However, these can be made only of low melting point non-
ferrous metals and, therefore, are not fit for repeated use, being not hard and durable. Lost wax
method can produce highly accurate threads of good finish. But the method is costly and
difficult. Sewing machine vending machines, typewriter parts and toys may have their threads
cast in place by die casting and permanent mould casting. Such parts are rarely taken apart, so,
the method is very satisfactory. The drawbacks of sand casting can overcome by using shell
molding method. Due to the inherent drawbacks of casting methods of thread production.

2.5.3 THREAD CHASING

The method of cutting threads with a single point tool on a center lathe and with a multipoint
tool on a turret lathe is called “thread chasing”. Thread chasing is a form cutting operation, with
the form tool corresponding to the profile of desired thread space.

2.5.3.1 Thread chasing on a center lathe. The first step in cutting threads on a lathe is to get an
accurately shaped and mounted tool. The form and setting of the tool is checked with the help of
a thread template or center gauge, Fig. The job is either mounted between centers or held in a
chuck (for external threads) and held in a chuck for internal threads. When mounting the tool in
the tool post, it must be ensured that the top of the job, Fig. After this, the second step is to
establish a specific relationship between the longitudinal movement of the tool parallel to the
axis of rotation, and the rotation, of the job. This will determine the pitch or lead of the thread.
This is achieved with the help of lead screw and a split nut. The two halves of the split nut are
fastened to the carriage. When the nut is closed on to the lead screw, it acts as a complete nut,
and the carriage starts moving as the lead screw rotates. The lead screw is geared to the spindle
and the proper speed ratio between the two is sit by means of a gear-change box. Therefore, as
the lead screw rotates, the carriage will move a predetermined distance (depending upon the
pitch of lead of the thread) per revolution of the job. The third requirement an exact
predetermined time, for taking successive cuts, so that the tool enters the helical groove of the
cut previously produced; otherwise the tool may remove some of the desired thread.

49
 Fig. 2.7 Center Gauge

This is achieved with the help of a ‘thread dial’, which is mounted on the carriage and is driven
by the lead screw through a worm gear. The face of the thread dial is graduated into a even
number of full and half divisions, Fig. Whenever the lead screw rotates and the split nut is not
engaged, the thread dial rotates. The split nut must be engaged when a particular line on the dial
face coincides with the zero line. For cutting even number of threads, the split nut should be
engaged when any line on the dial coincides with zero line, and for cutting odd-number threads,
when and homebred line coincides with zero line.
To start cutting a thread, the tool is fed inward until it first scratches the surface of the job. The
graduated dial on the cross-slide is noted or set to zero. The split nut is then engaged and the tool
moves over the desired job length. At the end of tool travel, it is quickly withdrawn by means of
cross slide. The spot nut is disengaged and the carriage is returned to the starting portion, for the
next cut.

Fig. 2.8 Setting of cutting tool

These successive cuts are continued until the thread reaches its desired depth (checked on the
dial of cross-slide). The depth of first cut is usually 0. 25 to 0.40 mm. This is gradually decreased
for the successive cuts until for the final finishing cut; it is usually 0.027 to 0.075 mm. The tool
can be fed inward either radially or at an angle of 29 by swiveling the compound rest, Fig.

50
 Fig. Thread Dial

Fig. 2.9 Feeding the tool into the job

The drawback of the first method is that the absence of side and back rake will not proper cutting
except on brass and cast iron. In the second method, the cutting mainly takes place on one face
of the tool and some side rake can be provided. Also, the chip will curl more easily. For cutting
square, acme and worm threads, the first method is used. For cutting L.H. threads, the tool is
moved from left to right and for cutting right hand threads; it is moved from right to left. Thread
cutting on a lathe is a slow process, but it is the only process of producing square threads, as
other methods develop interference on the helix.

2.5.3.2 Thread chasing on a turret lathe. The main drawback of cutting threads on a center
lathe is that the operation cannot be done at higher cutting speeds, since the permissible speed is
limited by the quickness with which the operator can withdraw the cutting tool from the job at
the end of a cut. This drawback is overcome in turret lathe, where thread-chasing attachment is
used to cut the thread. The attachment has no thread dial, which enables the operation of the
machine even by a semi-skilled worker. A simple thread chasing attachment for a turret lathe is
illustrated in Fig. From the headstock of the machine, power is given to a short lead screw,
known as the leader, by means of change gears. The fed nut and the tool slide are carried on a
shaft, which can be engaged or disengaged to the leader by means of a hand lever. The major
advantage of the arrangement is that the fed nut can be engaged to the leader at any portion of
the work rotation.

51
 Fig. 2.10 Thread Chasing Attachment

2.5.4 THREAD ROLLING

Thread rolling is a cold working process in which a blank of diameter approximately equal to the
pitch diameter of the required thread, is rolled between hardened steel rolling dies having the
negative counter of the thread to be produced. As the thread shaped ridges on the dies penetrate
the blank material, material is displaced from the bottom of the thread and forces radially out to
form the thread crests. These are three types of the thread rolling machine:
1. Reciprocating, flat die machines.
2. Cylindrical die machines.
3. Rotary planetary machines, having a rotary die and one or more stationary concave-
die segments.
In the reciprocating, flat die machine, one die is stationary and the other reciprocating. The part
to be threaded is rolled between the dies, as the moving die reciprocating in reference to the
stationary die. The stroke of the reciprocating die is will depend upon the diameter of the thread
being produced, since during one stroke, the blank makes are completely revolution and the
thread is completely formed. This is highly versatile machine, since at the same time threading
and knurling can be done on a part of right and left hand threads can be rolled, by assembling
two or three sets of flat dies. This method is mainly used for the manufacture of commercial
bolts and nuts.
In cylindrical die machine, the part is to be threaded is rolled between rotating cylindrical dies.
The machine can have two rounded dies located diametrically opposite each other, or three
rounds dies usually spaced. This machine is slower than the reciprocating flat die machine and is
more suitable for large sized precision threads and for short run production. This machine
operates with the following motions:
1. Positive rotation of the both the dies (in a two die machine) in the same direction.
2. Radial motion of one of the dies for its rapid approach, infeed and retraction. This method
has the main application of the threads on taps.

52
 Fig. 2.11 Thread Rolling

In rotary planetary machine, the job is rolled between a central die that rotates continuously
about a fixed axis, and one or more concave-shaped die segment located adjacent to the
periphery of the rotating die. This being a continuous process is the fastest method of thread
rolling.

2.5.4.1 Advantages of thread rolling

1. It is the fastest method of producing a thread, with production rate more than 2000 piece
per minute.
2. Being a chipless forming process (no material wastage), there is lot of material saving
(about 16 to 27 %).
3. During thread rolling, the material is strained plastically and is work-hardened, and is,
therefore, stronger against both tension and fatigue, especially the latter.
Increase in tensile strength is form 10 to 20% and that in fatigue strength is from 10 to 75%
4. The grain fibers remain continuous and follow the contous of the threaded surface. Due
to his, the threads are less easily sheared off than machined threads.
5. The surface of rolled thread is harder than a cut thread, so wear resistance increases.
6. Surface finish is better as controlled by the rolls.
7. Dimensional accuracy is better, as very little wear occurs on the rolls as it would on a
cutting tool.

2.5.5 DIE THREADING AND TAPPING

2.5.5.1 Die Threading. Die threading is a method of cutting external threads on cylindrical or
tapered surfaces by the use of the solid or self-opening dies. The main advantage of die threading

53
is that it can be performed along with other operations on turret lathes and on automatics (in the
case of self opening dies).

2.2.5.2 Solid Dies. In principal, a solid consists of a hardened, threaded nut with several
longitudinal grooves cut away and shaped to provide cutting edges to the remaining portions of
the thread. To facilitate their use from either end, entry chamfers are provided at both the ends.
To cut the threads, the die is screwed on the bar upon which the threads are to be cut. To move
the die along the bar, it is held in stock. This is rotated manually. To cut a smoother thread and to
prolong the life of the die, a suitable lubricant is used. The solid type dies are used rarely,
because they do not have any adjustment for wear. The solid adjustment can be adjust for size
and wear over a small amount by means of a screw, these dies are made of carbon or high speed
tool steel and can be used on a turret lathes with suitable holders.

Fig. 2.12 Solid Threading die

2.2.5.3 Self-opening die heads. The major drawback of the solid type dies is that they must be
unscrewed from the work piece by reversing the machine spindle, to disengage the die from the
work. Due to this, these dies are not suitable for use on high speed production machines, for use
on high speed production machines, e.g. turret lathes and automatics. This drawback is overcome
by using self-opening die heads. When the required length is thread is cut, the die open
automatically. At the end of the turret slide travel, the front portion of the dire head continuous to
move forward by a small amount until the chasers in the die head move outward in the body,
under the action of a scroll or a cam. This action clears the chasers from the cut thread and
enables the die head to be withdrawn without reversing the machine spindle. The die head, while
cutting threads may advance its own guidance once it screws itself along the work, until the die
trip opens. However, for better accuracy, there is increasing use of lead screw guides.
Depending upon the type of chaser, there are three types of die heads
1. Radial
2. Tangent
3. Circular
Radial chasers can be more rigidly, supported than other types. These are difficult to resharpen
and their life is short. Tangential chasers give a long life, because the length of the teeth makes
possible a large number of regrinds on the cutting face. Due to this they are very suitable for
heavy duty work and large batch production. Circular chasers also have a long working life since
these can be resharpened a number of times. All the die-heads can either be stationary or
revolving.
When used on automatics, the feed motion of the die-head is controlled by the cam rise, which
can be designed according. At the end of the return stroke, the dies are closed automatically
when the closing handle strikes a rod. Die-hands are available for cutting threads from 6.35 mm
to 114 diameter and chasers are available for any thread form.

2.2.5.4 Thread tapping. Taps are the tools for cutting internal threads. A tap is similar to a
threaded bolt, with one to four flutes cut parallel to its axis. The flutes perform three functions:

1. Provide cutting edges.

54
 2. Conduct the cutting fluid to the cutting region, and
3. Act as channels to carry away the chips formed by the cutting action.

Fig. 2.13 Self opening die head

The flutes can be straight, spiral, helical or spiral pointed. Taps with straight flutes are most
commonly used, since it is easier to cut and sharpen these flutes. Tapping can be dome manually
or on drilling machines, tapping machines, turret lathes and automatics. A hole of diameter
slightly larger than the minor diameter of the thread to be cut must already exist, for thread
tapping. Drilling can make the hole, boring or casting. The two main types of taps are: solid taps
and collapsing taps.

(a) Solid taps. Solid taps are of one-piece construction. These taps are usually
worked manually but can also be used on machine tools, such as lathes, drill
presses and special tapping machines. Taps are made of high carbon or high-
speed steel. The shank of the taps is kept plain and the end is squared. To operate
the tap by hand (Hand taps), it is held at the squared end with the help of a “tap
wrench”, which is used to screw the tap into the hole. To cut any particular size,
hand taps are available in sets of three: taper, plug and bottoming. The three taps
are identical in size and length, but differ in the amount of chamfer at the bottom
end. The taper plug has about 8 to 10 threads chamber at the bottom end, the plug
tap has 2 to 3 threads chamfered, whereas, a bottoming tap has no taper threads at
its bottom end. The tapered are cut to the full depth gradually, so less effort is
required. If a hole is open at both ends, then, after the taper tap, plug is used for
finishing the treads as deep into the hole as its shape will permit. Lastly, the
bottoming tap is used to finish the entire thread portion. So, the three taps should
be used in the order mentioned above. The bottoming tap is the only tap, which
would nearly reach the bottom of a blind hole. The three taps are shown in Fig.
2.14.

While threading a combined rotary and axial motion

is given to the tap. When using a solid tap on a drill
press, a special tapping attachment is used. This
makes the tap to rotate slowly as it is fed downward
into the job. At the end of tapping, when the spindle
is raised, the tap automatically starts rotating in the
reverse direction at a higher speed to back the tap
out of the hole in a shorter time. On screw machine
or turret lathe, a special holder is used for the tap, in
which a pin prevents the tap from rotating while it
is fed into the job. At the end of travel, the tap pulls
Fig. 2.14 the pin so that it is free to rotate with the work. The
machine spindle is then reversed in motion and the pin again stops the tap from rotating while it
is being backed out of the hole.

55
(b) Collapsing taps. For better results, a tap (or a die) should not be backed off the thread it has
just produced, because, during backing off, they catch tiny chips which can do damage to the
product. So for good finish and to speed up openings, collapsing taps are used, which collapse
inward automatically when the thread is completed. This makes it possible to withdraw the tap
from the hole without reversing the machine spindle.

Nomenclature: Refer to Fig. 2.15

Fig. 2.15

1. Axis. It is the longitudinal centre line through the tap.

2. Body. The body of a tap is the thread and fluted part of the tap.
3. Thread. It is the cutting tooth of the tap which produces the thread in a hole.
4. Angle of thread. It is the angle included between the sides of the thread, measured in the
axial plane.
5. Crest. It is the top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
6. Root. It is the bottom surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads.
7. Base of thread. It is the bottom section of a thread; the greatest section
section between the two adjacent roots.
8. Depth of thread. The depth of the thread profile is the distance between the top of crest
and the base or root of thread measured perpendicular to the axis of the tap.
9. Side of thread. It is the surface of the thread which connects the crest with the root.
10. Land. It is the threaded web between flutes.
11. Cutting face. It is the front part of the threaded section of the land.
12. Hook. It is the curved undercut of the cutting face of the land.
13. Heel. It is the back part of the threaded section of the land.
14. Chamfer. The tapered outside diameter at the front end of the threaded section.
15. Point diameter. It is the outside diameter at the front end of the chamfered portion.
16. Flute. It is the groove providing for the cutting facts of the teeth, chip passage and
cutting fluid.
17. Helix. It is the curve of an ordinary screw thread.
18. Helix angle. It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch diameter with a
plane perpendicular to the axis.
56
 19. Shank. It is the part of the tap behind the threaded and fluted section of the tap. The tap
held or located and driven by the shank.
20. Square. It is the squared end of the tap.
21. Radial rake angle. It is the angle formed in a diametric plane between the face and a
radial line from the cutting edge at the crest of the thread from.
22. Chamfer angle. It is the angle formed by the tapered outside diameter at the front end
with the top axis.
23. Web. The central portion of the tap situated between the roots of the flutes and extending
along the fluted section of the tap. Its thickness increases from the front and towards the
shank end of the flutes.
24. Back taper. The reduction in diameter of the tap body of the threaded portion from the
front end towards the shank end.
25. External Centre. It is the cone-shaped end of the tap. It is provided only for
manufacturing purposes and only for small taps and usually at the thread end.
26. Internal Centre. A small drilled and countersunk hole at the end of the tap, necessary
for manufacturing purposes.
27. Thread Relief. It is the radial clearance providing a gradual decline in the major, pitch,
and minor diameters of the lands, back of the cutting face.

2.5.5.5 DESIGN FEATURES OF A TAP

A tap is essentially a screw that has been fluted to form cutting edges. The cutting end of the tap
has a relieved chamfer, which forms the cutting edges and permits it to enter the untapped hole.
The design features are illustrated below:

1. Chamfer Diameter. The chamfer diameter, of the chamfer at the front end of the tap is
made smaller than the minor diameter of the thread as given below:
d= Minor diameter of thread – 0.10 to 0.15 mm for diameter upto 18 mm
= Minor diameter of thread – 0.20 to 0.25 mm for diameter from 20 to 39 mm
= Minor diameter of thread – 0.30 to 0.35 mm for diameter from 42 to 52 mm.

2. Chamfer Length and Chamfer Angle. It shows the material removal in tapping threads.
The cross-hatched area represents the part of the thread groove removed in the first
revolution of the tap.

Fig. 2.16 Tap Chamfer Element

The uncut chip thickness (measured perpendicular to the tap axis for simplicity) removed by
each land is,
t = h/zf
But
f = Lch/p; Lch= chamfer length

t = ph/z.Lch = p.tanф/z
It is clear that,
Lch = h/tanф or = h/kz
57
where
h = depth of thread
ф = angle of chamfer of the tap
p = pitch of the thread being tapped.
and k =t/p is a characteristic of the construction of a tap.

Its values are: k = 0.012 to 0.02 for nut taps

= 0.03 to 0.04 for die taps
= 0.06 to 0.10 for hand and machine taps.

The chamfer angle is given as,

tan ф= (do-db)/2 Lch therefore Lch = (do-db ).cotф/2

where
do= major diameter of the tap thread
db = diameter of blank hole for tapping.

3. Flutes: Most taps have straight flutes, but special taps have helical flutes. Changing the hand
of the helical flutes on the tap can change the direction of the chip flow. Left-handed flutes will
drive the chips forward, ahead of the tap. Left-handed flutes will drive the chips forward, ahead
of the tap, and, so, are used for tapping through holes. For tapping blind holes, right-handed
flutes are used for which the chip flow will be towards the shank. With straight fluted taps, the
chips can be made to flow forward, ahead of the tap, by grinding a spired point on the cutting
face of each land at the chamfered end.

The number of flutes may vary from 2 to 8, the higher number is used for larger diameter taps.

Larger the number of flutes, better will be the quality of the tapped thread. However, the cut
chips will be thinner, the specific cutting force and the torque will be higher.

Table: 2.1 Number of Flutes

Type of Tap Number of flutes

Major diameter, mm
2 to 6 8 to 14 16 to 24 27 to 36 39 to 52
Hand, nut and machinetaps :
For metric and inch threads 3 3 3 or 4 4 4 to 6
For pipe threads - 3 or 4 6 6 6
Master taps 3 4 6 6 6 to 8

Tap geometry :
i) Rake angle. of the sizing and chamfer part is given below , depending upon the type of
material to be tapped.
α = 15o,for steel with σt <600 MPa.
= 10o , for steel with σt 600 to 900 MPa
= 5o ,for steel with σt >900 MPa
= 5o for Grey C.I.
= 0o for Bronze
= 20o to 30ofor Aluminium and its alloys.

ii) Relief angle. Relief is provided only on the chamfer length. It is obtained by relieving the
thread only on the crests along the length of the chamfer. Its recommended values are :
γ = 8o to 10o for machine taps
= 6o to 8o for hand taps
58
 = 8o to 12o for nut and machine taps
= 3o to 4o for die calibrating taps
= 4o to 8o for taps for light alloys.
The relieving over the chamfer length will be given as,

K = пdo.tanγ /z
There is usually no relief on the sizing section and at the flank of the thread. Relieving reduces
the friction between the tap and the surface of the hole.

iii) Back-Taper : Axial back taper is provided on the tap from the front end towards the shank
end to to avoid rubbing of the tap with the surface of the hole so as to reduce friction. It is taken
as :
= 0.05 mm to 0.10mm/100 mm for ground taps
= 0.08 mm to 0.12 mm/100 mm for unground taps in which threads are
formed by rolling.
= 0.20 mm for tapping especially tough , high strength materials , such as
heat resistant and stainless steels and alloys and tough row-carbon
steels etc.

iv) Chamfer Angle. The leading edges of a tap are chamfered to help in starting the tap. Smaller
the chamfer angle, longer will be the chamfer length. This will result in thinner uncut chips,
resulting in increase in cutting force, eventhrough longer chamfer length provides better guiding
to the tap and the quality of the thread improves.

Table: 2.2 Chamfer Angles

Taps in a set Type of Tap ф ,degrees

1. Nut 2
2. Taper 7
Rougher 7
Bottoming 20
Finisher 20
3. Taper 5
Rougher 5
Second 10
Intermediate 10
Bottom 20
Finisher 20

Cutting speeds. The cutting speeds for machine taps are :

Table: 2.3 Cutting Speeds

Work material Lubricant Tapping speed

m/min
Aluminium Kerosene and hard oil 30
Bakelite Air blast 24
Brass Soluble or light base oil 42
Cast Iron Dry or Soluble oil 24
Steel :
Mild Soluble or sulphur based oil 18
Medium alloy Sulphur-base oil 12
Stainless Sulphur-base oil 6
Zinc die-cast Soluble oil 24
59
Materials. Taps are usually made of carbon tool steel or H.S.S.

2.5.6 THREAD MILLING:

In thread milling, the threads are cut by a revolving from milling cutter conforming to the shape
of the thread to be produced. Both external and internal threads can be cut by this method.
Thread milling has got the following characteristic:
1) This is a fast thread cutting method for producing threads usually of too large a diameter
for die heads.
2) The threads produced are more accurate than those cut by dies, but less accurate than
produced by grinding.
3) Threads running upto a shoulder on the workpiece can be cut without any difficulty.
4) Worms and lead screws, which are too large to be cut with a single point tool, can be
milled.
5) This method is desirable, when the pitch of the thread is too coarse to be cut with a die.
6) The method is more efficient than cutting thread on a lathe; especially when the job is
long or when large amounts of metal are to be removed.

For thread milling either single or multiple cutters may be used. A single-form cutter has a
single, annular row of teeth, lying in one plane. While thread cutting with a single cutter, it is
tilted through an angle equal to the helix angle of the thread to avoid interference while cutting.
To start milling the threads, the cutter is fed radially inward equal to the depth of the thread ,
while the job is stationary , being held between centers of the machine. The job is then rotated
slowly and the cutter, while rotating, is also traversed longitudinally parallel to the axis of the
job, or vice versa , by means of a lead screw. This operation is stopped when the thread is
completed. This method of thread milling is used for cutting coarse (large-pitch or multiple-
pitch) threads. The threading can be completed in a single cut or roughing and finishing cuts may
be used.

The method of cutting threads with single-thread or single-rib milling cutters is chiefly employed
to cut long threads (chiefly of square and trapezoidal profiles) on various lead screws and
worms. Usually, the threads are cut rough by milling and then chasing with a single-point tool or
a formed grinding wheel finishes these.

60
 Fig. 2.17 Thread milling with Multiple Thread Cutter; a) External Threads; b) Taper

Multiple cutter is used when the thread to be cut is not too long and it is desired to cut the threads
in one revolution of the work. The width of the cutter has to be slightly more than the length of
the thread. The cutter is set parallel to the axis of the job and is fed radially inward equal to the
depth of the thread while the job is stationary. The job is equal to depth of the thread while the
job is stationary. The job is then rotated slowly, with the cutter moving axially a distance equal
to the lead of the threads plus a small over travel to complete the thread in one pass.

2.5.7 THREAD GRINDING

Thread grinding is used to produce very accurate threads. It is also employed to cut threads on
hardened materials for which the other methods of thread cutting are not possible. The method is
also useful for materials too soft to get a good surface finish by other methods. Thread grinding
is used to cut threads on: taps, micrometer screws, lead screws, thread gauges and milling
cutters.
The principle of thread grinding is similar is principle to thread milling. The grinding wheels can
be single ribbed or multi-ribbed, which are shaped (conforming to the thread profile) by special
diamond dressers. In the case of single-ribbed wheel, the wheel turns against rotation of the job.
In addition to this rotary motion, a relative axial motion between the wheel and the job is
provided with the help of a precision lead screw. The wheel is tilted an angle equal to the helix
angle of the thread, to the axis of the job. This method is known as ‘Traverse Thread Grinding,
and is used to produce long and coarse pitch threads. Also, the pressure on the work and hence
the heat generated during grinding is not excessive, resulting in a more accurate thread.
A multi-ribbed wheel, which is slightly longer
(one or two threads) than the work, is used to
cut the entire threads in one revolution of the
work. The wheel is fed into the work to the
required depth and moves axially a distance
equal to the pitch of the thread while the work
revolves through one revolution. The cutter is
set parallel to the axis of the job. This method is
known as ‘plunge cut grinding’. This method is
61
employed when production is more important than accuracy. The principle of these two methods
is shown in Fig. A thread grinding machine is similar to centre type cylindrical
Fig. 2.18 grinding machine with an arrangement for
precise movement of the machine table and provision for tilting the grinding wheel at the helix
angle of the thread.

2.6 THREAD MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION

The elements to be checked for a thread are: major diameter, pitch diameter, pitch and helix
angle.
2.6.1 Major Diameter. The major diameter of the screw or the minor diameter of a nut can be
checked by a plain snap and plug gauges respectively. They can also be measured with
micrometer and vernier calipers. To measure the major diameter of a screw with a micrometer,
the anvils should be of sufficient diameter so as to span two threads. To eliminate the effect of
errors between the micrometer screw and the anvil faces, it is always better to first check the
instrument on a cylindrical standard of about the same diameter as the screw.

2.6.2 Minor Diameter. Minor diameter of a screw can be measured with a screw thread
micrometer Caliper. This instrument is similar to the ordinary micrometer, but instead of usual
flat measuring faces, it has specially designed anvil and spindle inserts. The inserts are
interchangeable to suit the

Fig. 2.19 Screw Thread Micromtere

Thread pitch. To check the minor diameter of a screw, two V-shaped inserts are used, so that
their sharp apexes contact the roots of the screw thread.

To check the pitch diameter, inserts of a type that

contact the sides of the screw thread near the pitch
diameter are employed. For this, a truncated thread
form is used on the inserts.

2.6.3 Pitch Diameter. One of the most accurate

methods for checking the pitch diameter is the ‘three-
wire method’. The method consists in placing three
shall diameter cylinders (three wires of equal and
precise diameter) in the thread grooves at opposite sides
of a screw and measuring the distance W over the outer
surfaces of the wires with an ordinary micrometer
caliper having flat measuring faces. Three wires are
required to prevent misalignment of the measuring

62
faces on the micrometer caliper. The pitch or effective diameter is calculated from the value W
in the following manner:
Fig. 2.20

Fig. 2.21

It is clear that, W=P+2*d/2

Where P=pitch or effective diameter
And d= wire size
Now AC=AD-CD=d/2cosec a/2- P/4cot a/2
Where a=thread angle
And p=pitch of threads`

After simplification, it can be seen that,

W=p+d (1+coseca/2)-p/4cota/2
In case of I.S.O. metric threads, a=60o
W=p+3d-0.866p
P=w-3d+0.866p
Here, the pitch diameter lies 0.3248p inside the crest of the thread that is,
P=D-0.6496p
D=Outside diameter
D=w-3d+1.5156p

Thus, if the wire diameter d, the thread pitch p and w are known, the pitch diameter of the screw
may easily be computed for the above relations.

2.6.4 Wire Size- Wire of any diameter can be used to measure the pitch diameter, provided it
makes contact on the true flank of the thread and provided the thread angle is correct. A wire of
best size is the one that makes contact with the flanks of the tread at the pitch diameter. The
effected diameter calculated with the help of any wire touching the true flanks of the thread will
differ from the obtained by using wire of best size if there is any error in the angle or form of the
thread. In the case of best size wire, the point B Fig (b) at which the wire touches the flank of the
thread lies on the pitch line, that is, BC lies on the pitch line and that AB is perpendicular to the
flank position of the thread. If there is a possibility of the thread angle being incorrect, the wire
of best size should be used to determine effective diameter, since such wire will be independent
of any error in the thread angle.

2.6.5 Pitch. The pitch of the thread is usually measured with “Screw pitch gauge”. Screw pitch
gauges, fig are sets of flat steel blades which are notched on one edge according to various
thread pitches represented by the gauge. The blades are pivoted at the end of a holder. To use it,
the blade with the required thread pitch is applied to the thread being checked at the radial plane.
63
If the pitch is correct, the gauge will fit tightly at the thread profile and no light will pass
between the gauge and the thread profile.
To estimate the values of the screw pitch error,
screw pitch comparators are available. A
comparator comprises a frame with two or three
rods ending in ball shaped contacts. The rods
are linked to a measuring tool, for example, a
dial indicator and the ball shaped contacts are
inserted into the thread grooves to be checked.
If the comparator has three contacts it will align
along the thread axis. A two contact comparator
checks the thread pitch in a direction
perpendicular to the helix angle. The scale of
the dial indicator will indicate the accumulated pitch error by the number of pitches. This
instrument must be set up with gauge blocks to the nominal size of the length of the
measurement. Pitch measuring machines are also available to inspect a screw for pitch. The
machine consists of a bed with centers at each end (just like a centre lathe) for supporting the
screw. Alternate means are also available for holding nuts and sleeves. A head carrying a stylus
shaped to fit in the vee of the thread is moved along the bed with the help of an accurate
micrometer. The head is provided with an indicator, which shows when the stylus is in its lowest
position in the groove that is, bedded home centrally in the groove of the thread. When the head
is moved along the bed, the stylus seats successively in each of the threads over the length being
examined. The pitch is determined by analyzing the micrometer ending.

2.6.6 Angle of thread. The screw pitch gauge can also give an indication about the correctness
of the thread angle. If the angle is incorrect, light will be seen between the gauge and the thread
of the profile. The thread angle of the screws is measured on an optical instrument, the
‘toolmakers microscope’. Checking of an internal thread is very difficult since molded copies of
the thread profile must be made.
Optical projection methods are very convenient for inspecting the form and angle of a thread.
The screw is held between centers provided in the apparatus and tilted to the helix angle so as to
get a clear profile of the thread. When a beam of light is thrown on the thread, the magnified
image of the thread is projected on to a screen or onto some part of the apparatus and compared
with a master template.
The angle of thread can also be measured from the projected image with the help of a shadow
protractor provided with the apparatus. The blade of the projector is set to each side of the thread
and the angle with the vertical is measured to get the total angle of the thread.

64
UNIT III
Theoretical basis of metal forming, classification of metal forming processes, cold forming, hot working,
Warm working, Effect of variables on metal forming processes, Methods of analysis of manufacturing
processes, Open Die forging, Rolling Power Rolling, Drawing, Extrusion.

3 THEORITICAL BASIS OF METAL FORMING

In metal forming large forces are applied to the work material to deform its plastically, to get the
desire product. The most important item in the analysis of a metal forming processes is
determination of the magnitude of the applied force, since it is an item necessary for the design
of processing equipment. Another important factor is to know the relationship between a force
and that it produces.
The most common method of determining the relationship between force (load) and deformation
is the tension test. In this, a suitable work specimen is subjected to an increasing axial load until
it fractures. The measurements of force and deformation (elongation) are taken at frequent
interval during the test. The engineering load-deformation curve or stress strain curve for a
ductile material is shown in figure. Up to the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional
to the strain and the slop of the curve is the modulus of elasticity, E. Point A is the elastic limit
up to which work piece will come back to its original dimension when unload. The stress at this
point is called the yield stress. For most of the material, it is quite difficult to locate the elastic
limit and yield stress is usually taken as the stress which will produce a small amount of
permanent deformation, usually equal to strain of a 0.002. This is known as “offset yield stress”.
Beyond elastic limit, plastic deformation begins. With the increase in plastic deformation, the
specimen becomes stronger until the point c is reached on the curve. The curve AC is called
“strain-hardening” or “work hardening” curve, since the force required to deform the specimen
increases with further straining. In this portion of curve the specimen continues to become longer
and thinner, the deformation begins uniformly along the length of the specimen. The stress at
point C is called “tensile strength”or”ultimate tensile strength” of the material. Beyond
maximum load, the specimen starts to become thinner rapidly at some point between two ends,
until the specimen breaks or fractures. This phenomenon is called as” necking”. At point of
failure the load is lower then maximum load, and the stress at this point is called as “breaking
stress” or “fracture stress”.
The engineering stress in the specimen is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen,

S=P
Ao
The engineering strain or the conventional strain is defined as the ratio of the elongation of the
gauge length of the specimen by its original length.
e = l - lo
lo

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Depending upon the temperature at which a material is mechanically worked or formed, the
metal forming processes can be classified as : Cold forming, Hot forming and Warm or Semi-hot
forming.

3.1.1 COLD FORMING

Cold forming or cold working can be defined as the plastic deforming of metals and alloys under
conditions of temperature and strain rate such that the work hardening or strain hardening is not
relieved. Theoretically, the working temperature for cold working is below the recrystallization
65
temperature of the metal/alloy (which is about one-half the absolute melting temperature).
However, in practice, cold working is carried out at room temperature.
As already discussed, cold working results in increase in strength and hardness and a decrease in
ductility of the material Fig. So, if the material is excessively deformed, it may fracture before it
is formed. To avoid this, large deformations in cold working are obtained in several stages, with
intermediate annealing. This will soften the cold worked material and restore its ductility (Fig. ).

Fig. 3.1 Effect of cold working and annealing

In addition to the characteristics of cold working discussed in chapter 3 the cold working process
has got the following characteristics:
1. Since cold working is done at room temperature or low temperatures, no oxidation and
scaling of the work-material occur. This results in reduced material loss.
2. Cold working can make thin gauge sheets.
3. Since higher forces are required, high capacity and costly machines are needed for cold
working.
4. Severe stresses are set up in the material during cold working. This requires stress relieving
or annealing treatment, which increases the cost of cold working.

3.1.1.1 Materials for cold-working

In principle, any material can be cold worked. In practice, however, the choice is limited by the
following two factors:
1. The ability of the tool material to withstand the required pressures for cold working of a
material. Obviously, the tool material must have a mechanical strength greater than that of
the material to be cold worked. Also, from the point of view of economy, the tool (die etc.)
must have a reasonable working life, that is, it must be able to withstand the developed
working stresses for a reasonable length of time.
2. The economic requirement that the maximum possible deformation of the material should be
obtained in a single working operation. This will depend upon the cold ductility and cold
flowability of the material.

Thus, the two principal limitations to cold working of a material are: the permissible stress
placed on the tool material and the ductility of the material to be cold worked. Both cold ductility
and cold flowability of a material depend closely on its chemical composition. As for steel, with
an increase in the percentage of carbon or alloying constituents, its deformability decreases and
the resistance to deformation increases. The maximum limit is usually 0.45% carbon for steels
used in cold extrusion and 1.6% carbon for other cold forging operations. Impurities such as S,
P, O2 and N2, also impair the cold workability of the steel. For cold working, the micro-structure

66
of the material also plays an important role. Soft annealing known as spheroidize annealing of
steel before cold working improves its cold workability. The grain size is also an important
factor. Large grain is easier to cold work, while the parts made from fine grained material are
stronger. A good guiding rule for forging steels used to produce forgings is that the stress on the
die should not exceed 2500 N/mm2 and the material must allow at least a 25% deformation in a
single step.
As a general rule, the requirements for a material to be cold worked are:
1. Yield stress curve of gentle slope.
2. Early yield point.
3. Then great elongation with pronounced necking before fracture.

The material commonly used for cold working include: low and medium carbon steel (0.25 to
0.45%C), low alloy steels, copper and light alloys such as Aluminium, Magnesium, Titanium,
and Berylium.

3.1.2 HOT WORKING:

Hot working or hot forming can be defined as plastic deformation of metals and alloys under
conditions of temperature and strain rate, such that recovery and recrystallization temperature of
the material, and after hot working, a fine grained recrystallization structure is obtained. Hot
working occurs at an essentially constant flow stress Fig. In addition to the characteristics
discussed in chapter 3, hot working of metals has got the following characteristics:
1. Blowholes and porosities in the work material are eliminated during hot working, as a result
of internal welding.
2. Stress annealing is not required after hot working.
3. Because of large deformations possible in one stage, the number of stages needed to form a
part is very much less compared to cold working. Also, interstate annealing can be avoided.
4. Because of higher temperatures, there is oxidation and scaling of the material's surface. This
results in heavy loss of work material. Also, their oxide flakes may get embedded in the
surface resulting in poor surface finish.
5. Due to the occurrence of surface decarburization in steels, the surface strength and hardness
of the component is reduced.
6. Hot working cannot make thin gauge sheets.
7. Because of high working temperatures, there is a serious problem of surface reactions
between the metal and the furnace atmospheres, more so in the case of reactive metals like
Titanium, calling for inert atmosphere.

Note: It should be noted that difference between cold working and hot working depends only
upon the temperature of recrystallization and not on any arbitrary temperature of deformation.
Lead, tin and zinc recrystallize rapidly at room temperature after large deformations. Hence, the
working of these metals at room temperature will constitute their hot working. Similarly working
of Tungsten at about 1090oC will be termed its cold working, because it has recrystallization
temperature above this value.

3.1.3 WARM WORKING OR SEMI HOT WORKING:

It can be defined as plastic deforming of a metal or alloy under conditions of temperature and
strain rate, such that the drawbacks of both cold working and hot working are eliminated and
their advantages are combined together. For this, the selection of proper temperature for warm
working is very important. This depends upon the following factors:
1. Yield or flow strength of the metal or alloy.
2. Ductility of the material.
3. Dimensional tolerance on the component.

67
4. Oxidation and scaling losses.

The variations of the above properties relative to the working temperature can be studied to
arrive at the proper working temperature for warm working. For example, for 0.13% C steel; the
following observations are made:

3.1.3.1 Yield Strength: In general, yield strength decreases with increase in temperature.
However, in the temperature range of 150oC to 350oC and 800oC to 9000C, it increases with,
increases in temperature. The first temperature range is called blue brittleness range of steel and
in the second range, structural changes occur in steel. Both these ranges are brittle ranges and if
steel is worked in these temperature ranges, it will fracture. So, the best temperature ranges from
the yield strength point of view are 400oC to 750oC and above 900oC.

3.1.3.2 Ductility: In general, the ductility or formability of a material increases with increase in
temperature. However, in temperature ranges of 250oC to 350oC and 800oC to 900oC, it decreases
with increase in temperature. Thus, from the ductility point of view, the best temperature ranges
for the above-mentioned steel is: 400oC to 750oC and above 900o.

3.1.3.3. Dimensional tolerance and Scaling and oxidation losses: The dimensional tolerances
increase rapidly above 700oC. Similarly, scaling and oxidation losses, which are negligible upto
700oC, increases very rapidly above this temperature.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the best temperature range for working the above-
mentioned steel is 400oC to 700oC. Working of steel within this temperature range is called warm
working or Semi-hot working.

3.1.4 Effect Of Variables On Metal Forming Processes

The various variables affecting a metal forming process can be: temperature, strain rate or speed
of deformation, friction etc.

1. Temperature: Temperature is an important variable in metal working process. Its effect has
been studied in detail in the last article. In general, it can be said that with increase in
temperature, the strength and hardness of the work-material decreases and its ductility increases,
Fig.

2. Strain-rate: Strain rate or deformation velocity has also great effect on metal working
processes. Stain rate is defined as:

є= v/ h
Where v is the deformation velocity and h is the instantaneous height or length of the workpiece.
It has been experimentally observed that the effect of strain rate is generally small at room
temperature or low temperatures (cold working), but at high temperatures, i.e. hot working, there
is substantial strain-rate sensitivity. In general, we can write the effects of strain rate as follows :

68
 Fig. 3.2 Effect of Temperature on Stress-Strain Curve

(a) The flow stress of the material increases with strain rate.
(b) The temperature of the work-material increases with strain rate, due to adiabatic heating.
(c) With temperature as a parameter, the tensile strength of the material increases with strain
rate.
(d) Lubrication at the tool-work piece interface improves, provided the film can be maintained.

It is clear from above that the strength of a material which is available at low temperatures when
the material is worked at low strain rate, can be achieved at high working temperature by
working the material at high strain rates.

Table gives the typical values of deformation velocities for various tests and metal working
processes.
Table . Typical Deformation Velocities

Process Deformation velocity, m/s

Tensile test 0.6×10-6 to 0.6×10-2
Hydraulic press 0.025 to 0.35
Mechanical press 0.15 to 1.5
Tube drawing 0.05 to 0.5
Deep drawing 0.05 to 1.0
Hammer forging 2.5 to 10.0
Explosive forming 30 to 200

3. Friction

In metal forming processes where is contact between the tool and the workpiece, there is always
friction. The friction is a very important variable. It affects not only the forming forces but also
the pattern of material deformation, which becomes increasingly non-uniform with frictin. It is
also a source of heat. In cold forming, where lubrication can be achieved efficiently, the
coefficient of friction can be of the order of 0.1, but in hot working it may be of the order of 0.6
or greater. Under such conditions, there is sticking of the work material to the tool face and
subsurface plastic flow occurs rather than sliding.

3.1.5 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

When a manufacturing process deforms a metal, the total work per unit volume done on the
metal is given by,
WT=Wp + Wf + Wr
where
Wp = ideal work of deformation
69
 Wf = work to overcome friction at the metal-tool interface
Wr = the redundant work

The redundant work is the work involved in the internal shearing process due to non-uniform
deformation. It does not contribute to the change in shape of the body. This concept is explained
in Fig. , where a billet is shown before compression and after compression. If there is perfect
lubrication at the metal-tool interface, the grid will remain undistorted. The square grid (before
compression) will become rectangular (after compression). The height of each grid block will get
shortened and its length will get increased. Such a deformation is called uniform deformation.
However, if friction is present at the metal-tool interface, then the grid will become distorted
accompanied by barreling or bulging on the sides. The extra work, which goes to distort the grid
and also to create bulge, is a waste and is called the redundant work. Such a deformation is
called "non-uniform deformation."

Fig. 3.3 Mode of Deformation

The commonly used methods for the analysis of metal forming processes are :
1. Slab Method
2. Upper-Bound Method
3. Slip-line Field Method

The analysis is basically same for cold forming and hot forming, with difference only in flow
and friction characteristics. The analysis of the metal forming processes by the above methods is
only approximate due to the many assumptions made regarding the behavior of the work
material and the mode of deformation. The approximation is better at low co-efficient of friction.
Thus, the correlation is better with cold working, low friction processes than with hot working,
high friction processes.

Slab-analysis technique' or 'Elementary theory' makes the following assumptions:

1. The material is isotropic, incompressible and the elastic strains are neglected.
2. Deformation is homogenous throughout the deforming materials under study.
3. Stresses on a plane normal to the flow direction are principal stresses.
In this method a 'slab' of infinitesimal thickness is considered and a force balance (equilibrium
equation) is made on it. The resulting differential equation of static equilibrium is solved with
the help of appropriate boundary conditions and yield criteria.
Here we shall not consider high-energy rate forming. Now, we shall discuss the application of
slab method for the analysis of common metal forming processes.

70
3.1.6 OPEN DIE FORGING

In open die forging, the work piece is upset, compressed or forged between two flat over hanging
dies. If the co-efficient of friction at the die- workpiece interface is zero & if the material is
assumed to be rigid perfectly plastic, then the force-required to forge a specimen is equal to the
product of yield stress σo & the projected area at any instant. Here, we shall take the case when
friction is there in the interface.

1. Plane Strain Forging. Fig. shows the schematic view of open die plane strain forging. In
plain strain, the specimen is not free to flow in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
page. As the dies come closer to each other, there is lateral flow of the work material. Due to
this, frictional shear stresses are set up at die contact surface,

Fig. 3.4 Plane Strain Open Die Forging

which are directed towards the centre line, opposing the metal flow. Due to the presence of
interface friction, the horizontal stress x varies along the length of the rectangular work
piece. In the following analysis, it is assumed that the work piece material behaves like an
ideal plastic material, the work piece is in a plastic state & that the stresses do not vary with
height. At any instant of forging, the equilibrium equation of a small element of width dx,
in the x-direction gives,
(σx + d σx)Bh - σx Bh – 2 ‫ح‬x dx B = 0
dσx /dx - 2 ‫ح‬x /h = 0
(i) For sliding friction; assuming coulomb friction with co-efficient of friction , we
have
 ‫ح‬x = µp
.˙. dσx /dx - 2µp /h = 0 ….(i)
Assuming σx & p as principal stresses, & taking tresca’s yield theory, we have for plane strain,
σ1 - σ3 = σ0 = 2k
.˙. σx + p = σ0 … p being compressive.
.˙. dσx /dx = - dp/dx
.˙. Equation (i)becomes,
dp/p = -(2µ / h) . dx
Integrating, loge p = - (2µ / h) x + c
Now at x = L, σx = 0 (stress free surface) & we have
p = σ0
.˙. Loge σ0 = - (2µ / h) L +c
71
.˙. c = Loge σ0 + (2µ / h). L
.˙. Loge p/ σ0= (2µ / h) (L-x)
.˙. p= σ0 .e [2µ (L-x)/h]
.˙. P/2k = p/ σ0 = e [2µ (L-x)/h] … (ii)
.˙. σx = σ0- p = σ0 [1- e [2µ (L-x)/h]] …(iii)

Fig. 3.5 Distribution of p and σx

The distribution of p & σx is shown in fig. p & σx will be maximum at the centre, illustrating the
“friction hill”. So putting x = 0.
Pmax = σ0 .e (2μL/h)
If μ is small, this can be approximated as,
(p/2k) max ≈ 1+ 2μL/h … (iii a)
(2μL/h)
(σx) max = σ0 [1- e ]
As h decreases, p will increase for the same value of μ.p is directly proportional to μ.
Now total forging load,
L
Pt = 2B ∫ p dx
0 L
Average pressure is, Pa = Pt/2BL = 1/L ∫ p dx
0
= σ0 /L [e (2μ (L-x). (1/-2μ/h)]
= σ0 /L [-1/2μ/h + e (2μL/h). 1/2μ/h)]
.˙. Pa = σ0 /L.h/2μ [-1+e2μL/h] … (iv)
If 2μL/h is small then,
Pa/ σ0= Pa/2k ≈h/2μL [1+ (2μL/h) + (4μ2.L2/2h2) - 1] … (iv a)

≈ 1+μL/h … (iv b)

ii) Sticking friction: when there is a condition of sticking friction, the work piece material does
not slide along the die face & actually becomes a part of the die face & there is surface flow of
metal. The friction shear stress at the die interface cannot be more than the yield shear stress of
the material.

So, for sticking friction,

‫ح‬x = K= σ0/2 … (Tresca Condition)
.˙. Equilibrium equation is
dσx /dx - σ0 /h = 0
Or -dp/dx - σ0 /h =0
.˙. p = - (σ0/h).x + c … (v)
Now usually the sliding friction exists near the edges of the work piece (x = L), where the
pressure is low, but at some distance nearer to the center line, sticking friction may exist.
72
Let sticking occurs at x = xs, where
‫ح‬s = μp = σ0 /2 … [here p= ps (sticking)]
.˙. From equation (ii)
σ0 /2= μ σ0 + e2μ (L-xs)/h
.˙. e2μ (L-xs)/h = 1/2 μ
.˙. xS = L-(h/2 μ).loge (1/2 μ) … (v a)
.˙. At x = xs p = ps
.˙. From equ. (v),
ps = (-σ0 /h).xs +C
.˙. C = ps + (σ0 /h).xs
.˙. In the sticking region, p = ps + (σ0 /h) (xs-x)
2[μ(L-xs]
Where ps = σ0.e … (v b)

(ii) If the friction is high, for example, in hot forging it may reach sticking friction, then
sticking regime extends over the whole interface. For this situation,
‫ح‬s = k = σ0/2
.˙. Equation (i) becomes,
hdσx – 2kdx = 0
Now σx+ p = - σ0
.˙. dσx = -dp
.˙. -hdp – 2kdx = 0
.˙. dp/2k = - dx/h
.˙. Integrating, p/2k = -x/h + C
Now at x = L, p = 2k = σ0 (since σx = 0)
.˙. C = 1 + L/h
.˙. (p/2k) max = 1+ (1/h) (L-x)
.˙. (p/2k) max = 1+L/h (at centre, x=0) …. (V c)

Average pressure will be, pa = 2k (1+L/h) …. (V d)

Note: The value of co-efficient of friction at sticking conditions:

μ = 0.5, Tresca yield condition
= 0.577, von-mise’s yield condition

2. Axisymmetric forging. Fig. shows the stresses acting on a sector of circular disc. Taking the
equilibrium of forces in the radial direction,
σr h.rdθ-( σr +d σr) h(r+dr) dθ+2σθ hdr sin (dθ/2) – 2 τ r dθ = 0
Taking sin (dθ/2) ≈ dθ/2, the above equation reduces to,
σr h dr + dσr r h – σθ h dr – 2τ r dr = 0
The disc being axi-symmetric,
dєθ = dєr
.˙. Where σθ = σr
(The material being rigid perfectly plastic, the incremental plastic strains will be the total
incremental strains).
Making this substitution, we finally get
dσr/dr – 2τ/h =0
Now τ = µp = -µσz (p = -σz)
.˙. dσr/dr + 2µσz/h = 0

Now using Von-Mise’s yield condition,

2σ02 = (σ1-σ2) 2 + (σ2-σ3)2 + (σ3-σ1)2
Taking σr, σθ & σz as principal stresses, we get
2σ02 = (σr-σz)2 + (σz-σθ) 2 + (σθ-σr) 2
We have σr = σθ
73
 2σ02 = (σr-σz)2 + (σz-σr)2 + (σr-σr)2
.˙. 2σ02= 2(σr-σz)2
.˙. σ0 = σr – σz = σr + p
.˙. dσr = - dp
.˙. dp/p = - 2µr/h
.˙. loge p = - 2µr/h + C
At the outer surface, r= R, σ =0
.˙. C = loge σ0 + 2µR/h
.˙. loge p/σ0 = 2µ/h (R-r)
Or p = σ0.e2µ/h (R-r) …. (vi)
Average pressure will be
R
pa = ∫2πpr dr/πr2
0
= σ0/2 (h/µR)2 [e(2µR/h) – (2µR/h) - 1]
Now, the pressure will be the maximum when r=0
.˙. (p/σ0) max = e(2Rµ/h) … (vi b)

Fig. 3.6 Axisymmetric Forging

i) Sticking friction. When sticking friction occurs over a portion of the disc, the problem can be
analyzed on the same lines as for plane strain forging. Thus, sticking radius will be given as, see
equ. (v a)
Rs = R – h/2µ loge (1/2µ) … (vi c)
For Von-Mises yield condition.
Rs = R – h/2µ loge (1/√3µ) … (vi d)
Pressure at the sticking radius, see equ. (v b)
Ps = σ0 e[2µ(R-Rs)/h] … (vi e)
In sticking region,
p = ps + σ0/h (Rs-R) … (vi f)
Pressure at the centre, that is, R = 0
pc = ps + σ0/h. Rs … (vi g)

(iii) For hot forging, the interface friction often reaches the sticking value. Then Τ=k
.˙. From dσr/dr – 2τ/h = 0
dσr/dr – 2k/h = 0
Now dσr = - dp
.˙. - h dp – 2k dr = 0
74
 Integrating, p = - 2k/h. r + constants
At r = R, σr = 0 and p = σ0 (from yield condition)
.˙. Constant = σ0 + σ0/h. R
.˙. p = σ0 + σ0/h. (R - r)
or p/2k = 1 + 1/h (R-r)
pmax = 2k (1 + R/h) … (vi h)
pa = 2k (1 + R/2h)
Empirical Methods to Compute Forging Loads

1. Open Die Forging. The load required to forge a flat section in open dies
estimated by,
P = σ A. C., N
Where σ = mean flow, stress N/mm2
A = forging projection area, mm2
C = constant (constraint factor) to allow for inhomogeneous
deformation
The deformation resistance increases with ∆ which is defined as,
∆ = mean thickness deforming zone/ length of deforming zone
= h/2L
Then C is given as, C = 0.8 + 0.2 ∆

2. Closed-die Forging. The prediction of forging load in a closed-die forging process is quite
difficult. Fig. shows a typical curve of forging load vs. pres stoke. The flash land (Fig.) is so
designed that the extrusion of metal through the narrow flash opening is more difficult than the
filling of the most intricate detail in die. However, excessive restriction to metal flow in flash
land will result in very high forging loads accompanied by die wear & breakage. The ideal
design is minimum flash to do a job.

Fig. 3.7 Variation of Forging Load with Press Stroke

For closed-die forging also, we can use the empirical relation,

p = σ. A. C.
Where A = cross-sectional area of forging at the parting line, including the flash.
C = a constant factor depending upon the complexity of the forging
= 1.2 t0 2.5 for upsetting a cylinder between flat dies.
= 3 to 8 for closed die forging of simple shapes with flash.
= 8 to 12 for more complex shapes

75
It may be of interest that every 10 MN of force corresponds approximately to 1000 kg of falling
parts of hammer.

76
3.1.7 ROLLING

In rolling, the metal is plastically deformed by passing it between rolls. Rolling is done both hot
and cold. The starting material is cast ingot, which is broken down by hot rolling into bloom,
billets and slabs, which are further hot rolled into plate, sheet, rod, bar, pipe, rails or structural
shapes. Cold rolling is usually a finishing process in which products made by hot rolling are
given a good surface finish with increased mechanical strength of the material. The main
objective in rolling is to decrease the thickness of the metal. Ordinarily, there is negligible
increase in width, so that the decrease in thickness results in an increase in length.
Fig. Shows the typical geometry for rolling. A metal sheet with a thickness h0 enters the rolls,
passes through the roll gap and leaves with a reduced thickness h1 . Since the volume rate of
metal flow has to remain constant, therefore, velocity at exit V 1 will be more than velocity at
entrance V0 . The roll has a constant surface velocity Vr . Thus, there is relative sliding between
the roll and the work piece, the direction of this relative velocity changes at a point along the
contact area, this point is known as the ‘no slip point’ or neutral point, N, where the velocities of
roll and work piece will be equal.
V0 h0 b0 =V1 h1b1
b0 ≅ b1 ≅ b

For plane strain rolling, (volume constancy)

∴ v 0 h0
V1 =
h1
As h0 > h1

Analysis of Metal Forming Processes

Fig. 3. 8Geometry of Rolling Process

77
 v1 > v0 , and we have
v 0 < v r < v1

At neutral plane Vr = Vm is the component of Vr in horizontal direction, but as the angle of

inclination is very small, we can take Vr =Vm ).
Because of the relative velocities involved, we have two definitions:

Vr −V0
Backward slip =
Vr
V1 −Vr
Forward slip =
Vr
Zone ANNB is lagging zone (V < Vr ) and zone NDCN is leading zone (V > Vr ) .
The angle α between the entrance plane and the centre-line of rolls is called the ‘angle of
contact’ or ‘angle of bite’.
Let us consider the moment when the rolling process is just going to start. The roll contacts the
entering material (may be the strip) at point A, Fig. 2 ( a ) . This contact result in a normal face
Pr and F , that is T , is sloped to the right, the it’s component along the X-axis Tx > 0 which
tends to push the workpiece into the roll opening and thus ensures biting. Thus the condition of
biting, that is the condition for unaided entry of the workpiece in the rolls is,
Tx = F cos α − Pr sin α > 0
F
Or > tan α
Pr
But F = µP r (Coulomb friction)
∴ µ > tan α
Let µ = tan β, where βthe angle of friction is, therefore, the limiting condition becomes,
tan β > tan α or β > α , or α < β
Which means that rolls ‘bite’ a workpiece, if the able of friction is greater than the angle of
tangency (biting)? If tan α exceeds µ , then the workpiece cannot be drawn into the rolls. The
values of biting angles are usually.
α = 3 0 to 4 0 for cold rolling of steel and other metals, with lubrication or well – ground rolls.
= 60 to 8 0 for cold rolling of steel and other metals, with lubrication on rough rolls.
= 18 0 to 22 0 for hot rolling steel sheets.
= 20 0 to 22 0 for hot rolling aluminium at 3500C
= 28 0 for hot rolling steel in ragged or well – roughed rolls.
“Ragging” is the process of making certain fine grooves on the surface of the roll to increase the
friction in cold rolling the co-efficient of friction is usually of the order of 0.1 (due to the
possibility of lubrication), but in but rolling usually the “sticking” conditions exists.
Total reduction or “draft” taken in rolling,
∆h = h0 − h1 = 2 ( R − R cos α ) = D(1 − cos α )
Usually, the reduction in blooming mills is about 100 mm and in and in slabbing mills, about 50
to 60 mm. The projected length of the arc of contact is,

I = R. sin α
I = BC 2 − CE 2
or
BC = R.∆h and CE = R(1 − cos α ) = 0.5 ∆h
Now
B ∆h
∴ I = . ( 0 .5 ∆ h)
2

P =σ
Usually, ( 0.5 ∆ h ) is < R ∆ h
2

I ≅ ( R ∆ h)
1
∴ 2

78
The vertical component of Pr is known as the “rolling load”, P. This is the force with which
the rolls press against the metal. Due to reaction, the metal tends to separate the rolls apart,
therefore, this force is also called the “Separating force”.
P P
The specific roll pressure, P= =
contact area b.I
Where b is the width of the sheet? For uniform deformation and no friction, the specific roll
pressure may be taken equal to mean yield stress (flow stress), σ of the material. Thus, the
rolling load is given as, p =σ.I .b the various methods to reduce the separating force are:
1. Smaller roll diameter (which reduces contact area).
2. Lower friction.
3. Higher workpiece temperature (even though friction will increase, but ' p ' will be
smaller).
4. Take, smaller bites, thereby reducing the contact area.
5. From equation of max. shear stress criterion, it is clear that yield stress of the material in
one direction is a function of the stress in the other principal stress. Therefore, if we apply
tensile force to the workpiece in the horizontal direction, the compressive yield strength of
the material in the vertical direction will be lower; hence, the separating force will be
smaller. Both “back tension” and “front tension” can be applied.
(a) at the start of rolling
(b) after roll gap is filled by metal

Fig. 3.9 Biting of Workpiece by Rolls.

Analysis: The stress equilibrium of an element in rolling is shown in Fig. 3.9. The following
assumptions are made:
1. Rolls are straight, rigid cylinders:
2. Strip is wide compared with its thickness, so that no widening of strip occurs (plane
strain conditions).
3. The material is rigid perfectly plastic (constant yield strength).
4. The co-efficient of friction is constant over the tool-work interface.

79
 Fig. 3.10 Stress Equilibrium of an Element in Rolling

Considering the thickness of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper to be unity, we get
equilibrium equation in x-direction as,
− σ x h + ( σ x + dσ z )( h + dh) − 2 pR dθ + 2 τ x R dθ cosθ = 0
For sliding friction, τ x= µp. Simplifying and neglecting second order terms, we get
d (σ x h)
= 2 pR( sin θ µ cos θ )
dθ
The negative sing applies within the lagging zone and the positive sign applies within the leading
zone, because the direction of the friction force changes at the neutral plane.
The mathematics for the solution of equation (a) is very complex and various assumptions and
approximations have to be made to get a tractable solution.
In rolling, the angle α is usually small, therefore,

80
81
82
83
84
1. The initial hot-ingot breakdown is eliminate. This results in large saving in capital
investment.
2. Contamination present in hot rolling is minimized.
3. Sheets with very fine grain size or with a minimum of preferred orientation can be
obtained.

85
3.1.8 DRAWING (WIRE, ROD, TUBE)

In wire, rod or tube drawing, the work piece is pulled through a die resulting in reduction in the
cross-section. A typical drawing die is shown in Fig. β is the entrance angle and it provides the
entry zone to allow the introduction of lubricant into the working zone and also to protect the
work material against scoring by die edges. The angle β is usually about 40o. α is half die
angle (usually 6o to 24o) and here the actual reduction is section occur. The die bearing surface or
land (a few mm long) serves to guide the wire or rod as it comes out from the working zone of
the die. It ensures accuracy of dimensions from the working zone of the die. It ensues accuracy
of dimension and of the sections shape. The exit zone prevents damage to die bearing and
scoring or finished product. There are a number of variables in the drawing process: work-
material properties, reduction in cross-sectional area, die angle, drawing speed, and lubrication.
The performance of the operation is affected by a change in one or more of these variables. The
degree of drawing is measured in terms of “reduction of area” (RA):

Fig. 3.11 Drawing Die

For fine wires, the reductions per pass of 15 to 25 percent are used, while for coarse wires this
value per pass may be 20 to 50 per cent.
Die life is an important consideration. To increase die life, pressure on die should be reduced.
This is accomplished by back tension (similar to rolling). This reduces the pressure but increases
the drawing tension, σd die material can be alloy steels, carbides and diamonds. Drawing speeds
range from about 9 mpm for largest diameter rods and 90 mpm for small rods and coils to 1500
mpm very fine wires.

Analysis of Wire,Rod Drawing: Fig. shows the stress acting on an element in Drawing of Wire
or Rod. The equilibrium equation in X-direction will be:
dx  dx 
(σ x + dσ x )π (r + dr ) 2 − σ x .πr 2 + τ x . cos α ( 2πr ) + Px . sin α  2πr =0
cos α  cos α

86
87
Optimum die-angle for Wire drawing. As already
discussed under Art. The deal total load in any deformation
process consists of three parts: ideal load, load to overcome
external friction and the load to overcome redundant work.

i. The ideal load is given as=σoA. In r, where σo is the field

stress, A is the appropriate, cross-sectional of the metal,

88
 fig. 3.12 on which the load is applied and r is the reduction achieved. This load is
independent of semi-die angel α ,
ii. The external frictional work load will depend upon: pressure between the metal being
deformed and the die, the co-efficient of friction at metal-tool interface, and the area of
surface contact between metal and tool. It is clear that the area of contact decreases, as the
die angle is increased Fig. Resulting in decreased frictional load, fig.
iii. Redundant work is the wasted work utilized to bend the metal fibers first one way and then
back to the original direction of flow (in wire drawing). It s again clear from fig. That the
angle of bend and hence the redundant work will increase as the die angle increases. This is
made clear in fig.

By combining the above three types of load, the variation of total wire drawing load with semi-
die angle, can be drawn, fig. It is clear that at a certain value of α (optimum semi-die angle),
the total load is minimum. It is found in practice that the harder the metal, the smaller the
optimum die angle, as given below:
α = 24o for Aluminium = 12o for Copper = 6o for steel

3.1.8.1 Tube or Pipe drawing: Tubes which are made by hot metal working processes (piecing,
extrusion and rolling) are finally cold drawn to obtain better surface finish and dimensional
tolerances, to enhance the mechanical properties of the pipe (by work hardening) and to produce
tubes of reduced wall thickness or smaller diameter.
The three common methods of tube drawing are: Tube sinking, Tube drawing with a plug and
Tube drawing with a moving mandrel, the last two methods being more widely used because in
tube sinking, fig. (a), the inside of the tube is not supported and so during drawing operation, the
inner surface becomes uneven and there will be tendency for the wall thickness to increase
slightly. In plug drawing and movable mandrel drawing, both the inner and outer surfaces of the
tube are controlled and we get tubes of better dimensional accuracy as compared to Tube
sinking. In plug drawing, the plug (which may be either cylindrical or conical) can either be
fixed, [fig.] or floating, [fig]. The friction with a fixed plug will be more than with a floating
plug, so the reduction in area seldom exceeds 30% in this method. With a floating plug, this
figure can e approximately 45% or with the same reduction, the drawing loads will be less with
floating plug than with a fixed plug. The friction is minimized in Tube drawing with a movable
mandrel. However, after tube drawing, the mandrel has to be removed by rolling, which results
in slightly increased tube diameter and reduced dimensional tolerance.

Fig. 3.13
3.1.8.2 Analysis of Tube drawing: In tube or pipe drawing with a plug or movable mandrel,
most of the deformation occurs as a reduction in wall thickness. There is only a small

89
reduction in inside diameter, needed only to insert plug or mandrel before drawing. Thus,
there is no hoop strain and the analysis can be based on plane strain conditions.
The stress system for tube drawing is shown in fig.

The equilibration equation can be written and solved as explained below:

If wall thickness h is small in comparison with pipe diameter D and the variation of D per
pass is small, then pressure p varies little in the deformation zone across the thickness of
pipe. The equilibration equation can be written b considering the force acing on the annular
element, with respect to the axis of drawing. Refer fig. (a) for plug drawing.

Fig. 3.14

90
91
 Tube drawing with a moving mandrel. In plug drawing, the friction drag acts in the
backward direction (that is towards the die entrance) nboth at the die, tube interface and tube
plug interface, Fig. 13.19 (a.) But in tube drawing with a moving mandrel, the friction
conditions at the tube mandrel interface get reversed because while the tube is getting
elongated, the mandrel remains underformed. Thus, the friction force at the tube mandrel
interface is directed toward the exit of the die, that is opposite to the direction of friction
force at the die tube interface due to this the relation for B will get change to.

µ1 − µ2
B= tan α − tan β
µ1 − µ 2
The mandrel will be usually cylindrical that is β = 0 therefore β = if µ1 = µ2
tan α
then B=0 and equilibrium equation will get reduce to
hd σ x + dh( σ x + P ) = 0
from here the equation can be obtained for draw stress as
1
σ d = log e .σ 0
h0 / h1

92
Die Pressure: Now die pressure is given as
P= σ 0 − σ x from yield equation.
Therefore, calculating σx along the x axis at different points by equivation we get the variation
of die pressure can be plotted from the point of entry to the die exit.

Maximum Reduction Possible in Tube Drawing:

as discussed under wire drawing the maximum reduction is limited by the mechanical strength of
the exit end of the tube that is when
σd
=1
σ0

  h1 
B

1 −  
1 +B  h0   =1
B  
 

 
max

µ1 = µ2 = .05 , α = 15 0 , β = 0
µ1 + µ 2 1 + B 
B= = .10 / .268 = .373 ,   = 3.68
tan α  B 

 h1 
 h0  = .7283 2.68 = .4275
  max
Maximum possible reduction is about 43%

93
3.1.9 EXTRUSION

In general, extrusion may be defined as a process by which a block of metal is reduced in cross-
section, by forcing to flow through a die under high pressure. The main advantage of extrusion is
that high compressive stresses are set up in the billet due to its reaction with the container and
the die. These stresses are effective in reducing the cracking of materials during primary
breakdown from the billet. Due to this, large reductions are possible and also the difficult metal
can be extruded, for example, stainless steel, nickel-based alloys and other high temperature
materials. Extrusion can be used both for hot and cold working. Also bars, hollow tubes and
shapes of irregular cross-section can be extruded. Extrusion could well be considered as
application of closed die forging, the difference being that in a forging, the main body of the
metal is the product and flash is cut away and discarded, in extrusion the flash in the product and
the slug remaining in the die is not used.

The various types of extrusion processes are shown in figure. The direct extrusion is the
simplest, but it is limited by the fact that as the ram moves, the billet must slide or shear at the
interface between billet and the container. These large friction forces must be overcome by very
high ram forces, which produce very high

Fig. 3.15
residual forces on the container. In the indirect method, the billet proper does not move relative
to the container, instead the die moves. The friction involved is only between the die and
container and this is independent of billet length. The friction forces are lower and power
required for extrusion is less than for direct extrusion. Extruding force is 25 to 30% less than in
direct extrusion. However, a long hollow ram is required and this limits the loads, which can be
applied. As is clear from the figure, in direct extrusion, the product emerges in the same direction
as the movement of the ram, whereas in the direct extrusion, the product travels against the
direction of the ram. The container friction can be avoided by hydrostatic extrusion, where a
pressurized liquid medium is used for the transmission of the force to the billet. Due to
hydrostatic pressure, the ductility of the material is increased. Even brittle materials like
tungsten, cast iron and stainless steel etc. can be extruded. This also permits the extrusion of very
long billets or even wires, accompanied by large reductions. The pressurised fluid also acts as a
lubricant and because of this, the extruded product has a good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy. However the absence of container friction combined with reduced die friction can

94
increase the tendency to internal crack formation. The pressure transmitting fluid commonly
used for hydrostatic are: Glycerine, ethylglycol, SAE 30 mineral lubricating oil, castor oil, and
isopentane. The hydrostatic pressure ranges from 1100 to 3150 N/mm2. The main commercial
applications of this process are: Cladding of metals, making wires of less ductile materials and
extrusion of nuclear reactor fuel rods. Impact extrusion, is used to produce short length of hollow
shapes such as collapsible toothpaste tubes. However the process is limited to soft ductile
materials such as aluminum, Tin, and Lead. Hollow work pieces can be extruded by attaching a
mandrel to the end of ram in forward extrusion.

The “extrusion ratio”, R, defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the billet to the cross-
sectional area of the product, reaches about 40: 1 for hot extrusion of steel and may be high as
400: 1 for aluminum. The other advantages are:

1. Cross-sectional shapes not possible by rolling can be extruded.

2. No time is lost when changing shapes since the dies may be readily removed and
replaced.
3. Dimensional accuracy of extruded parts is generally superior to that of rolled ones.
4. The range of extruded item is very wide: rods from 3 to 250 mm in dia, pipes of 20 to
400 mm in dia and wall thickness of 1 mm above, and more complicated shape which can
not be obtained by other mechanical methods.
5. Automation of extrusion is simpler as items are in a single passing.

However, extrusion has the following drawbacks:

1. Processes waste in extrusion, which consist of body leading end of section and of a un
extruded butt, is higher in rolling. It is 18 to 20% of the billet weight in direct extrusion, 5 to
6% of the billet weight in indirect extrusion. Where as the waste in rolling is only 1 to 3%.
2. In homogeneity in structure and properties of an extruded product is greater due to
different flows of the axial and the outer layer of the blanks.
3. Service life of extrusion tooling is shorter because of high contact stresses and slip rates.
4. In productivity extrusion is much inferior to rolling.
5. Costs of extrusion are generally greater than other methods.

The main fields of application of extrusion are:

1. Working of poorly plastic and nonferrous metals and alloys.

2. Manufacture of shapes and pipes of complex configuration.
3. Small batch production.
4. Manufacture of parts of high dimensional accuracy.

3.1.9.1 Analysis of Extrusion process: The analysis of extrusion process for round bar
extrusion through a conical die is very similar to that for drawing of a round bar discussed in
previous articles. We know that:

Loge [Bσx – (1+B)σ0 ] = ( loge rC)2B

BσX – (1+B)σ0 = ( rC)2B

Now at the die exit, the longitudinal stress is zero,

At r = rf σx = 0(rf is the final radius)

- (1+B) σ0 = (rfC)2B

C = [-(1+B) σ0]1/2B/rf
95
σx =σ0 (1+B)/B {1-(r/rf)2B}
Now at
r = r0 (original radius)
σx = extrusion pressure, σx0
σx0 = σ0 (1+B)/B {1-(r/rf)2B}
Now extrusion ratio,
R = A0/Af = (r0/rf)2 for round bars
= h0/hf for flat strip
σx0 = σ0 (1+B)/B (1-RB)

3.1.9.2 Variation of extrusion pressure. The extrusion pressure depends upon the following
factor:
1. The type of extrusion, that is, direct or indirect.
2. The extrusion ratio
3. The working temperature.
4. The speed of deformation.
5. The frictional conditions at the die and the container wall.

The variation of extrusion pressure with ram travel is shown in figure. Initially there is step rise
in extrusion pressure reaches the maximum value called the “breakthrough pressure”, the
material starts flowing through die. After this, the pressure starts decreasing with decrease in
billet length. In the case of indirect extrusion, since there is no relative motion between the billet
and the container wall, the extrusion pressure almost remains constant with increasing ram travel
once it reaches the maximum value. This extrusion pressure represents the stress needed to
deform the material through the die. This variation of extrusion pressure with ram travel is better
than that of direct extrusion, but, indirect extrusion has its own limitations as discussed above. At
the end of ram stroke, the pressure builds up gradually and it is usual practice to stop the process
at this point and leave a small portion of the billet in the container as discord. In extrusion,
hydraulic presses with either vertical or horizontal plunger are most commonly used. The
pressure of working fluid may reach 400 atm and the force 30,000 tf. Mechanical presses are
used to a lesser extent. Lubricants used are: mixture of machine oil and graphite, molten glass.

Fig. 3.16

96
Q
Ans 1. The drawing stress is given as

σd = σo (1+B) [1-{r1/ro} 2B], σb being not mentioned

B = µ cotα = 0.1 * 7.115 = 0.7115

r1/r0 = 5/5.5 = 0.91

{n/ro}2B = (0.91)2*0.7115 = 0.873

Therefore, σd = 240(1 + 0.7115)/0.7115(1 – 0.973) = 73.41 N/mm2

(σx + dσx)пr12 – σx . пr12 - 2пr1dxτx = 0

dσx/dx = 2τx/r1 = 2µPx/r1

σx + Px = σo (Tresca yield condition)

Now Px = σo – σx

dσx/dx = 2µ/r1 (σo – σx)

dσx/2µ (σo – σx) = dx/r1

Integrating, -log (σo – σx) = 2µ/r1x + c

x = 0, σx = σd

c = -loge (σo – σd)

Log = (σo – σd)/ (σo – σx) = 2µ/r1 . x

σo – σd = (σo – σx).e2µx/r1

Therefore
σx = σo – (σo – σd).e-2µx/r1

Now σx will be max. at x = l

i.e., σx = σt = total drawing stress

σt = σo (σo – σd) e-2µl/r1

= 240 – (240-73.41).e-2*0.1*3/2.5

= 240 – 166.59 * 0.786

= 109.0 N/mm2

Total drawing load, = σt * пr12

= 109 * п * 6.25 = 2140.5 N

97
Q
Ans 2.

σd = σo (1 + B)/B [1 - {h1/ho}B]

Here, B = (µ1 + µ2)/ (tanα – tanβ), α = 15º, β = 0

B = 0.2/tan 15º = 0.747

Therefore, σd/σo = 1.747/0.747[1 – (1.75/2.5)0.747] = 0.547

For movable mandrel, µ1 being = µ2

Therefore, σd/σo = log [1/ (ho/h1 – 1)] = loge 2.333 = 0.368

Therefore, use of movable mandrel substantially reduces the drawing forces.

Q
Ans 3.

Δ h = 2R(1 – cosα)

5 = 500(1 – cosα)

Therefore, cosα = 99/100

α = 8.11º

(i) µ = tanα = 0.142

(ii) Ho = 2√R/h1tan-1(√R/h1.α)

= 2√25020tan-1(√50/20 * 0.1429) = 3.306

Hn = ½(Ho- 1/µloge ho/h1)

=1/2(3.306 – 1/0.142 loge 25/20) = 0.8678

θn = √h1/R tan (√h1/R.Hn/2)

= √20/250 tan (√20/250 * 0.4339) = 0.0349 radians

hn = h1 + 2R(1 – cosθn)

= h1 + Rθn2

= 20 + 250 * (0.0349)2 = 20.3 mm

(iii) Backward Slip = (Vr – Vo)/Vr = 1 – Vo/Vr

= Vo/Vr = hn/ho = 20.3/25

98
 backward Slip = 1 – 20.3/25 = 18.8%
Forward Slip =(V1 – Vr)/Vr = V1/Vr – 1

V1/Vr = hn/h1 = 20.3/20

Therefore, Forward Slip = 0.3/20 = 1.5%

(iv) Pmax = Pn = σo * hn/h1 * eµHn

= 2/√3 100 * 20.3/20 * e0.142*0.8678

= 132.4 N/mm2

Q
Ans.4

do = 250 mm, ho = 2590mm

Δ h = 100 mm, h = 150 mm

Diameter d (2R), after reduction is,

D = do√ ho/ (ho – Δh)

= 250√250/150 = 325 mm

µ = 0.4 to 0.45, say 0.42

Now pa = σo/2 (h/µR)2 [e2µR/h - 2µR/h - 1],

R = 162.5 mm

Therefore, pa = 55/2 (150/ (0.42 * 162.5)2 [e 2*0.42*162.5/150 – 2*0.42*162.5/150 - 1]

= 55 * 0.5 * 4.83 (2.48 – 0.91 – 1)

= 76.285 N/mm2

Force P = pa * пR2

= 76.285 * п * (162.5)2

= 6328 KN

Q
Ans.5 Rs = R – h/2µ loge (1/√3.µ (taking Von-Mise, s yield condition)

= 75 – 10/2 * 0.2 loge (1/√3 . 0.2)

99
 = 75 – 26.5 = 48.5 mm

Pressure at sticking radius, ps = σo.e [2µ(R – Rs)/h]

= 200.e[2*0.2*26.5/10] = 200 * 2.88 = 576 N/mm2

Total load = load on sliding portion + load on sticking portion

75
Load on sliding portion = ∫2пdrσo.e2п/h(R – r)
48.5

= 2пσo[r.e2п/h(R – r) – h/2п + h/2µ∫e2µ/h(R – r).dr]

75
= 2пσo[ - hr/2µ.e2µ/h(R – r) – (h/2µ)2 . e2µ/h(R – r)]
48.5

= 2пσo [ - 10 * 75/(2 * 0.2).e0 – (10/(2 * 0.2))2 . eo

+ 10 * 48.5/0.4 . e0.4/10 * 26.5 + (10/0.4)2 . e0.4/10 * 26.5]

= 2п * 200(-1875 – 625 + 3499.72 + 1800)

= 3518.2 KN

Load on sticking portion may be taken as

= (ps + pc/2) . пR2

ps = 576 N/mm2

pc= 576 +1120 = 1690 N/mm2

Therefore, ps = ½(576 + 1690)*п*48.52

= 8396 KN

Total forging load = 3518.2 + 8396

= 1194.2 KN = 11.9142 MN

………………………………………………….

Solution 13.6:
Final dimensions: h = 6.25mm, 2R= 100mm.
Sticking radius,
Rs = R-(h/2µ )loge(1/2µ )
= 50- (6.25/0.5)loge(1/(2*0.25))
= 50 - 8.66 = 41.34mm
it is clear that on the major portion of , sticking conditions exist. In the sliding portion,
p = σ0 . е^(2µ (L-x))/h for 41.34 < x < 50
=σ0 . е^(2µ (R-r))/h

100
 at r =R , i.e., outer surface, p = σ0
at r = Rs

p = σ0 . е^(0.5*8.66*1/6.25) = p = 2σ0
in the sticking region
p = Ps + σ0/h(Rs - R)
= 2σ0 +σ0/6.25(41.34 - R)
= 2σ0 + 0.16σ0(41.34 - R)
at center, R=0
.’. p = 2σ0 +0.16σ0(41.34) = 8.61σ0

the pressure distribution is shown in the fig. Assming that the entire distribtion is linear , the
forging load is the area of the curve.

.’. forging load per unit width = 0.5*100*7.61σ0 = 380.5 σ0

:. Total forging load = 380.5 σ0 * 150
= 380.5 * 7 * 150
= 399.5 kN

………………………………………………….
Solution 13.7:

(a) RA = 0.30
B = µ cot α = 0.10 x cot 6° = 0.95

Now σd = σ0 (1 + B)/B{1 – (r1/r0)^2B}

= 1 – (r1/r0)²
:. (r1/r0)² = 0.7
σd = σ0 1.95/0.95 [1 – 0.7^0.95] = 141.60 N/mm²
now r1 = √0.7 x 6 = 5.02 mm

:. Drawing load = 141.60 * π * 5.02² = 11.22 kN

(b) power of motor = (11.21 * 2.3 ) / η

= 25.78/0.98 kW
= 62.31 kW
………………………………………………….

Solution 13.8
It is given that
µ 1 = 0.15, µ 2 = 0.18, α = 14°, β = 10°, σ0 = 1.40 kN/mm²
now it is a floating mandrel case,
B = (µ 1 + µ 2) / ( tan α + tan β ) = (0.15 + 0.18 ) / (tan 14° + tan 10° )
= 0.33 / 0.425 = 0.7765
h0 = 1.5 mm, h1 = 1mm
:. Drawing stress is
σd = σ0 (1 + B)/B{1 – (h1/h0)^B}
= 1.40 x 1.7765/0.7765[1 – (1/1.5)^ 0.7765]
= 0.865 kN/mm²
area of cross-section of tube at exit
= π / 4(11² - 9² ) = 31.416 mm²
:. Drawing load = 0.865 x 31.416 =27.175kN
now work done per second = 27.175 x Drawing speed

101
 = 72.175 x 0.65 = 17.66 kJ/sec
:. Power rating of the motor = 17.66 kW

………………………………………………….

Solution 13.9
Now for the sticking friction and plane strain conditions, the avg. pressure is given as ,
Pa = 2k(1 + L/2h) = σ0 (1 + L/2h)
Now bite of tool, b = 2L : . L=B/2
Pa = σ0 (1 + b/4h)
Now forging area = B x 2L = B x b
= σ0 .B.b (1 + b/4h)
(1.) At the commencement of forging:
σ0 = 50 MPa, B = 0.9m, h = 0.2m, b= 0.3m
Forging load = 05 x0.9 x 0.3 [1 + 0.3/(4 x 0.2)]
= 05 x0.9 x 0.3 x 1.375
= 18.5625 MN

(2.) at the completion of the forging,

h = 01 m, σ0 = 150 MPa
Forging load= 150 x 0.9 x 0.3{1 + 0.3/(4 x 0.1)}
= 150 x 0.9 x 0.3 x 1.75
= 70.875 MN

……………………………………………….
Solution 13.10
As already discussed under article 13.8 that a dead metal zone forms in corners
against the die (square). This can be assumed as equivalent to die angle α = 45°

:. The extrusion due to flow through the die,

σx0 = σ0( 1 + B)/B[1 - Rⁿ ]
now R= (R0 / R1)² = (7.5/2.5)² = 9
B = μ cot α =0.1 cot 45° (assuming μ = 0.1 )
= 0.1

σx0 = 250 x 1.1/0.1 (1 - 9^0.1)

= 675.8 MPa (sticking friction)
The max. pressure due to container wall friction will occur at break through , when

L = 37.5 cm taking tresca‘s condition.

τ ≈ k =σ0/2=125MPa (sticking friction)

Total extrusion pressure,

Pe = σx0 + (4 x τ1 x L)/D
= 675.8 + 4*125*37.5/15
= 1925.8 MPa
:. Extrusion load = Pe * π r0²
= 1925.8 x 10⁶x π x (7.5/100)²
= 34 MN

………………………………………………….

102
Solution 3.11
H0 = 4.05 mm, h1 = 3.55 mm, R = 250 mm
Μ = 0.04,
σ0 = 210N/mm²
The roll pressure at entry and exit,
P = σ0’ = 2 σ0/√3

Now ∆h = 2 (1 – cos α)
0.50 = 500(1 – cos α)
From here, α = 2.56°
:. H0 = 2(250/355)˙⁵tan⁻¹((250/255)˙⁵ x 0.0447)
= 6.02
Hn = ½(H0 – (1/μ)log h0/h1)
= ½(6.02 – (1/0.04)log 4.05/3.55)
= 1.363
Pn = σ’0 x (hn / h1) x e^(μ.Hn)
θn = (h1/r)˙⁵ tan{ (h1/r)˙⁵ x (hn/2)}
= (355/ 250)˙⁵ tan ((355/ 250)˙⁵ x 0.6815)
= 0.009672 radians
hn = h1 + 2R(1- cos θn)
= 355 + 500(1 – cos 0.554°)
= 3.5734 mm
:. Pn = 242.5 x 3.5734 x e^(0.04 x 1.363)
= 242.5 x 1.0066 x 1.056 = 257.78 N.mm²
(b) H₀ = 6.02 ; μ = 0.04
Hn = 0.5(6.02 – (1/0.40)log (4.05/3.55))
= 2.845
Θn = 0.5(3.55/2.50)˙⁵ tan ((3.55/2.50)˙⁵ x 1.4225))
= 0.02 radians
Hn = h1 + Rθ²n (approximately)
= 3.55 + 250 x 0.02²
= 3.65 mm
Pn = 242.5 x (3.65/3.55) x e^(0.40 x 2.845)
= 777.9 N/mm²

………………………………………………….
Solution 13.12
h1 = 6.35mm,
R = 50 cm ,
μ = 0.20
h0 = h1 x 100/70
= 6.35 x 100/70 = 9.07mm
:. ∆h = 9.07 – 6.35 = 2.72 mm
Now ∆h = 2R(1 – cos α)
Cos α = (500.1.36)/500 = 0.9973
Α = 4.23° = 0.0738 radians
Now H0 = 2(r/h1)˙⁵ tan⁻¹( (r/h1)˙⁵ x α)
= 2(500/6.35)˙⁵ tan⁻¹( (500/6.35)˙⁵ x 0.0738)
= 10.29
Now Hn = ½(H0 – (1/μ)log h0/h1)
= ½(10.29 – (1/0.2)log 9.07/6.35) = 4.26
θn = (h1/r)˙⁵ tan{ (h1/r)˙⁵ x (hn/2)}
θn = (6.35/500)˙⁵ tan{ (6.35/500)˙⁵ x (2.13)}
= 0.0273 radian = 1.55°
103
UNIT IV
Introduction, Product Application, Limitation of Die Casting, Die Casting Machines, Molten metal Injection
systems, I lot chamber machines, Cold chamber machines, Die casting Design, Design of Die casting Dies,
Types of Die casting Dies, Die design, Die material, Die Manufacture, Die Lubrication and Coating,
Preheating of Dies, Vacuum Die Casting, Recent trends In Die Casting Process.
Definition, Cost accounting or costing, Elements of costing, cost structures, Estimation of cost elements, Methods of
estimating, Data requirements of cost estimating, Steps in making cost estimate, Chief factors in cost estimating,
Numerical examples, calculation of machining times, Estimation of total unit time.

4 SPECIAL CASTING TECHNIQUES

Classification

(a) Metal Mold Casting

(i) Gravity or permanent mold casting
(ii) Die casting
a. Hot chamber process
b. Cold chamber process
(iii) Slush casting
(iv) Pressed or corthias casting

(b) Non-metallic Mold Casting

(i) Centrifugal casting
a. True-centrifugal casting
b. Semi-centrifugal casting
c. Centrifuge casting
(ii) Carbon-dioxide molding
(iii) Investment mold casting or lost -wax process
(iv) Shell molding
(v) Plaster molding
(vi) Mercast process
(c) Continuous casting
a. Reciprocating molds
b. Draw casting
c. Stationary molds
d. Direct sheet casting

4.1 GRAVITY DIE OR PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

4.1.1 Introduction
(i) The process is known as gravity die casting in England and as Permanent mold casting in
U.S.A.
(ii) A gravity die or permanent mold casting makes use of a mold which is permanent i.e., the
mold can be reused many times before it is discarded or rebuilt.
(iii) Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only; no external pressure is applied to
force the liquid metal into the mold cavity. However, the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of
metal in the risers, etc.

4.1.2 Permanent Molds

-Permanent molds are made of dense, fine grained, heat resistant cast won, steel, meahanite (and
sometimes of) bronze, anodized aluminium, graphite or other suitable refractories.
- A permanent mold is made in two halves in order to facilitate the removal of casting from the
mold.
104
- A permanent mold may be designed with a vertical parting line (refer Fig. 23.1) or with a
horizontal parting'1ine as in conventional sand molds.
- The mold walls of a permanent mold have thickness from 15 DUD to 50 mm.
- Since thicker mold walls can remove greater amounts of heat from the casting, they (i.e. mold
walls) are made thicker opposite thicker sections of the castings. This provides the desirable chil-
ling effect.
- For faster cooling, fins or projections may be provided on the outside of the permanent mold.
- Pouring cup, sprue, gates and riser are built in the mold halves itself (refer fig.).
-The two mold halves are securely clamped together before pour mg.
- Simple mechanical clamps (i.e. latches, toggle clamps etc.) are adequate for small molds
whereas larger permanent molds need pneumatic or other power clamping methods.

Fig. 4.1 Permanent Mould Casting

- A permanent mold casting may range in weight from a few grams to 150 kg (in aluminium).

4.1.3 Cores for Permanent Molds

- Cores for permanent molds may be made up of metal (say alloy steel) or dry sand.
- Metal cores are used when they can be easily extracted from the casting whereas a dry sand
core or shell core is preferred when the cavity to be cored is such that a metal core cannot
possibly be withdrawn from the casting.
- Light hammering, toggles, screw or rack and pinion arrangements, etc can extract metal cores.
- For facilitating their removal, metal core surfaces should have a draft of atleast 3 to 5 degrees.
- Metal cores are expensive and their use slows down the casting cycle; however the saving
incurred in metal machining may to some extent balance the cost of metal cores. - Permanent
molds use generally metal cores. - Molds using dry sand cores or shell cores are better known as
Semi-permanent Molds.
- Dry sand cores are positioned and supported in core prints. - Cores made up of gypsum plaster
are preferred for use in certain non-ferrous metal castings to obtain smooth and accurate cavities.

4.1.4 Gating System

- The sprue, risers, runners, gates and vent machined into the parting surface of one or both
mold halves.
- The runner channels an; inclined to minimize turbulence of the incoming metal, and this
practice is often furthered by tilting the die around suitable trunnions.

105
- Wherever possible, the runner should be at the thinnest area of the casting, with the risers at the
top of the die above the heavy sections.
- Blind risers, located above the sections to be fed, are commonly used.
- For better escape of the air present within the mold cavity, vent channels about 0.125 mm deep
may be cut into the parting surface.
- Gating system is designed to promote progressive solidification of metal in an unbroken flow
from the farthest end of the casting to the point of entry.

4.1.5 Coatings
- After the mold surfaces have been heated to the required temperature, a refractory coating in
the form of slurry is sprayed or brushed on to the mold cavity, riser, gate and runner surfaces.
- French chalk or calcium carbonate suspended in sodium silicate binders common used as a
coating for aluminium and magnesium permanent mold castings.
- Coating is dried and then smoothed with steel wool.
- Refractory coating:
(i) Protects mold surfaces from erosion and checking.
(ii) Exercises insulating effect and thus helps obtaining progressive and directional solidification.
(iii) kept thin when chilling is needed and vice versa.
(iv) May be repaired and normally replaced after every eight hours work.
- Lubricating coatings if sprayed help removal of castings and cores from the mold. A coating of
graphite water paint permits easy removal of a 60-40 brass casting.
- Permanent molds, besides refractory coating are given a carbon aqueous soot coating once
every casting cycle.

4.1.6 Chills
- Chills are pieces of copper, brass or aluminium and are inserted into the mold's inner surface.
- Water passages in the mold or cooling firms made on outside the mold surface are blown by air
otherwise water mist will create chilling effect.
A chill is used to promote directional solidification.

4.1.7 Permanent Mold Casting Production

(i) Casting drawing is analyzed to establish parting lines, draft, core requirements and gating
system.
(ii) Mold drawing is prepared to show mold cavity, gating dimensions, ejection-pin mechanisms,
etc.
(iii) From the master pattern, a plaster cast is made. Plaster cast is then cast in the mold material
(i.e., iron or steel) by either sand mold or ceramic mold process.
- If mold is not too complex, an iron or steel blank itself may be machined to mold dimensions.
-After forming, the mold is stress relieved and any distortion or warpage that appears is
corrected.
-The mold is preheated (near 7000F, for Al and Mg) and given a refractory coating. Since the
casting cycle and the casting metal temperature vary the mold temperature, which determines the
quality of the casting, mold temperature should be maintained within proper temperature range
during operation.
- This can be achieved if time, for pouring, opening the mold, ejecting the casting and closing the
mold is closely adhered to during operation.
Mold halves are closed properly and liquid metal is poured into it under gravity.
Castings are ejected from the mold after they are solidified.
Ejected castings are hot, relatively soft and can easily bend. Thus they are stacked on racks and
permitted to cool.

4.1.8 Casting Design

- Besides some of the rules which apply to sand casting design, permanent mold castings can
make use of the following additional rules. .
106
(i) Design the casting shape in such a manner that a permanent mold with minimum number of
parts can be used.
(ii) Proposed casting shape should be such that it can be readily cast in a permanent mold.
(iii) Dimensional tolerances of permanent mold castings vary with the design requirements for
the component, but the data given below provides general tolerances for most of the
requirements,
Up to 25 mm 0.25 mm
Each additional 25 mm over 25 mm 0.002 mm/mm
Across parting lines 0.75 mm
Flatness as cast, 100 mm long 0.375 mm
Each additional 25 mm length 0.001 mm/mm
(iv) Casting should be designed to avoid abrupt changes from thick to thin sections, because this
will give rise to premature solidification along the. Line of metal flow.
(v) On outside surfaces, if draft angle is less than ejection of the casting tends to mar the surface
finish. Minimum inside surface draft is 2 degrees.
(vi) Advantage should be taken of the possible precise coring.
- Cored hole diameter depends upon the depth of the hole. The deeper the hole, the more a small
diameter core will tend to warp.
- The minimum diameter of cored holes is about 3 to 4 mm.
(vii) Inserts such as studs, bushings etc. (grooved, knurled or otherwise shaped) which are
separate parts and are made up of metals generally different from that of the casting can easily be
cast into permanent mold castings.
- Inserts are held in place until the liquid metal solidifies around them and they are mechanically
locked.
- Inserts provide hardness; wear resistance, strength and other characteristics not obtainable from
the casting metal.

4.1.9 Permanent Mold Casting Alloys

An alloy to be cast by permanent mold casting process should
possess following properties.
(a) Low pouring temperature.
(b) Hot strength to avoid hot tearing.
(c) Good fluidity to fill the mold cavity properly.
- Commonly used gravity die cast alloys are
(a) Aluminium base
(b) Magnesium base
(c) Zinc base
(d) Lead
(e) Copper base (especially aluminium bronze)
(f) Cast Iron
(a)Aluminum base alloys contain elements like Cu, Si, Zn, Fe, Mg, Ni, Mn, Pb, Ti and Sn.
- Specifications of some such alloys are
(i) B.S. 3L. 8 (ii) B.S. 3L. 33 (LM 6-M)
(iii) B.S.L. 51 (LM 23-P) (iv) D.T.D. 165A (LM 5-M)
(v) B.S.L. 53 (LM10-W)" (vi) B.S. 2L. 35 (LM14-WP)
'300 Alloy' 'Y Alloy'
(vii) LM4-M (viii) LM 8
(b) Magnesium base alloys contain elements like Cu, Si, Zn, Fe, Ni, Mn, and AI.
Specifications of some such alloys are
(i) L 121 B.S. 1277 (ii) L 122 B.S. 1278
(iii) L 123 B.S. 1273 (iv) L 124 B.S. 1274
(v) L 125 B.S. 1275
- Some of the magnesium alloys have a tendency to crack or hot tear.

107
Table 4.1Pouring temperature and mold operating temperature for some of the gravity die
cast alloys.

Metal/Alloy Pouring Temperature range0F Mold operating temperature of

(i) AI base 1300-1400 650-800
(ii) Cu base 1900-2100 250-500
(iii) Mg base 1200-1300 300-600
(iv) Zn base 730-800 400-500
(v) Gray cast iron 2300-270 600-800

4.1.10 Comparison of Permanent Mold Casting with Sand Casting

Advantages
(i) Closer dimensional tolerance and accuracy can be achieved.
(ii) Permanent mold castings possess smoother surfaces better appearances. It is possible to
obtain surface smoothness of from 100 to 125 micro inches (2500 to 3125 micro mm) root-me
an-square.
(iii) Chilling effect of the metal mold helps producing a fine grained metal structure.
(iv) Metal cores employed in permanent molds can produce holes of much smaller diameter
(minimum diameter 3 to 4 mm) than sand cores.
(v) Inserts can be usefully employed and readily cast in place.
(vi) Mass production of castings is more economical.
(vii) Less floor space is needed.
(viii) The cycle of operation consumes such less time than that of sand casting.
(ix) Permanent mold casting involves low overhead charges.
(x) Structurally superior and stronger castings can be produced.
(xi) Locally heavy sections can, with suitable casting and die design, be produced sound and free
from porosity.
(xii) Faster rate of production.
(xiii) One permanent mold can produce 10,000 to 25,000 aluminium castings or 3,000 to 10,000
cast iron castings.
(xiv) Permanent mold casting technique requires operator less skilled than those needed for
conventional sand casting.
(xv) Permanent mold castings do not develop many of the defects which are found in sand
castings.
(xvi) Permanent mold castings do not have any sand adhered to them.

Disadvantages
(i) A permanent mold costs much more than sand mold.
(ii) Castings (all sizes and s\1, shapes cannot be cast in permanent molds.
(iii) Since the gating system is cut in the mold halves, once machined, it cannot be changed; thus
is necessary to obtain a satisfactory gating system.
(iv) The extremely high temperature of the molten steel and consequent mold attrition usually
make permanent mold casting technique unsuitable for steel castings.
(v) Permanent mold casting is uneconomical for small production runs.
(vi) A casting is always likely to be chilled because of its contact with metal mold.

Applications
Permanent mold casting process because of its mold cost is generally limited to those
applications only where an economic or engineering gain can be achieved over sand castings,
such as:
(i) Carburetor bodies.
(ii) Hydraulic brake cylinders.

108
(iii) Refrigeration castings.
(iv) Washing machine gears and gear covers.
(v) Connecting rods and automotive pistons.
(vi) Oil pumps bodies.
(vii) Typewriter segments. (viii) Aircraft and missile castings.

4.2 PRESSURE DIE CASTING

In the die casting process, the mould used for making a casting is permanent, called a die. It is
thus quite different from sand casting where the mould is expendable and must be broken in
order to obtain the casting. If the molten metal poured into the permanent (metallic) mould under
gravity head (as in done in sand casting) the process is called as “gravity sand casting” or
“permanent mould casting”. However, if the molten metal is forced into a metallic die under
external pressure, the process is known as “pressure die casting” or simply “die casting”. So,
Pressure die casting is made by injection molten metal under high pressure into a permanent
(metallic) mould, called a die.
Pressure die casting is widely used process-it is difficult to name product or appliance where die
castings are not used for at least some of the component parts. In very industry there is a steadily
rising demand for high quality die-castings. Pressure dies casting parts used in Automobile, Auto
ancillary, Electrical equipments, Electrical motors. BUSINESS MACHINES,
Telecommunication equipments, Building hardware’s, Toys and Home appliances and so on.

4.2.1 Introduction
(i) Unlike gravity die casting, in pressure die casting molten metal is forced into permanent mold
(die) cavity under pressure.
- The pressure is generally obtained by compressed air or hydraulically.
(ii) The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kglcm2 and is maintained while the casting solidifies.
(iii) Associated with externally applied high pressure is the high velocity with which the liquid
metal is injected into the die, and these conditions give a unique capacity for the production of
intricate components at relatively low cost.
(iv) In US.A this process is called simply "Die Casting".
The primary requirements for producing a good die casting are:
(v) The primary requirements for producing a good die casting are:
(a) A casting machine smoothly operating and properly designed to hold and operate a die under
pressure.
(b) Properly designed and constructed die.
(c) Suitable casting alloy.

4.2.2 Die Casting Machines

- A die casting machine performs the following functions.
(a) Holding two die halves firmly together.
(b) Closing the die.
(c) Injecting molten metal into die.
(d) Opening the die.
(e) Ejecting the casting out of the die.
- A die casting machine consists of four basic elements namely
1. Frame
2 Source of molten metal and molten metal transfer.
3. Pie-casting dies.
4. Metal injection mechanism.

4.2.2.1 Frame
Die casting machine frames generally are four-bar presses, although the solid one-piece frame
has gained wide acceptance for small machines.
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- The machine frame incorporates a stationary platen and a -movable platen to which the die
halves are attached and they open and closes in correct alignment.
- Frame should be sufficiently strong as the weight of an assembled die may exceed several tons.

4.2.2.2 Source of molten metal and molten metal transfer

- Normally each casting machine is having furnace for feeding the metal. .
- A holding furnace is equipped with automatic temperature controlls.
- Metal charge is melted in a separate foundry furnace i.e. pot crucible, reverberate, electric etc)
and is then transferred to holding furnaces.
- Magnesium is melted and held in fabricated steel crucibles, aluminum alloys in graphite
crucibles and zinc alloys in cast iron crucibles.
- Gas fire furnaces are commonly employed for melting almost all die casting alloys. .
- Oil fired furnaces are also used for the purpose.
- Electric resistance furnaces are generally not preferred, but low frequency induction furnaces
are gradually finding wider use.
- Molten metal may be transferred from ho~ to die casting machines with the help of hand-ladles
or automatically if the casting wt. more than 7 kg or even when producing smaller castings, at
high production rates.
- Automatic molten metal transfer from the holding furnace to the die casting machine may work
with the following mechanisms.
(a) The holding furnace and the die-casting machine is connected with the help of a refractory
tube, Air or nitrogen at low pressure, when introduced in the enclosed furnace exerts pressure on
the molten metal which via refractory tube flows into the injection cylinder of the die casting
machine.
(b) Non-metallic (refractory) pumps can be placed in the holding furnace for molten metal
transfer.
(c) A monorail is mounted between die casting machine and holding furnace. A valved bottom
inlet crucible riding on the monorail is lowered into the holding furnace (for taking metal) and is
then moved along the monorail to the die casting machine where it discharges molten metal into
the injection cylinder.

4.2.2.3 Die-casting Dies

(i) A die is a sort of permanent mold and is made in two halves for facilitating the removal of
casting.

Fig. 4.2 Die-casting Dies

(ii) One die half is stationary and is known as cover die whereas the other die half called ejector
die moves in order to open or close the complete die.
110
(iii) The two die halves are kept in perfect alignment with the help of dowel pins.
(iv) Molten metal is forced under pressure into the closed die for making a casting.
(v) When the casting has got solidified, the movable die half containing the casting is pulled
open over the ejector pins or the ejector pins are advanced beyond the movable die to detach the
casting from the die (Fig. 4.2).

4.2.2.4 Die Design

- In order to produce sound and accurate castings and to avoid unnecessary die-sinking
operations, die should be designed with great care.
- Dies are generally designed in the following three forms:

1. Single cavity dies. They have only one impression and can make only one casting in one
cycle. Such a die consists of four components namely impression blocks or die halves containing
(impression or) cavity identical to the casting's form, the holding blocks, the die base and the
ejection mechanism. A single cavity die is shown in Fig.

2. Multiple cavity dies. They possess more than one die cavity in the same die halves and thus
produce more than one casting in one cycle. Multiple cavity dies prove to be economical
because the number of dies and casting machines needed are reduced.
3. Combination dies. They are multiple activity dies having dissimilar cavities or impressions.
- Coring. Both stationary and movable cores may be employed in die casting dies. The type of
core used depends upon the economy and the particular application. Collapsible cores can be
used to cast internal threads and complex internal contours.
- Ejection. Ejector pins mounted in a plate are employed to push the casting out of the movable
die half.

Ejector plate may be actuated manually or mechanically with the help of a rack .and pinion
arrangement or pneumatic/hydraulic piston and cylinder.
Since ejector pins are likely to leave a small counter bore impression on the surface of the
casting, ejector pins are so located that the marking does not appear on surfaces where good
surface finish is required.

- Venting. Vents are provided for the escape of air present in the die cavity as the molten metal
enters the same.
If air remains in the die cavity, the same may not get filled completely with molten metal or the
casting will contain entrapped air.
Vents should be accessible to the operator for frequent cleaning to prevent their clogging with
flash or oxides.
Vents usually take the form of grooves on the joint face of the die running from the cavity to the
edges of the die blocks. The width of the vent may vary from 1.5 to 20 mm, but the depth is
limited to not more than 0.175 mm.
Vents are usually machined fairly close to the runner zone.

- Gating System. The shape of the casting and its parting line largely determines feeder design.
The molten metal passes through feeders, which direct it, for uniform distribution into the die
cavity.
A few types of die feeders are (namely) side feeder, pad feeder, split feeder and end feeder.
Die casting machines of centre-gated type are more adaptable for the average run of work.
The sprue diameter for dies used on hot chamber machines is somewhat smaller than that for
cold chamber machines.
Sprue diameter for cold chamber die casting machines is seldom less than 35 mm in diameter
where the injection plunger follows through into the die.
The runner is restricted in size at the point where it joins the casting and is shaped to facilitate
removal (from the casting) without breaking into the casting. .
111
For light alloys, gate thickness may vary from 0.625 to 2.5 mm. Thin gates help easy removal
but increase the velocity of liquid metal entering the die cavity and the tendency to trap air in the
casting.
Unlike sand casting practice, with die casting, the rate of chilling is so high that risers will not
function and so the castings should be run at their heaviest section with the gate thick enough to
avoid premature solidification and thereby enable the runner to perform the dual function of
runner and feeder.
Other heavy sections if some should replace existing away from the runner light section or
ribbed to maintain a constant thickness of metal.

- Flash control. Flash occurs on all die-castings at the parting surface of the two die halves.
A little change in the product design may simplify die design and flash removal and control.
The amount of flash may be restricted by minimizing the number and location of partings and
inter sections.
Flash may be removed by power-press trim dies, sanding, filing, grinding etc.

- Die cooling. The temperature of the die depends upon the casting alloy and the nature of
casting to be made i.e., whether it is a thin or thick-sectioned casting.
Dies producing thin walled castings need to be kept hotter so as to avoid premature
solidification.
Die working temperature may be of the order of 300-40O"F but the die-cavity is appreciably
hotter than this at the time when molten metal is injected.
Dies may get seriously overheated if it is aimed to achieve high production rates. To avoid
overheating, dies are frequently water-cooled from within. Cooling passages are situated near to
the runner zone and adjacent to parts of cavity forming heavy sections. Largt cores also form part
of water passage.

4.2.2.5 Die Material

Three main modes of die failure related to die material are:

1. Thermal fatigue. Severe thermal shock loadings due to rapid alternation of high temperature
and chill are imposed upon those surfaces of the dies which come in contact with molten metal.
Thermal fatigue causes heat checking which results from the difference in heating and cooling
rates between the die surface and the steel below the surface. This condition sets up tensile stress
and gives rise to minute cracks at the point of stress on the die surface, which in turn are
transferred to the casting in the form of hair lines.

2 Mechanical erosion. should be soft enough in order to resist heat checking at the same time
they should not gall, erode or deform rapidly under load; they should be able to withstand
washing, wearing and peening.

3. Chemical attack: Chemically attacked and thus decarburized die loses surface hardness and
leads to pitting and washing.
Decarburization may occur in heat treatment or during solidification
of a cast die.
Table 4.2 gives composition of different Die-casting Die steels.

4.2.2.6 Die casting die steels

Die-making
Irrespective of the die material, the dies may be either wrought or cast. Both cast and wrought
dies possess certain advantages which are listed below.

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Advantages of Cast dies
(i) Casting Process produces die cavities and cores cheaply, rapidly and accurately, once the
patterns are made.
(ii) Casting permits the formation of complicated water passages.
(iii) Cast dies are better and economical when engravings must be sunk into the die casting.
(iv) Cast dies give improved service life.
(v) Dies difficult to machine can be easily cast to shape.

Advantages of Wrought dies

(i) Wrought dies prove to be economical when
- A single simple impression or core is required,
- Relatively shallow machining is required,
- Conventional machining can be adopted,
- Cavities can be hobbed with simple hobs,
- Production requirements are low,
- Electro-discharge machining can be used in shallow impressions.
(ii) Wrought die making is preferred where cores are long and fragile.
(iii) Wrought dies are the only solution for the production of refractory material dies which at
present can not be precision cast.
(iv) Die fabrication requires first rate machine tools and experienced personnel
- Die cavity should possess very good surface finish.
- Dies should be carefully polished because even the finest of scratches left will open out into
cracks when die is subjected to molten metal heat and pressure during service.
- Movable cores and ejector pins need skilled fitting.
- Since castings contract as they solidify an allowance is kept for this and dies are made 0.004 to
0.006 mm per mm over size.

4.2.2.7 Metal Injection Mechanism

Two general types of molten metal injection mechanisms for die-casting machines are:
(a) Hot chamber Goose neck or air injection type-
- Submerged plunger type
(b) Cold chamber

4.2.2.7.1 Hot Chamber Die-casting

- Hot chamber die-casting machine is the oldest of die-casting machines and is simplest to
operate.
- Depending upon its size, hot chamber die-casting machine can produce about 60 or more
castings of up to 20 kg each per hour and several hundred castings per hour for single impression
castings weighing a few grams.
- In hot chamber machine the melting unit constitutes an integral part of the process.
- The molten metal possesses normal amount of superheat and therefore less pressure-is needed
to force the liquid metal into the die.
Hot chamber process is of
a) Gooseneck or air-injection type.
b) Submerged plunger type.

a) Goose-neck or Air-injection Type

- Fig. 4.3 shows a gooseneck or air-injection type of hot chamber process.
- The cast iron gooseneck is so pivoted that it can be dipped beneath the surface of the molten
metal to receive the same when needed. The molten metal fills the cylindrical portion and the
curved passageways of the gooseneck.
- Gooseneck is then raised and connected to all air line which supplies (air) pressure to force the
molten metal into the closed die.
- Air pressures required for injecting metal into the die are of the order
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- After the casting has solidified, the gooseneck is again dipped beneath the molten metal to
receive molten metal again for the next cycle.
In the meantime, die halves open out, casting is ejected and die closes in order to receive molten
metal for producing the next casting. The cycle repeats time and again.

Fig. 4.3 Goose-neck or Air-injection Type

1. It is a simple machine as regards its construction and operation. 2. Unlike submerged plunger
type machine, this machine carries no moving parts (i.e. plunger etc.).

Disadvantages
1. Production rate is lower when compared to submerged plunger type machine. .
2. Compressed air does not produce pressure on molten metal as effectively as the plunger does.
Application
Air injection type of hot chamber die casting machine can produce castings of low melting point
metals such as zinc, tin and lead.

b) Submerged Plunger Type

(i) Submerged plunger type of hot chamber die casting machine has an injection cylinder which
is partially submerged in the pot containing molten metal.
(ii) A plunger fits the cylinder. The plunger, when it is in up position, it clears the port in the
cylinder and through the port molten metal fills the cylinder (refer Fig. 23.4).
(iii) As the plunger moves down, the port gets closed and the molten metal is forced through the
nozzle (at the tip of gooseneck) into the die. Pressure exerted on the molten metal is of the order
of 140 to 200 kglcm2.
(iv) When the metal has solidified, die is open ejected.
(v) The die is then once again closed and locked, the plunger is drawn to the up-position and the
next cycle thus tends to start.
(vi) In order to obtain uniformity of die castings and maximum speed of operation a
predetermined and automatically controlled time cycle must be employed.
The cycle stops with the opening of the die and depressing a button starts the next cycle.

114
 Fig. 4.3 Submerged Plunger Type
The operator presses the button after removing the casting, inspecting (the die) and possibly
sprays lubricating the die and fast
(vii) Such die-casting machines are more or less automatic produce from 100 to 800 parts per
hour.

Advantage
Submerged plunger type die-casting exerts pressure on molten metal more effectively than
the air-injection type.

Disadvantage
Submerged plunger type of die-casting machine can not be used either with an alloy having a
solvent action on the melting pot and pressure chamber or with an alloy which at a high
temperature may affect the fit of the plunger and cylinder. For these reasons, submerged plunger
type of machine is not suitable for die casting aluminum and alloys of higher melting points.
There is, moreover, appreciable entrainment of air in the metal during injection, although by
close control of injection speed, this can be diminished.

Application
Submerged plunger type of die casting machine is commonly used to produce zinc, tin, lead and
some magnesium castings.

4.2.2.7.2 Cold Chamber Die-Casting

1. Cold chamber die casting process differs from hot chamber die casting in following respects:
- Melting unit is not an integral part of the cold chamber die casting machine. Molten metal is
brought and poured into the die casting machine with the help of ladles.
- Molten metal which is poured into the cold chamber die casting machine is at a lower
temperature as compared to that poured into hot chamber die casting machine.
- For this reason, a cold chamber die casting process has to make use of pressures much higher
(of the order of 200 to 2000 kglcm2) than those applied in hot chamber process.
- High pressures tend to increase the fluidity of molten metal possessing relatively lower
temperature.
- Lower temperature of molten metal accompanied with higher injection pressure will produce
castings of dense structure, sustained dimensional accuracy and free from blow-holes.
- Die components experience less thermal stresses due to lower temperature of the molten metal.
However, dies are required to be made stronger in order to bear high pressures.

115
Construction and Operation
- The cold chamber die casting machine consists of a pressure chamber or cold chamber of
cylindrical shape fitted with a ram or piston usually operated by hydraulic pressure.
- Strong, high grade, heat-resistant alloy steels are used for making the working parts of the
machine as well as the dies. This is because of the (effects of) high temperatures and pressures
associated with the process.
-A measured quantity of molten metal is brought in a ladle from the holding furnace and poured
into the cold chamber after the die is closed and all cores are locked in position.
- The ram forces the metal into the die (refer Fig. 23.5 b).
- The pressure required to force metal into the die is of the order of 200 to 2000 kg./cm2 and
hence high squeezing action is exerted on the metal while it solidifies.
- Once the casting has solidified, the movable half of the die slides away and the die opens.
- Cores are withdrawn, ram moves in the backward direction and the ejector is advanced to force
the casting out of the die half.

Advantages
1. Castings produced are of greater density and more sustained dimensional accuracy.
2. Separation of melting unit (i.e. furnace and pot, etc.) from the working parts of die casting
machine increases its life and efficiency.

Limitations
Since very high pressures are involved in cold chamber die casting dies will have to be made
stronger in order to withstand the same.

Fig. 4.4 Cold Chamber Die-Casting

4.3 SPECIAL CASTING TECHNIQUES

Applications
Cold chamber die casting machines are chiefly used for making castings in aluminium brass and
magnesium.
- Though, low melting point alloy; can also be cast, but they are more economically done so in
fast operating hot –chamber machines. .

4.3.1 Finishing Die-Castings

1. Finishing of die-castings involves, removal of flash, sprue, runner etc.
2. Flash is that metal which solidifies in the clearance in dies.

116
3. In large-scale production, flash can be removed in a shaving die in a press, whereas for small
production runs, flash is broken off by hand and the edges cleaned by filing, etc.
4. Since the 'as cast' finish and dimensional accuracy of die-cast parts both are of such high
standard, that usually-minimum of machining is necessary.
5. Machining is carried out at high speeds on comparatively light machine tools and ordinarily
consists of simple facing of the surfaces.
6. Organic finishes are employed with die-castings of all alloys. Organic finishes are normally
applied by spraying, either by handgun or automatically.
7. Electrostatic spraying is economical for large-scale operations.
8. Chemical dip is used primarily for corrosion protection.

4.3.2 Die-Casting Design

Listed below, are some major casting design factors, which must be observed for best, die
design:
1. Wall thickness should be as uniform as possible as the design of the part permits, and should
not exceed 4.5 mm especially when the casting has to bear gaseous or fluid pressures.
- Wall thickness transitions from thin to thick sections should be as gradual as possible.
- Wall thickness depends upon the type of casting, casting material, the amount of restriction to
metal flow and the position of the gate.
- Table 23.3 may serve as rough guide for deciding minimum wall thickness for die castings.
Die-castings have an inherent tendency to be porous, when made in heavy sections, therefore.
No section should preferably exceed 15 mm in thickness. Minimum wall thickness (mm) for die-
castings

Table 4.2 Die casting metals

Surface area (cm2) Sn, Zn, Pb Cu AI, Mg

Upto 24.5 0.6-1.0 1.47-2.0 0.8-1.2
24.5 to 97 1.0-1.47 2.0-2.5 1.2-1.8
97 to 485 1.47-2.0 2.5-3.0 1.8-2.5
Over 485 2.0-2.5 3.0-4.0 2.5-3.0

2. Heavy local sections should preferably be avoided and replaced by channel sections,
corrugated forms or Ribs, which may be employed to increase strength and stiffness.
- Introduction of ribs in the casting design increases rigidity, reduces weight of casting and
makes for better distribution of metal within the die.
- Height of ribs around a part should rarely exceed five times the wall thickness.
- Corner fillets should be as generous as possible.
- In order to provide greater rigidity and to reduce edge stresses, holes and openings should be
surrounded by a small rim.
3. Undercuts, whether they are internal or external should be avoided because,
- internal undercuts require loose pieces which reduce production rates and increase die costs.
- external undercuts require core pulls or slides.
If undercuts cannot be avoided, small changes may be made in the design to simplify and reduce
the number of slides to a minimum.
4. Inse/1s i.e., screw studs, bearing bushes etc. of differing materials can be included in the
casting.
- Inserts should be accurately and rapidly positioned in the die for faster production.
- The metal injected in the die should shrink on to the insert so that the insert does not become
loose.
5. Holes vertical to the die-parting plane can be easily cast with stationary core pins whereas
holes not vertical to the die parting plane need special core pulls.

117
- It is possible to core hole in lead and tin die castings as small as 0.8 mm diameter, in zinc 1 mm
diameter, in aluminium 2.5 mm diameter, in magnesium 2 mm diameter and in copper 3 mm
diameter.
- Slots as narrow as 0.6 mm for tin alloys, 0.8 mm for lead and zinc alloys, 1.2 mm for
aluminium, 1 mm for magnesium and 1.5 mm for copper alloys may be cast in die castings.
The maximum depth of slot for the above widths is 10 mm for all the alloys except for zinc and
magnesium for which depth may go up to 12 mm. Slots made in aluminium and copper alloys
require draft.
6. Sharp comers and corners without proper radii should be avoided.
- To avoid an undesirable accumulation of metal at a corner, the fillet radius should not be
greater than the wall thickness.
7. Both internal and external threads are satisfactorily cast in die castings.
- External threads can be cast if the axis is along the parting plane of the die or if slides are
used.
- Internal threads present a little difficulty because the casting must be unscrewed from the core
after it has got solidified. Either an unscrewing device may be incorporated in the die or the core
may be removed with the part and unscrewed at the work-table.
8. Draft on the inner or outer surfaces of a' casting and reproduced in the die impression allows
ejection of the casting without galling.
- The amount and location of draft on a die-cast part depend on the arrangement of the part in the
die.
- For 7.5 mm depth of wall of a die cast part, the draft is 0.5 mm, 0.44, 0.38 and 0.25 mm for
copper, aluminium, magnesium and zinc base alloys respectively.
9. The dimensional accl/racy achieved in a die cast part dependsupon
- Melting point and shrinkage of casting alloy.
- Accuracy to which die cavity and cores have been machined. - Thermal expansion of die during
operation.
- Wear and erosion, which has already occurred on the surfaces of, die cavity and cores.
- Alignment of dies halves.
Basic dimensional tolerance up to 25 mm linear dimension of zinc, aluminium, magnesium and
copper die casting alloys is: to.075,: to.1, :to.1 and :to.175 mm respectively.

4.3.3 Die-Casting alloys

Die-casting process has been used for many non-ferrous metals and alloys such as zinc,
aluminum, copper, magnesium, lead and tin.

(a) Zinc base alloys

Characteristics
1. Because of their low melting points are good fluidity, they are easy to die-cast.
2. Castings of very thin sections can be produced.
3. Die has a longer life.
4. Zinc base alloys have little or no affinity for ferrous metal parts of the die and injection
system.
5. They possess good mechanical properties under normal conditions of service. However, they
are not suitable for use at elevated or subnormal temperatures.
6. Damp, humid or salt-laden atmosphere accelerates corrosion in zinc base alloys and they
need special surface protection.
7. Zinc base alloys can be readily electroplated.
8. The two zinc base alloys universally die cast are shown in Table 4.3.

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Table 4.3
Composition %
Cu Fe Mg Sn Cd Pb AI Zn
BS 1004 A Balance
None 0.075 0.03- 0.001 9.003 0.003 3.8-
(Mazak 3)
0.03 max 0.06 max max max 4.3 Balance
BS 1004 B Balance
0.75. 0.075 0.03. 0.001 0.003 0.003 3.8.
(Mazak 5)
1.25 max 0.06 max max max 4.3 Balance

9. For die casting, the use of high purity ingot should be made because contamination of zinc
alloys with tin, lead or cadmium can result in serious embitterment and abnormal growth.
Uses
1. Automobile parts (door and window fittings, radiator grilles, etc.).
2. Parts of the following ittms, which work at normal temperatures during service:
- Refrigerators, washing machines, televisions, business machines, etc).

(b) Aluminium base alloys

Characteristic
1. They are among the lightest alloys.
2. They possess low melting point (l2000F) and have good corrosion resistance.
3. They possess high electrical\conductivity and good machinability.
4. They are die-cast generally in cold chamber process.
5. Owing to the chilling action! of dies, a fine grain structure is developed in aluminum alloy
castings and this improves their mechanical properties:
6. Die cast aluminum alloys possess an ultimate tensile strength upto of 2800 kg./cm2.
7 Common aluminum die-cast alloys are shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4

Specification (BS: 1490) Composition %

Cu Si Zn Fe Mg Sn NI/Ti Pb/Mn AI

LM 2M 0.7-2.5 9-11.5 1.2 1 Max 0.3 0.2 Max Ni 1 Max Pb 0.3 B

Max Max
Ti 0.2 Max
Max Mn 0.5 A
Max
LM6M - 10-13 0.1 0.6 Max - - - MN 0.5 L
Max
LM 20M 0.4 Max 10-13 0.2 0.7 0.15 0.05Max Ni Max Pb 0.1 A
Ti 0.2 Max
Max
LM 24M 3-4 7.5-9.5 1 Max 0.3 Max 0.1 0.3 Max Ni 0.5 Mn 0.5 C
Max Max Max E

119
8. The above-mentioned alloys have good mechanical properties, they are stable even at extreme
temperatures and are preferred where strength to weight ratios are critical.
Applications
1. Automobile and aircraft industry. 2. Marine uses.
3. Domestic appliances.
4.. Typewriters and projectors.
5. Textile machinery.
6. Instruments.

(c) Copper base alloys

Characteristics
1. They possess good corrosion and wear resistance, good machinability and tensile strength
ranging from 3500to 7000 kg/cm2.
2. Die casting is mainly confirmed to Cu-Zn, 60/40 brasses.
3. The alloys can be satisfactorily cast with the cold chamber process, but their high melting
points (1600 to 19000F), accompanied with high casting pressures result in die wear and thus
limit the life of the dies. Moreover heavy die casting sturdy and robust components are required
for casting copper alloys.
- This restricts the wide use of copper base alloys for die-casting. 4. A few copper base die-cast
alloys are shown in table 4.5.

Table 4.5

Uses
1. Impellers for corrosive liquid pumps.
2. Aircraft. Automotive and marine fittings.
3. Electric machinery pilrts.
4. Chemical apparatus.
5. Small gears.

(d) Magnesium base alloys

Characteristics
1. They are extremely light alloys weighing about 115 and 3/5 as much as similar volumes of
zinc base and aluminum base alloys respectively
2. They possess favourable strength/weight ratio and good machinability.
3. They resist surface corrosion; however further protection is advocated by one of the
chromating processes, followed by low temperature stove enamel and lacquering.
4. Immediately after casting, the alloys are prone to cracking; however, keeping uniform metal
may control this! Sections suitable tapers, generous corner fillets and by electronic control of
cycle timings. .
5. Magnesium base alloys- possesses almost similar mechanical properties and is cast in similar
dies at similar temperatures as the aluminum base alloys.
6. The casting temperature of magnesium base alloys ranges between 1200 to 1300°F.
7. They are cast by cold chamber process.

120
8. A very commonly die-cast magnesium base alloy is L 123 (B.S. 1273): Zn 1% max, Mn0.2-
D.5% max. Al9 to 11%, and rest Mg.
The relatively high cost of magnesium base alloys has retarded their use in die casting, however
they find the following applications which are more or less similar to aluminum base alloys:
1. Binocular and camera bodies.
2. Motor and instrument parts.
3. Aircraft parts. .
4. Portable equipments such as typewriters and radio components. 5. Household appliances.
6. Textile machinery etc.
(e) Lead base alloys

Characteristics
1. Lead base alloys containing Cu, Sb and Sn possess excellent casting properties but are used
where strength and weight are unimportant, rather resistance to corrosion is the only
consideration.
2. Lead base alloys possess low tensile strength, of the order of 600 to 1000 kg./cm2.
3. Lead base alloys are costlier than zinc base alloys.
4. Lead base alloys being toxic need careful handling.
5. A common die-casting lead base alloy contains 15% antimony, 5% tin, 0.5% Cu and
remaining lead. Antimony increases hardness where as tin improves hardness, strength and
fluidity of lead base alloys.

Applications
1. Accumulator plates and terminal caps.
2. Radiation (X-ray) shielding.
3. Battery parts.
4. Light duty bearings.

(I) Tin base alloys

Characteristics
1. Tin base die-casting alloys contain copper, antimony and lead.
2. They are excellent die casting materials because they have low melting point and lack of
affinity for any component part of the injection system or die.
3. It is possible to obtain high degree of accuracy associated with high production rates.
4. Wall thickness as small as 0.4 mm (1/64 inch) can be cast.
5. However the use of tin base alloys is limited because of their high prime cost and relatively
poor mechanical properties.
6. Tin base alloys are used to produce small castings where resistance to alkalies is needed and
extreme condition of moisture exist.
7. Mostly, tin base alloys contain up to 19% lead and 4 to 16% antimony.
Applications
1. A tin base alloy known as babbit metal finds use as a bearing material in aircraft and
automobile industries.
2. Tin base alloys (not containing lead) may be used as food and beverage containers.
3. Low cost jewellery is formed out of tin base alloys.
4. Commercial use f tin base alloys is now negligible.

Advantages of Die Casting

1. Same dies are used again and again to produce castings. Dies are capable of retaining
their accuracy and usefulness for long periods of production.
2. High production rates can be achieved with die casting technique.
3. It is possible to hold cost dimensional tolerances.
4. Very thin sections can be cast without any difficulty.
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 5. Threads and other find surface details can be easily obtained on die-cast surfaces.
6. Quite intricate shapes can be die-cast.
7. Surface smoothness of 1250 micro-mm root mean square can be obtained.
8. Inserts can be readily cast in place.
9. Die casting technique can be mechanized and used in mass production.
10. Machining costs of die-castings are very small.
11. Die casting associates lower labour costs because semi-skilled workers may be
employed.
12. Die-castings are less defective than sand castings.
13. A number of non-ferrous alloys can be die-cast.
14. Holes up to a minimum of 1.5 mm diameter can be easily cored during casting.

15. For equivalent production, die-casting technique requires less floor space than other casting
techniques.
16. Die casting proves very economical when used for large-scale production.

Limitations of Die Casting

1. Ferrous alloys are not cast and moreover a limited number of non-ferrous alloys can be
economically die-cast.
2. The maximum size of the casting, which can be made by die casting technique, is restricted.
Maximum sizes are about 100 kg for zinc and 35 kg for aluminum die-castings.
Since die tasting machine and dies involve high costs, the die casting process proves
uneconomical for small-scale production, (say less than about 20,000 castings).
4. Die castings have been found to contain some Porosity; this necessitates the evacuation of air
from the die cavity. .
5. Die casting technique requires comparatively a longer period of time for going into
production.
6. Die casting technique requires special skills on the part of maintenance and supervisory
personnel.
7. In certain cases, dies may produce an undesirable chilling effect on the die-castings.
8. Castings of metals which contract fast during solidification have to be removed earliest
possible from dies, whereas there is no such compulsion of castings made in sand molds.

Applications
Die casting applications have been discussed under the heading Die casting alloys.

4.4 PREHEATING OF DIES

The die-casting dies work as heat exchanger. At the start of the production cycle, the dies must
be preheated to the desired temperature. This is done to produce sound castings. The molten
metal can fill the thinnest and remotest sections of the casting. Also, if facilitates the application
of mould coatings/lubricant to the die surfaces. During steady state production of castings, heat
given off by the molten metal while solidifying, is removed by means of radiating pins or fins or
circulating water. The die faces are also cooled by evaporation of water from lubricants and
coatings. The typical temperatures to which the dies must be preheated are:
1. For Zn: 150 to 200 deg. C
2. For Al: 225 to 330 deg. C
3. For Mg: 250 to 275 deg. C
4. For Cu alloys: 3oo to 700 deg. C

4.5 VACUMN DIE CASTINGS:-

In this method, a vacuum is applied to remove all air from the die cavity before a shot of molten
metal is forced into a die cavity. This completely removes porosity from the casting. However,
application of vacuum is not suitable substitute for good die practises

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Defects in Die Castings

Die casting defects, basically can be divided into three categories:

1. Defects due to the cooling of the die:
The possible defects under this category are:
a) Non- filling of die cavities
b) Cold-shut
c) Severe chill
d) Chill
e) Flow line
2. Defects due to heating up of the die or the metal: these defects include:
a) Soldering
b) Crack
c) Bent part
d) Broken parts

3. Defects due to one or the other reasons:

These defects include

a) Scaling
b) Blister
c) Porosity
d) Mechanical defects

Below we discuss the possible causes and remedies of these defects:

1) Non-Filling of die-cavities: the causes are:

- Quantity if metal is less than needed
- Cooling of the die or a metal
- Less period of metal shot
The remedies to avoid the occurrence of this defect are:
- Required quantity of metal should be used. Do not allow the metal or the die to be
cooled, that is, avoid any delay in completing the operation. Heat the metal to be
required temperature and do preheating of the die if needed
- Apply the shot with the proper speed

2) Cold Shut/miss-run
This defect is same as in sand moulding casting. The reason and remedies are also similar. The
reasons are
- Cooling the die or loss of plasticity of the of the metal
- Shot speed less
- Air – vent or overflow is closed

The remedies are:

- The metal should be heated to the required temperature. Die should be preheated if
needed. The thickness of the casting should not be less than the minimum recommended
design thickness
- Shot speed should be proper
- Air vent should be opened

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4.6 COST ESTIMATING

Cost estimating may be defined as the process of forecasting the expenses that must be incurred
to manufacture a product. These expenses take in to consideration all expenditures involved in
design and manufacturing, with all the related service facilities such as pattern making tool
making, as well as a portion of the general administrative and selling cost.
Cost estimates are the joint product of the engineer and cost accountant, and involves two factors
: physical data and costing data. The engineer as part of his job of planning manufacturing
determines the physical data. The cost accountant compiles and applies the costing data.

4.6.1 PURPOSE OF COST ESTIMATING:

Cost is the background of almost every decision the tool engineer makes in organizing
manufacturing operations and in selecting materials, methods, tooling and facilities. An
understanding of cost determinations essential to ensure that these decisions are based on sound
and dependable estimates of cost.
Estimates of cost must be reasonably accurate if venture is to be successfully (realistic cost
estimates). If a job is over priced, it is lost to a competitor. If it is underestimated, it results in
financial loss.
Detailed cost estimates are prepared to:
1. Determine the selling price of a product for a quotation or contract, so as to
ensure a reasonable profit to the company.
2. Check the quotations supplies by the vendors.
3. Decide whether a part or assembly is economical to be manufacture in the plant
or to be purchased from outside.
4. Determine the most economical process or material to manufacture a product.
5. Initiate means of cost reduction in existing production facilities by using new
materials, which results in saving due to lower scrap loss, and received methods of tooling
and processing.
6. To determine standards of production performance that may be used to control costs.

4.6.2 COST ACCOUNTING OR COSTING:

It is the determination of an actual cost of a component after adding different expenses incurred
in various departments. Or, it may be defined as a system, which systematically records all the
expenditures to determine the cost of manufactured products. The work of cost accounting
begins with the pre-planning stage of product and ends only after the whole lot of the product
has been fully manufactured. Costing progresses with the progress of the product through the
plant.

4.6.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COST ESTIMATION AND COST ACCOUNTING:

As discussed above, cost estimation is determining the anticipated or probable cost of a job
much before the manufacturing of the job is taken, whereas cost accounting will be complete
only after the job has been completed. Estimation as compared with costing is a higher technical
job because an estimator must be familiar with factory methods and operation time etc., whereas
costing only consists of compiling data from various sources by clerical staff. Cost estimation
gives predicted or standard cost, where as cost accounting gives actual postmortem costs.

4.6.4 PURPOSE OF COST ACCOUNTING:

1.To compare the actual cost with the estimated cost to know whether the estimate had been
realistic or not.
2. Wastages and undesirable expenses are pointed out requiring corrective measure.

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3. The costing data helps in changing the selling price because of change in material cost or
labour cost.
4. It helps to locate the reasons for the increase or decrease of loss or profits of a company.
5. It helps in determining the discount on catalogue or market price of the product.
6. The actual cost helps the company to decide whether to continue with the manufacture of a
product or to buy it from outside.
7. It helps the enterprise to prepare its budget.
8. The costing data helps to formulate polices and plans for the pricing of a new job.
9. It helps in regulating, from time to time, the production of the job so that it may be profitable
to the company.

4.6.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS:

Cost can be classified in the following manner:

1. NONRECURRING COSTS:

These costs are also called “capital costs” and are one-time costs. These costs are consists of two
parts: fixed capital costs and non-depreciated capital costs. Fixed capital cost includes
depreciable items such as plant building, manufacturing equipment and tool. Non-depreciated
capital cost includes land.

2. RECURRING COST:

These costs are a direct function of manufacturing process. These costs are also called ‘operating
cost ‘or’ ‘manufacturing cost’.

ANOTHER CLSSIFICATION OF COSTS IS:

1. FIXED COST: Fixed costs associated with a productive unit are these costs which are
independent of the rate of production of components. These cost will be there whether the
facilities are being utilized or not.
2. VARIABLE COSTS: These costs vary with the rate of production. If there is no production,
variable cost will be nill.

A cost can be termed as ‘direct cost’ or ‘indirect cost’ as explained below:

(a) DIRECT COST: It is that cost which can be directly assigned to a product.
(b) INDIRECT COST: Indirect costs can not be directly assigned to a product but must be
spread over an entire factory.

4.6.6 WORKING CAPITAL: Working capital includes funds over and above and above the
fixed capital and land investment, to get a facility started and to provide for the future
obligations as and when they occur. It consists of :
Raw material on hand
Semi finished products in process of manufacture
Finished products in the inventory
Account receivable
Cash in hand needed for day-to-day operation.
The working capital remains tied up during the useful life of the plant, but it is considered to be
fully recoverable at the end of the life of the facility.

4.6.7 TURN OVER RATIO: This concept provides a rough estimate of the investment cost of a
new product. It is defined as:
Turn over ratio=Annual Sale / Total investment
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The turn over ratio for steel industry is about 0.6. In chemical industry, it is nearly 1.0 for many
products.

4.6.8 ELEMENTS OF COST:

The constituents of cost of a product or the “cost elements” are: material cost, labor cost and
expenses. We shell discuss each element in turn.

1. MATERIAL COST: Material is divided into two basic categories: (a) material for fabricated
parts (b) standard purchased parts. The total cost of these two will give the material cost of a
product. These are: Direct material and indirect material.

(i) DIRECT MATERIAL: The direct material is the raw material, which is processed in the
plant and finally forms the finished product. Any standard part, which also becomes a part of the
finished product, will also come under the category of direct material.

(ii) INDIRECT MATERIAL: Indirect material is those, which help, in the direct materials into
the finished product. These materials don’t form a part of the finished product. Indirect materials
include: shop supplies such as cotton waste, lubricating oil, cutting fluids, coal, oil
gas, shielding gases used in Arc welding, emery paper used for polishing, quenching oil for heat
treatment etc. Indirect materials form the part of on cost or overheads.

2. LABOUR COST: Labour which enter into the manufacture of a product is of two categories:
Direct labour and indirect labour.

(i)DIRECT LABOUR: The operator or operators which actually process the raw material
either on machines or manually, form the direct labour.

(ii) INDIRECT LABOUR: All the staff excepting administrative and sales office staff, which
helps in running the plant come under the category of indirect labour. Indirect labour includes:
Foremen, supervisors, maintenance staff, stores personnel, time office staff, drawing, office
staff, etc. Indirect labour forms a part of overheads.

3. EXPENSES: Total cost of the product minus the cost of direct material and direct labour
constitutes the ‘Expenses’. Expenses may also be either direct or indirect.

(i) DIRECT EXPENSES: These expenses like the direct material and direct labours are directly
chargeable to the finished product. These are also known as “chargeable expenses”. These
include:

• Cost of pattern, jigs, fixtures, dies, drawings or designs specially prepared for a particular
product, which cannot be used for other purposes.
• Cost of any experimental work done specially for a particular product.
• Cost of inward carriage or freight incurred on supply of special material needed for the
particular product.
• Hire of special or single purpose tools or equipment for a particular product.

(ii) INDIRECT EXPENSES: These are also called “on cost” “overheads” or “burden”. These
include cost of indirect material, cost of indirect labour and other expenses that cannot be
conveniently charged directly to a particular job. Indirect expenses may be divided into:
(a) Factory expenses or overheads.
(b) Office and Administrative expenses or overheads.
(c) Selling and Distribution expenses or overheads.

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a) FACTORY EXPENSES: These expenses include: indirect materials, indirect labour,
expenses, insurance, maintenance and depreciation of machine, power etc.

b) OFFICE AND ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES: These expenses consist of all expenses

incurred in the direction, control and administration of an undertaking. These expenses include:
rent and rates of office premises, salaries of office staff, printing and stationary, postage, salaries
of high officers, depreciation of office equipment and insurance on office equipment.

c) SELLING AND DISTRIBUTION EXPENSES:

These expenses include: salaries of sales staff publicity and advertisement, catalogues, leaflets
and price lists, packing and forwarding charges, go down rent, commission to salesmen etc.
The overheads may be grouped into two main categories:

1.FIXED OVERHEADS OR CONSTANT HEADS:

These are such items of indirect expenses, which remain constant or fixed irrespective of volume
of production. These items include: salaries of higher officer (administrative and management
executives), capital taxes, insurance charges, and depreciation of building, plant machinery etc.,
rent of buildings.

2.VARIABLE OR FLOATING OVERHEADS:

These are such items of overheads, which vary with the volume production. Such items are:
internal transport charges, power, fuel, stores expenses, factory lighting and heating and sales
officers and repair of machine tools.
Since fixed overheads remains constant irrespective of volume of production, production should
be increased to reduce the cost of the part. These should be some minimum production to meet
the fixed expenses and start earning profit.

4.6.9 COST STRUCTURE:

The elements of cost can be combined to give flowing types of cost:

1. Prime cost: prime cost or direct cost can be given as:
Prime cost = Direct material + direct labour + direct expenses (if any)
2. Factory cost: This cost is given as:
Factory cost = Prime cost + factory expenses
Factory cost is also called as ‘works cost’.
3. Manufacturing cost: Manufacturing cost or cost of production is given as:
Manufacturing cost = factory cost + Administrative expenses.
4. Total cost: Total cost is given as:
Total cost = Manufacturing cost + Selling and Distributed expenses
5. Selling price: Selling price is given as :
Selling price = Total cost + profit
The above-mentioned cost structure is explained with the help of a block diagram in Fig. 4.5

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 Fig. 4.5 Cost Structure
4.6.10 ESTIMATING OF DIFFERENT COST ELEMENTS

There are four major elements of cost

1. Direct material cost
2. Direct labour cost
3.Other direct expenses
4. Overhead expenses

Now, we shall discuss these one by one.

4.6.10.1 DIRECT MATERIAL COST

The material, which becomes a part of the product manufactured, is known as direct material.
The cost of the material, which becomes a part of the product manufactured, is known as direct
material cost.
The difference between direct material cost and indirect material cost is that, the direct material
is the material it self of which the component is made of and the indirect material which is used
while the different operations are done on the components for the smooth running of the machine
and cleaning of the machine, job or worker i.e.. Cotton waste, Greece, lubricating oils, coolants
etc.
To calculate the direct material cost for a component, the following procedure should be
followed:

1: STUDY OF DRAWING: Carefully study the drawing of the component. Check the drawing
for missing dimensions and details, and get all these before proceeding ahead.

2: SPLIT UP: Divide the drawings into simple standard geometrical shapes (like cubes,
cylinders, prism, pyramids etc.) Whose volumes can be determined by applying formulae of
menstruation, add necessary machining allowances on all sides, which are to be machined if
necessary.

3: CALCULATION OF VOLUME: Determine the volume of each such split up shape and their
volume to get the total volume of the material required for the components.

4: CALCULATION Of WEIGHT: The total volume of the material required is multiplied by its
density to get the weight of the material

5: CALCULATION OF COST: The weight of the material is then multiplied with the rate of
cost per unit weight to get the cost of the direct material of the component.

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.2 DIRECT LABOUR COST

The labour actually engaged in performing the manufacturing operations on direct material for
making a product is known as direct labour.

The wages paid to the labour is actually engaged in performing the manufacturing operations on
direct material for making a product is known as direct labour cost.

For the production of an article of the labour two types is required.

First type of labour is DIRECT LABOUR, which is required for a particular manufacturing
operation. FOR EXAMPLE, workers or operators in the factory may be called as direct labour.

Second type of labour is INDIRECT LABOUR or NON-PRODUCTIVE labour. These type of

labour is required for running the factory as the whole, for example, supervisory staff,
maintenance staff, cleanliness staff, time keepers &store keepers, gate keepers etc., may be
called as indirect labour.
To estimate the labour cost a chart showing different operations to be carried out for an
individual part should be prepared. This chart should indicate the time required for setting up the
job, time required for the operation, tear down time and miscellaneous allowances.

SET UP TIME: The time needed for setting and fixing the jobs and tools and auxiliary
equipment on the machine before starting the operation is known as set up time.
This the time to study the blueprint, time to install necessary tools in the machine, time to make
adjustment for getting the required size and time taken to inspect the size of first piece.

OPERATION TIME: This time includes the handling time and machining time. The time
consumed in all physicall movements by the operators to prepare part for machining and
disposing of the part, when machining is complete is known as HANDLING TIME. The time
taken to machine the part is known as machining time. This time can be calculated with the help
of machining time formulae depending upon cutting speeds, feeds etc.

TEAR DOWN TIME: The time taken to remove the job, tools, and others equipments from the
machine after the operation on the machine is known as TEAR DOWN TIME. This time is very
less then the set up tome, for example, setting up of a job and setting the tool.
In the tool post, in case of lathe machine may take 8 minutes. But the tear down time i.e.. Time
taken to remove the job and the tool may be only one minute.

4.6.11 MISLLANEOUS ALLOWANCES: In addition to time mentioned above, some other

allowances are also taken into consideration while computing total time for a product. These
allowances are
1. Personal allowance
2. Fatigue allowance
3. Tool sharpening & changing of tool
4. Checking of the job
5. Time required for oiling and cleaning
6. Time required for filling coolant in reservoirs.
7. Time required in disposing off scraps & surplus stock.

1. PERSONAL ALLOWANCE: The time required by the operator/worker to attend his

personal needs during working is known as PERSONAL ALLOWANCE. For Example:
Time taken for smoking, for having a cup of tea or a glass of water, going to urinal.etc. This
allowance may b e taken as 5% of the total time taken.

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 2. FATIUGE ALLOWANCE: The extra time required by an operator because of his
reduced speed of working caused by fatigue, is known as FATIUGE ALLOWANCE.
Due to fatigue, nobody can work at the same speed during all the working hours in a day.
The fatigue is caused excessive work and poor conditions of working facilities, or may be
due to worker’s personal problems and worries. The performance of the worker in the
evening will be less than in the morning. This allowance may be taken as the 5% of the total
time taken.

3. TOOL SHARPENING AND CHANGING ALLOWANCE: The time needed by an

operator for resharpening and changing of blunt tools is known as TOOL SHARPENING
AND CHANGING ALLOWANCE. Considerable time is spent in sharpening and changing
the tools. The approximate time required for this may be taken as 5 minutes, if the grinder is
no far off from the working place.

4. CHECKING ALLOWANCE: The time needed by the operator during working for
checking the sizes of the product is known as CHECKING ALLOWANCE. Rough
dimensions require less time than that where the accuracy is required.

5. TIME REQUIRED FOR OILING AND CLEANING: The time needed by the operator
for oiling and cleaning the machine during working is known as TIME REQUIRED FOR
OILING AND CLEANING. Some time is needed for oiling and cleaning the machine. So
this time should also be included.

6. COOLANT FILLING ALLOWANCE: The time needed by the operator for filling
coolant, if necessary, in the coolant reservoir or sump of the machine during working, is
known as COOLANT FILLING ALLOWANCE. The time required for filling the coolant in
reservoir is only once and it is very minor but consideration should also be given for the
consumption of the this time.

7. TIME REQUIRED FOR DISPOSING OFF SCRAPS AND SURPLUS STOCK:

The time needed by the operator for disposing off scraps and surplus stocks during or after
completion of work, is known as TIME REQUIRED FOR DISPOSING OFF SCRAPS AND
SURPLUS STOCK. This time is required at the end and only once in an operation. It i8s also
very minor time and sometimes it is neglected.

Allowances required from S.NO. 5 to 7 are not required by direct labour when there exists
arrangement of helpers to operators and maintenance personnel.
To calculate the direct labour cost, the time sheet should be filled which indicates the total time
in performing the work during the day. This sheet also indicates the name, and number of the
workers, name of the department, work order no., description of work time taken on each job and
amount payable to the worker for the work done by him.
The specimen of time sheet is given below:Time sheet

Table 4.6 Time sheet

Date…. Worker’s Name…
Department…. Worker’s no.

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 Works Order Description of Time Total time Rate of Amount
NO. work done Start finish
Rs.
Paise

OTHER DIRECT EXPENSES

Any expenditure than direct material and direct labour especially done for a particular job is
known as OTHER DIRECT EXPENSE OR DIRECTLY CHARGEABLE EXPENSE to that job.
The other direct expenses include the expenses other than direct material expenses and direct
labour expenses expanded on a specific unit of product. These expenses are charged directly to
the particular product as a part of the prime cost. Such expenses include
1. Expenses in hiring of special machine or any other eqyuipment
2. Cost of special pattern and designor drawings
3. Experiment cost of any particular production scheme.
4. Costs of defective work when trails are made before the specified work is
achieved.
5. Transporting charges for material required specially for the product.

8. OVERHEAD EXPENSES

All expenditures over and above direct material, direct labour and directly chargeable expenses
are known as OVERHEADS OR OVER HEAD EXPENSES.
This is the fourth major element of cost for a product. Ina factory, there are many other elements
of expenses which cannot be directly charged to many particular product. All these expenses are
grouped under one heading, which is called OVERHEAD. It includes all the unavoidable
expenses may be defined as the cost of indirect labour, indirect material and expenses for selling.
The main sub groups into which the overheads may be divided are:
1. Factory expenses 2. Administrative expenses

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 3. Selling expenses 4. Distribution expenses

FACTORY EXPENSES: All indirect expenditures done inside a factory (or works) for the
manufacture of a product are known as FACTORY EXPENSES OR FACTORY OVERHEADS
ONCOST OR WORKS OVERHEADS OR WORK ONCOST.

ADMINISTRATION EXPENSES: All indirect expenditures done in the direction, control and
administration of a maintenance concern are known as ADMINISTRATION EXPENSES.

SELLING EXPENSES: All indirect expenses done by a manufacturing concern for securing
orders, and finding or retaining markets for the product manufactured are known as SELLING
EXPENSES.

DISTRIBUTION EXPENSES: All indirect expenditures done by a manufacturing for the

distribution of its product in the market are known as DISTRIBUTION EXPENSES.

4.6.12 METHODS OF ESTIMATING

The cost of new product can be estimated by the following methods:-

Conference method:- Under this Method, representatives of the various section of the plant
such as purchasing, process engineering, tool design and methods and time study sit together in a
conference and estimate the cost of the material labour and tooling . a coordinator from either
accounting or estimating section collects all the data and arrives at the manufacturing cost after
applying some burden factors. This method does not involve detailed paper work, standard data
or mathematical calculation and its accuracy will depend upon the availability of specifications,
samples and drawings.

Delphis methods: It is special version of conference method , which involves cycles of

questioning and feedbacks n which the opinion of individual participants are kept anonymous.

Past experience: In this method, the cost of the new product is approximately estimated through
the use of past average actual costs of somewhat similar products. The cost is then adjusted to
suit variations in the products, materials and labour costs. In this method there is not-
coordinating bet the various sections of the plant and the estimating clerks lacks the
manufacturing and technical background to arrive at an accurate cost estimate

Detailed analysis method: This is the most accurate and reliable method of cost estimating.
However, this is also the most time consuming methods, the complete analysis involve:

1. Calculating all raw material usage including scrap allowance and salvage material.
2. Processing each individual component of the product i.e. write the operation sheet.
3. Calculating the production time and hence the direct labour cost for each operation
4. The equipment required
5. Tools, gauges and special fixtures or dies. Inspection and testing equipment
6. Packaging and shipping requirements.

Data requirements for cost estimating

The following detailed data are required by the estimators to arrive at an accurate estimate of the
new product:

1. General design specification i.e., a brief description of the product, its

function, performance and purpose.
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2. Quantity and rate of production.
3. Assembly or layout drawings
4. List of sub-assemblies of the product.
5. Detailed drawings and the bill of the material for the product
6. Material release date
7. Operation analysis
8. Standard time data
9. Machine tools and equipments required
10. Tools, gauges and special fixtures, jigs or dies required
11. Manufacturing routings
12. Test and inspection equipments and procedures
13. Area and building requirements

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4.6.13 Steps in making a cost estimate the cost of a new product may be established by the
following the basic steps given below:

The cost of a new product may be estimated by the following the basic steps given below:

1. Make a complete and thorough analysis of the cost request to understand it fully.
2. Make an analysis of the part or product and make separate lists of standard parts and the
part to be fabricated within the plant.
3. Make a manufacturing process plan for the parts to be fabricated.
4. Determine the material costs for the standard and the fabricated plants
5. Estimate the total production time for each operation listed in step 3
6. Apply the labour and burden rates to each operation
7. Apply the profit factors to arrive at selling price
8. Add (step4) & (step 6) this will give total manufacturing costs

4.6.14 CHIEF FACTORS IN COST ESTIMATING

Each cost estimate may be exactly the same the same as the actual manufacturing cost . the most
significant caused for the cost deviation can be:
1. Fluctuations in material and labour costs
2. Incomplete design information at the time of estimate
3. Unexpected delays resulting in premium paid for overtime and material and the
unexpected machining or assembly problems.

Following factors should be considered for arriving at an accurate and complete cost estimate

a) Each estimate should contain complete costs of direct material, direct labour, factory
overheads, spoilage, engineering, administration and selling
b) The cost of new product is estimated on the basis of previous estimates of comparable
parts, detailed estimations should be used. It is necessary to make substitute in the past
estimates for the individual operations
c) The volume of pieces to be produced also effects the costing rates since the time and
therefore the cost of performing an operation decreases as the no. of units produced id
increased
d) The addition of new types of equipments and special buildings require the development
of new overhead charges etc

4.6.15 CALCULATION OF MACHINING TIME

The basis relationship for determining the machining time for any machining operation is that
the cutting time in minutes is equal to the Distance the tool is fed, in mm, divides by the feed in
mm per minute, i.e.,
Tm=L/F, per cut or per pass
Where Tm=cutting time in minute
L=Total tool travel in mm
F=Feed of tool in mm per minute
The distance a tool is fed to make a cut (L) is the sum of distance the tool travel while cutting the
material plus its approach distance plus it’s over travel. The “approach” is the tool is feed from
the time its touches the work piece until it is cutting to full depth. Approach distance for a drill is
the length of its point, which is about one fourth the diameter of the standard drill. The approach
of most of the single point tool is negligilible. “Over travel is the distance the tool is fed while it
is not cutting. It is the distance over which the tool idles before it enters and after it leaves the
cut. This distance is calculated for face milling and slotting, but in other caser like drilling or
trimming it is taken as 0.8 to 6 mm. Fig 4.2 shows the cutting operation on a lathe, advance of
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the tool is from the position 1 to 3, the feed is engaged. The tool travels to position 4, when it is
contracts the job. The distance 4 – 5 is the tool approach, i.e., the tool travel before its starts the
cutting the required depth of material. So,

Fig. 4.6

Total cutting distance =( 4 – 5 ) + (5 – 6), The distance (6 –7) is total tool over travel, so that the
tool completely clears the job. The distance (3 –4) is also the tool over travel and this is provided
so that the tool contacts the job smoothly and not with the jerk. So,
Total tool travel = length of job + approach + Two over travels
F = f n
N = r.p.m. Of work or cutter.\relation(4.8) becomes,
Tm = L/Fn
Principle element of metal machining:

The principal elements of metal machining are:

(a) Cutting speed (b) Feed (c) depth of cut

a) CUTTING SPEED. The cutting speed can be defined as a relatively small movement per
cycle of the cutting tool, relative to the work piece in a direction, which is usually perpendicular
to the cutting speed directions. It is expressed in millimeters per revolutions (mm/rev) or
millimeter per stroke (mm/str). It is more complex element as compare to cutting speed, since it
is expressed differently for various operations. For example, in turning and drilling, the feed is
axial advance of the tool along or through the job during each revolutions of the tool or job; for
the shaper or planner, it is latest offset between the tool and work for each stroke and for multi
tooth milling cutters, feed is the advance of work or cutter between the cutting action of two
successive teeth (expressed basically as mm/per tooth).

b) DEPTH OF CUT: The depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut,
or pass, measured in a direction perpendicular to the machined surface. The depth of cut is
always perpendicular to the direction of feed motion. Selection of cutting speed: The cutting
speed to be used will depend upon the following factors:
(1) Work material: hard and strong materials require a lower cutting speed; whereas
soft and ductile materials are cut a higher cutting speed.
(2) Cutting tool material: Special cutting tool materials, for example, cemented
carbides; ceramics, satellite and H.S.S. will cut as much higher cutting speeds than alloy or
carbon steel tools.
(3) The depth of cut and feed: A light finishing cut with a fine feed may be run at
higher sped than a heavy roughing cut.
(4) Desired cutting tool life: The tool life is a direct function of cutting temperature,
which increases with increase in cutting speed. Thus as the cutting speed is increased, cutting
tool life is decreased.

135
 (5) Rigidity and condition of the machine and tool and the rigidity of the work:
An old, loose machine working with a poorly supported tool on a thin bar, will not cut as
such a high speed, as a good machine with rigid tool operating on a well supported bar of
reasonable dimensions.

c) SELECTION OF FEED. Feeds, to be used, will depend upon the following factors:
(i) Smoothness of the finish required. A coarse feed will give wider and deeper machining
marks and an inferior finish to a fine feed. A blunt nosed tool will give a better finish than a
sharp for the same feed.
(ii) Power available, condition of the machine and its drive. The product of the speed, feed &
depth of cut gives the amount of metal being removed and hence the power necessary. A
coarse feed on a poor or badly driven machine will be harmful both for the machine and the
tool. This will also result in slipping of the drive or belt.
(iii) Type of cut. As a general rule, give coarest feed possible for a roughing cut because
finishing is unimportant. For a finishing cut, the feed should be fine enough to give the class
of finish required.
(iv)Tool Life. The cutting temperature increases with increase of feed, resulting in decreased
tool life.

D) SELECTION OF DEPTH OF CUT. The depth of cut to be used will depend on the
following factors:
(i) Type of Cut. Use large depths of cut for roughing operations than for finishing operations.
(ii) Tool Life. The cutting temperature increases with increase of depth of cut, resulting in
decreased tool life.
(iii) Power Required. As discussed above, the cutting speed multiplied by area of cut
(feed x depth of cut) gives the metal removal rate, which gives the power requirements. For a
given area of cut, a large ratio of depth of cut to feed usually gives the most efficient
performance as well as a better surface finish.

Procedure for assigning cutting variables.

A definite order should be followed in selecting and assigning the cutting variables, that is,
speed, feed & depth of cut. First, the depth of cut is established and than the rate of cut is
established. After determining or assigning the values of depth of cut & rate of feed, the cutting
velocity is established.

(a) Depth of Cut. The depth of cut is determine primarily from the magnitude of the
machining allowance. The machining allowance is the layer of metal (Stock) that is to be
removed from the surface of a blank in machining to obtain a finished part. Allowances are
specified on one side that is in the case of round parts; it equals one half of the difference in
diameters of the blank and finished part. The nearer is the blank to the finished part in the shape
& size, that is, the smaller the machine allowance, the less the amount of metal that will be
converted into chips, the shorter the time required for machining, the higher the productivity in
manufacturing the given part and the cheaper the machine of which it is a component. It is
advantageous to remove the whole machining allowance in a single pass or cut as is done in
rough machining. In that case, the depth of cut will equal the machining allowance. In removing
large allowances or when the depth of cut is limited by : available power of the machine tool
drive, lack of rigidity of the workpiece, insufficiently reliable clamping of the workpiece in the
machine, and other factors, it becomes necessary to remove the total machining allowance in
several passes, there by reducing the depth of cut.

The depth of cut may be taken equal to 4 to 5 mm in rough turning 0.5 to 2mm in semi finish
turning and from 0.1 to 0.4 mm fro finish passes.
The depth of cut is always associated with the type of machining being done. For example, A
grinding allowance is always removed in several passes.
136
(b) Feed. In order to reduce the machining time, that is, to increase the productivity, it is
advantageous to apply the maximum possible rate of feed, taking into account all the factors
which may influence this value. In rough machining, when no special requirements are made to
the surface finish of the workpiece, but the acting forces in the cutting process are of
considerable magnitude, the maximum rate of feed may be limited by the available strength and
rigidity of the cutting tool, rigidity of the blank and the capacity of the machine tool. Procession
factors, namely machining accuracy and surface finish are of prime importance only for finish
operations and especially when high classes of finish are required. The actual numerical values
must be taken for those available on the machine tool. These are usually given in the service
manual and handbooks. For example, in rough turning with an ordinary carbide tipped lead angle
lathe tool, with a depth of cut equal to 5 mm, the recommended rate of feed is maximum equal to
1.2mm/ rev. When higher quality of machined surface is required, as in semi finish and finish
machining, the maximum rate of machining is restricted by the specified surface finish, since, the
heavier the feed, the greater the roughness of the surface produced. For example, to obtain a
surface finish of class between roughness grade number 7 to 8, with a turning tool on which tip
radius = 1mm, approach angle = 45oand end cutting edge angel ≤ 5o, the recommended rate of
feed is maximum = 0.25 mm/ rev.

(c) Cutting Velocity. Having established the depth of cut and the rate of feed, it is possible
to determine the cutting speed, V, from formulas give in metal cutting theory. Both these
variables greatly affect the cutting speed permitted by the tool. The heavier the feed and depth
of cut, the greater the forces acting on the tool, the higher the cutting temperature, the more
intensive the tool wear will be and the lower the cutting speed permitted by the tool for the same
tool life. The relationship between cutting speed, depth of cut and rate of feed, for a given tool
life, can be expressed by the formula:

C
V = m x , m / min
d .f
Where C= constant factor depending upon the work material, tool material,
tool geometry, tool life, cutting fluid etc.
d =depth of cut, mm
f =rate of feed, mm/rev.
m and x = exponents which differ work materials, tool materials and machining
variables. In turning and boring work pieces of carbon steels with high-speed steel tools and with
tool life of 60 min.
m= 0.25 and x = 0.33 for f ≤0.25 mm/rev.
= 0.25 and x = 0.66 for f > 0.25 mm/rev.
The values for C can be taken from handbooks. For example, for turning with a single point tool
tipped with cemented carbide and a tool life of 90 min, C = 141.5 for working material of carbon
steel with a tensile strength of 750 N/mm2.
It follows from the values for X and m that the exponent for feed is higher than for depth of cut,
that is, an increase in feed leads to a greater reduction in cutting speed than an increases in the
depth of cut. This is due to more intensive tool wear with an increase in ‘f’ than with an increase
in ‘d’
In equation (4.11) the values of the variables C, m and x will depend upon the tool life. A more
general equation incorporating the tool life also is written as:

Where T = tool life, min

For turning structural carbon and alloy steels with tensile strength equal to 750 N/mm 2 with a
carbide-tipped tool, the various exponents and constant C have the values (from hand books) :

C = 273, n = 0.2, m = 0.15

X = 0.2 for f ≤ 0.3mm / rev
137
 = 0.35 fro f ≤ 0.75 mm / rev
= 0.45 for f > 0.75 mm / rev
The common values of cutting speeds and feeds are given in table 4.1 and also, for the individual
operation their values have recommended in the following pages.
1. Turning. The turning operation is shown in

Fig. 4.7 Turning Operation

Note the diameter ‘D’ which will be used in equation (4.9) to obtain the r.p.m of the cutter of
work. To obtain the machining time for turning operation, equation (4.10) is used.

138
 Example 4.11. What is the machining time to turn the dimension given in Fig 4.4. The material
is brass the cutting speed with H.S.S tool being 100 m/mm, and feed is 7.5 mm/rev.

Solution First find the time to turn 38 mm diameter by 76 mm length of cut. Using the formula.
L
Tm = fN
1000 V
Now N=
πD
1000 ×100
= = 636 .62 r. p.m
π ×50
76
∴ Tm =
0.75 × 636 .62
= 0.16 min

Next, to turn 25 mm diameter by 38 mm length,

1000 ×100
N= = 837 .65 r. p.m
π ×38
∴ Tm = 380.75 × 837.65 = 0.06 min
∴ Total time = 0.16 + 0.06 = 0.22 min.
The turning is done in one pass only as the maximum depth of cut of 6 mm on a side in general
shop practice for brass.

2. External relief. An external relief operation is the removal of material from a previously
turned surface along the same axis and within the limits of turned area, Fig. 4.5. The cutting tool
is similar to turning tool except that it is square nosed.

Table 4.7 Cutting Speeds and Feed Rates

Cutting Speed V in rpm

H.S.S tool Carbide tool Stellite tool Feed rate f in
Work Ream mm/rev.
Turn Turn Turn
Material and Dril
Finis Threa l Roug Roug
Rough Rough Finish Finish Finish
h d h h
7.5 to 0.625 0.125
Mild Steet 40 60 30 90 180 50 75
15 to 2.0 to 0.75
139
 0.5 to 0.125
Cast Steel 15 24 3.5 12 45 100 24 33
1.25 to 0.5
0.075
Stainless 0.5 to
15 18 3 12 27 45 22 25 to
Steel 1.0
0.175
0.4 to 0.2 to
Grey C.I 18 27 3.5 13 60 100 33 45
2.5 1.0
0.1 to 0.075
Aluminum 90 150 15 72 240 360 120 180
0.5 to 0.25
0.375 0.2 to
Brass 75 100 18 60 180 270 90 150
to 2.0 1.25
Phosphor 0.375 0.125
18 36 4.5 13 120. 180 30 50
Bronze to 0.75 to 0.5

Example 4.12. Find the time to turn the external relief shown in figure 4.5 . The material is
mild steel and feed is 0.379 mm/rev.
Solution
From table 4.1 with H.S.S cut cutting speed V=60 M/min

N= 1000 x 60 =502.6
π x38

Tm = L = 32
fN 0.375X502.6

=0.17

3. Point. Pointing is the process of removing stock at the end of a bar to facilitate the approach of
a cutter turner. It helps the cutter turner rolls to find their work place. This operation which is
usually hand feed operation may be done either from cross slide or turret of a lathe fig 4.6 .The
time calculations are done on the same line as for plain turning.

140
4.Chamfer. Chamfering is the operation of removing material from edges of external or internal
diameter to facilitate the entering of mating parts to form a seat or to remove sharp edges fig
4.7.This is hand feed operation and machine time is relatively short .The time may be calculated
by formula as for plain turning.

5. Knurling. Knurling is the operation of upsetting material so as to produce diamond shape or

straight lined patterns on the surface of material. This is done to gripping when the job is grasped
by hand the handles of gauges, hand screws slip bushing etc. are often knurled .The knurling is
obtain with help of tools called ‘knurls’ and operation may be either from cross slide or from
turret of a lathe .In turret knurling tool is feed in & out the out feed is being of two to three times
of in feed. The cutting time for knurling operation is estimated on the same lines as for plain
turning fig 4.8.

141
6. Forming is the operation of producing surfaces that would be difficult to produce by
conventional methods of turning, boring or facing. The tool used is called ‘form Tool’ and
carries the counter of the part to be formed, fig 4.9. The cutting time is estimated in same way as
for plain turning, i.e.
1000V
N =
π D avg.

Example 4.13 Calculate the machining time to face on a lathe a cast-iron flanges shown in fig.
4.11.
Solution. As is clear from fig 4.11.
Length of cut =7.5cm
Average dia (Davg)= ½(25+10) =17.5
Now from table 4.1, for H.S.S. tool,
V=27m/min & let f = 0.8mm/rev.

N = 1000 V = 1000Χ 27 = 49 r.p.m.

π Davg π x175

Tm = L = 75
FxN 0.8x49

= 191 min.

Drilling. Drilling is the cutting holes in the material, in which length of drill travel is
L =A + t + A

Where A =. 029 D For Point angle of 120°

Drilling operation can be done drill presses, turret lathes and engine lathe. On engine lathe the
drill is held in tail stock spindle and feed is given by rotating manually hand wheel of the
tailstock. Here the drilling time cannot be calculated with help of formula. Drilling cutting speed
is general are lower than turning cutting speeds. Harder the material to drill, lower the cutting
speed. Feed varies with the diameter of drill, increasing with the diameter. It is between about
0.05 mm/rev for small drills of 1.5 mm dia to about 0.25 mm/rev for drill of 25mm dia Table
4.8& 4.9 give cutting speeds and feed rates for drills

142
 Table 4.8 Table 4.9

Cutting speed, m/min feed rates, mm/rev

Work material V Drill size, mm f

Stainless steel 9-12 0-3.2 0.025-0.05
C-steels (0.4-0.5% C) 21-24 3.2-6.35 0.05-0.10
C-steels (0.2-0.3% C) 24-33 6.35-12.7 0.10-0.175
Soft grey C.I. 30-45 12.7-25.4 0.175-0.375
Brass and Bronze 60-90 >25.4 0.375-0.625
Magnesium alloys 75-120

9. Boring. Boring is the operation of enlarging or finishing an internal hole which has been
previously drilled. The tool is usually a single point tool and it is mounted on tool post, a square
turret or boring bar is operated from a, spindle, across slide, a hexagonal turret, and so on .The
cutting speed relation and relation to find machining time is similar to that used for simple
turning.

10. Undercutting. In under cutting operation , a previously bored hole is made larger along the
same axis and with in the longitudinal limits of the main bore, cutting time is obtain in same
manner as boring time.

11. Shaping planning and slotting. In all the case operations, relative motion between the tool
and work piece is reciprocating. The shaper operation is shown in fig 4.14 forward stroke is
cutting stroke and return stroke is idle stroke, so it should be in min possible time, usually,

Return stroke = 2/3

Forward stroke
i.e. time for forward stroke (cutting stroke) = 3 × Total time ( of both strokes)
5
Now cutting speed is given as
V = N × L (1+K) m/ min

1000
N =Number strokes per min
L = Length of strokes ,mm
K = Ratio of return time to cutting time
Now time taken by cutting stroke = L

1000 × V

Return Time = K × Cutting stroke time = KL

143
 1000 × V
Time taken to complete one cycle
L KL
= +
1000× V 1000 × V
Now total number of strokes required to complete one cut on full breadth, of the
job =W/f
where f= feed/ stroke
∴ Total time for compleating one cut == L (1+ K) W

1000× V × f

Cutting speeds and feeds for shaping ,planning and slotting

Table 4.10
Work Types of tool
material H.S.S Cast alloys carbides

V,mpm f,mm V,mpm f,mm V,mpm f,mm

Steel(hard) 6-10.5 0.75-1.25 . . 30-54 0.9
Steel 18-21 0.75 . . 54-75 1.25
(medium)
Steel(soft) 21-30 0.75-3.0 . . 54-90 1.25
Cast steel 7.5-18 1.25 18-24 1.0 30-54 1.00
C.I. (hard) 9-15 1.50 15-24 1.25 30-60 1.25
C.I.(soft) 15-24 3.0 27-36 1.25 33-675 1.25
Malleable 15-27 2.25 14-36 1.25 45-75 1.0
iron
Brass 45-75 1.25-1.50 . . . .
Bronze 9-18 2.0 . . 45-90 1.25
Auminium 60-90 0.75-1.25 . . . .

BROCHING: The cutting time for broaching may be calculated as:

Tm = Length of stroke + length of stroke

144
 Cutting speed return speed

The return stroke being idle is after than cutting stroke and so return is usually twice the cutting
speed. Cutting speed for various materials with H.S.S. broaches is given in the table 4.11.

Table 4.11
Material V, m/mm
Steel(hard) 3
Steel(medium) 6
Steel(soft) 9
C.I.(HARD) 6
C.I.(soft) 12
Bronze 12
Brass 12
beryllium, copper 3

For carbide broaches, the cutting speed ranges from 9 to 27 m/mm. feed is usually 0.075mm or
less between teeth.

Sawing. For power hack saw,

Length of cut
Tm =
Stroke per min.
The recommended strokersper min are as folls:
1. cold-rolled brass,copper etc. 140
2.Annealed tool steels,medium steels, 100
3.hard steels, special alloys, 70

Formula for time to saw is, Length of cut in cm.

Tm =
Cutting speed ,mpm

145
4.6.16 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL UNIT TIME

As already mentioned the total time to produce one unit will consist of set up time, machining
time, handling time and tear down time. Tear down time is usually very small and is considered
along with set up time. After the machining time for individual operations has been calculated
and the total obtained, including the set up time and handling time, a percentage of about 10% to
20% is added to allow for contingences. That will give the total cycle time. The set up time,
which occurs, for a lot is given in table for new machine tools.

Average set up time

Table 4.12
Time, hr
Time, hr
Machine tool Machine tool
Min. Max Min Max
Engine lathe(9” x 0.3 1.5 Turret 1.0 2.5
48”) lathe(3”x 21”)
Engine lathe(12” x 0.5 2.0 Shaper 0.3 0.8
102”)
Engine lather(24” x 0.75 2.0 Planer 0.5 1.5
144”)
turret lathe(1” x 0.3 1.5 Surface 0.3 0.5
10”) grinder
turret lathe (1.5” x 1.0 1.0 Radial drill 0.3 1.0
21”)
Mills 0.75 1.0

The handling times for various operation on engine lathe and turret lathe are given in the table.
Handling times on the engine lathe
146
 Operation Time,hr
Use drill, reamer, etc, in tailstock in fixed
position-place and remove from tailstock
spindle 0.006
Set tool to face-turn-bore, etc, includes feed
on and off. 0.005
Clamp and release taper attachment on
machine bed. 0.008
Index square turret when used. 0.003
Change speed-includes stop and start
machine. 0.002
Change feed 0.001
Pull out drill to relieve chip 0.002

Handling time on turret lathe

Table 4.13

Operation Time, min

Change speed 0.05
Changed feed 0.05
Index tool post 0.06
Engage feed 0.02
Feed to bar stop 0.06
Chuck in 3 jaw chuck 0.75

147
Example.4.1 from the following data, calculate the total cost of the and selling price for the
job:
Direct material cost =Rs 5500
Manufacturing wage =Rs 3000
Factory overheads to manufacture wages=100%
Non-manufacturing overheads to factory cost=15%
Profit on total cost =12%

Solution. Direct material=5500

Manufacturing wages = Rs5500
Factory overheads = 100% of Rs 3000
= Rs 3000
So factory cost = Direct material cost + direct labour + factory over heads
= Rs 5500 + 3000 + 3000
= Rs11, 500
Non-manufacturing overheads, i.e., administrative and selling overheads
= 15% of Rs 11,500
= Rs 1725
Total cost = factory cost + Rs 1725
= Rs 11,500 + Rs 1725
= Rs 13,225
Profit = 12% of total cost
= Rs 1587
Selling price = total cost + profit
= Rs 14,812

……………………………..

Example 4.2. From the records of a company, the following data are available ;
(1) Raw material
Opening stock = Rs 20,000
Closing stock = Rs 30,000
Total purchase during the year = Rs 1, 70,000
(2) Finished goods
Opening stock = Rs 10,000
Closing stock = Rs 15,000
Sales = Rs 4, 89,500
(3) Direct wages = Rs 1, 20,000
(4) Factory expenses = Rs 1, 20,000
(5) Non-manufacturing expenses = Rs 50,000

Find out what price should be quoted for a product involving an expenditure of Rs
20,000 in material andRS30, 000 in wages.

Solution; first of all, we shall determine he the rates of factory expenses, non-
manufacturing expenses and profits, from the given data above.
Direct material cost = opening stock+ total purchase during the year –closing stock
= Rs 20,000+ 1, 70,000- 30,000
= Rs 1, 60,000
Direct wages = Rs 1, 20,000
Factory expenses = 1, 20,000
So Factory cost = Rs 1, 60,000 +1, 20,000+1, 20,000
= Rs 4, 00,000
Non- manufacturing expenses = Rs 50,000
148
So total cost = Rs 4, 00,000 + Rs50, 000
= Rs 4, 50,000
Cost of finished goods sold = opening stock + cost of goods manufactured-
Closing stock
= Rs 10,000+ Rs 4, 50,000- Rs 15,000
= Rs4, 50,000
Total sales = 4, 89,500
Profit = 4, 89,500-4, 45,500
= Rs 44,500
(1) factory expenses (%of direct wages)
= 1, 20,000×100/1, 20,000
(2) non-manufacturing expenses to factory cost
= 50,000×100/4, 00,000
=12½٪
(3) Profit to cost of sales = 44,500×100/4, 45,000 = 10٪
Now the cost of the product can be quoted as follows:
Direct material = Rs 20,000
Direct wages = Rs30, 000
Factory expenses (100٪ of wages) = Rs 30,000
Factory cost = 20,000+30,000+30,000 = Rs80, 000
Non-manufacturing expenses (12½٪ of factory cost)
= 80,000×12.5/100
= Rs 10,000
Total cost =Rs 80,000+ Rs 10,000
= Rs 90,000
Profit (10٪ of total cost) = Rs9, 000
Selling price= Rs 90,000+Rs9, 000
=Rs 99,000

Example 4.3. Find the factory cost of a part made from solid brass bar 38 mm
diameter and length of bar used being 25 mm. the machining time taken to finish the part
is 90 minute and the labour rate is Rs 2.00 per hour. Factory overheads are 50 percent of
direct labour cost .the density of the material is 8.6gms.per cube.cm and its cost is
Rs.1.625 per Newton.
Solution. Weight of raw material = 22×(3.8)²×2.5×8.6×9.81/4×1000 .newtons
=2.4 newtons
material cost = 2.4×1.625 =Rs3.9
Labour cost =2× 90/ 60=Rs 3.00
Factory overheads = 50%of 3.00 =Rs 1.5
Factory cost = 3.90+3.00+1.5
=Rs 8.40

Example 4.4. An electric immersion rod is being sold in the market for Rs 65,000.find its
production or manufacturing cost assuming 20% profit of the selling price and selling
expenses to be 40% of production cost.
If the cost of material used for rod is Rs 15.00 and the overheads of the
department in which it is being made is 40% of labour cost. find the time taken for its
manufacture if the labour rate is Rs 2.00 per hour.
Solution; Selling price =Rs 65.00
Profit = 20 % of Rs65.00= Rs 13.00
So, Total cost =65-13 =Rs. 52.00

If ‘P, is the production or manufacturing cost, than

149
 Overheads = 0.4 w
P= Direct material +direct labour + overheads
So 37.14 = 15+ w+0.4w
w = 22.14/1.4 = Rs15.81
Time taken = 15.81/2 =7.905 Hours

Example 4.5. The market price pf a machine is Rs 6000 and the discount allowed to
distributor is 20% of the market price. For a certain period it was found that the selling cost
was the half the factory cost. The material cost labour cost and overheads charges of the
factory are in the ratio 1:4:2 .if the ma= terial cost is Rs 400.What profit is made by the
factory on each machine?
Solution. Market price of the machine =Rs 6000
Discount = 20% of Rs 6000
= Rs 1200
Selling price of the factory = 6000-1200
= Rs4800
Now selling price = factory cost administrative cost and selling expences+profit

=f+0.5f +p = 1.5f+p
now f = material cost+ labour cost+ factory overheads
= 400+1600+800
= 2800
4800= 1.5×2800+p
p (profit) =Rs 600

Example 4.6. the monthly requirement of a company is 1500 components. the cost of each
part is rs 5 and the cost of each set up is Rs 30 lot if the carrying charge factor is 20%
determine;
(a) economic lit size
(b) set up time for each lot

Solution. From equation

(a) N = 5√askc
A= 1500, s= Rs30, k= 0.20 c= Rs6
N =5√ 1500× 30/ 0.20×5
= 1061 pieces
(b) time for each set up, equation
(c) S =NS/A = 1061×30/1500 =21.22 hours

Example 4.7. What is the unit time to change a milling cutter if it takes 10 minute for the
operator to change the cutter .the cutter works 2 minute during during each cycle and tool
life is hours?
Solution from equation
t= t’c. tk/T
Her t’c= 2min, Tk =10 min, T=240min
t= 2×10/240=0.83min

Example 4.10. 40 forging are to be machined in four set ups. Calculate the cost of
production with the help of following given data;
Machine time = 12min per forging
Non –machine time = 21 min per forging
150
 Set up time = 45min per set up
Tool sharpening = 5 min per forging
Fatigue = 20%
Personal needs =5%
Tool change time =10 min
Tool life =8 hour
Checking time = 15 sec with 5 check per forging
Performa Nance factor = 1.4
Direct labour cost = Rs 5 per hour
Solution. Machine +nonmachingtime= 33 min.
Fatigue = 20%of 33 min. = 6.6min.
Personal needs= 5%= 1.65 min
Tool sharpening time t= t’c.Tk/ T
=12×10/480=0.25 min. per forging
Measuring and checking time = 15×5/60 =1.25 min. per forging
Sum of the above times = 12+12+1.65+6.6+0.25+1.25
=42.75
Time for 40 forgings= 42.75×40
=1710 min.
Set up time =45×4 =180 min.
Total estimated time, Te=1890 min.
Total actual time, Ta =Te×R
=1890× 1.4
=2646 min.
Direct labour cost =Rs 220.5

151