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‡ Establishedin1920 12% 22%Students

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Highsulfidation epithermaldeposits 45%

40%
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andJBruceGemmell 10%
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PascuaͲLamahighͲsulfidationepithermaldistrict,Argentina

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 Epithermalgolddeposits Epithermalgolddeposits
ƒ Epithermaldepositsshowavarietyof
depositstyles
¾ Theyarenotallthesame…
ƒ Thedifferentdepositclassesarenot
fullycharacterizednorfullyunderstood
Lihir goldmine,PNG ¾ Wearestilllearning…
ƒ Notallepithermaldepositscontain
Thesegolddepositsareveryimportanteconomically
economicgold
‡ Theycanbeverylarge: ¾ Somearedominatedbyothermetals,
‡ Lihir (LS),PNGͲ 57Moz Au notablyAg,Zn,Pb,Cu,Sn
‡ PascuaͲLama(HS),ChileandArgentina15.39Moz Au@1.47g/t ƒ Somearecloselyrelatedtointrusions,
‡ Theycanbeveryrich: somearenot
‡ Hishikari (LS),Japan– 6.2Moz Au@49g/t ¾ Therelatedintrusionsneednot beporphyry
‡ ElIndio(HS),Chile– 5.4Moz @5.4g/t copperͲrelatedintrusions
ƒ Terminologyisvery confused!
EpithermalquartzͲfluoritecementedbreccia,Baijiantan,China

TwosubͲtypesbasedoncommongangueminerals Epithermaldepositclassification

Quartz+alunite ± pyrophyllite ± dickite ± kaolinite Goldisthedominanteconomicmetalin:

1. DepositsassociatedwithneutralpH,
Indicates:acidpH– oxidizingconditions(H2SO4) dominantlymeteoricfluids(lowͲ
sulfidation)
• InmostaspectsintermediateͲsulfidation
Quartz㼼 calcite㼼 adularia㼼 illite depositsareverysimilartolowͲsulfidation
2. DepositsassociatedwithacidpH,
Indicates:neutralpH– reducingconditions(H2S) dominantlymagmaticfluids(highͲ
sulfidation)

FollowsclassificationschemeproposedbyHedenquist
(1987)andWhiteandHedenquist (1990,1995)

SlidecourtesyofStuartSimmons PyriteͲcementedadulariaͲalteredbreccia,Lihir,PNG
 Sulfur speciation Epithermaltexturesandminerals
Epithermalfluids
ƒ Inepithermaldeposits,simpleobservationscan
Lowandintermediatesulfidation: tellusalot
• Reducingconditionsstabilise
ƒ Itisimportanttorecognisekeymineralsand
aqueoussulfide speciesand
textures,andunderstandwhatproducesthem
reducedgases:
‡ H2S(aq) ‡ H2S(g) ƒ Fromthosewecaninterpretwhereweareinthe
‡ HSͲ (aq) system,andthelikelydirectiontowardsore
Highsulfidation: ƒ Keytoolsforeffectiveexploration:
• Oxidisingconditionsstabilise ‡ Hammer,handlens
aqueoussulfate speciesand ƒ Keyknowledge:products,processes,howto
oxidisedgases interpretthem,andthediversityofrealdeposits
• SO42Ͳ(aq) ‡ SO2(g)
• HSO4Ͳ(aq) THESEARETHEKEYTHINGSTO
FOCUSON
PyriteͲmarcasiteͲgoldcementedbreccia,Lihirgoldmine,PNG LowͲsulfidationvein,Waihi,NewZealand

Characteristictextures Formofdeposits
WhiteandHedenquist (1995) WhiteandHedenquist (1995)
Waihi,
NewZealand
LowͲSulfidation
• OpenͲspaceveinsdominant
• Stockworkorecommon
• Breccias abundantinsomedeposits
• Disseminatedoremostlyminor
• Replacementoreminor

Lowsulfidation Highsulfidation HighͲSulfidation

NeutralͲpH,meteoric AcidͲpH,magmatic • Veinssubordinate,locallydominant
‡ Bandedveins ‡ ‘Vuggy quartz’ • Stockworkoreminor
‡ Brecciaveins ‡ Massivequartz • Breccias abundantinsomedeposits
‡ Drusy cavities ‡ Massivesulfideveins • Disseminatedoredominant
‡ Crustiform veins ‡ Crudelybandedveins • Replacementorecommon
‡ Latticetexture ‡ WormyͲpatchy(gusano)textures Waihi,NewZealand

Gusano andvuggy quartztextures,LaZanja,Peru

Zijin,China
 “Classical”
Epithermal Highsulfidation epithermalgolddeposits
Model Averyimportantclassofgolddeposit
Buchanan(1981)
ƒ Canbeverybig:
‡ PascuaͲLama,ChileandArgentina:
± 324.6Mt@1.47g/tAu,64.66g/tAg,0.072%Cu
± Totalof15.38Moz Au,674.8Moz Ag,0.23MtCu

ƒ Canbeveryrich:
‡ ElIndio,Chile:
± 23.2Mt@6.6g/tAu,50g/tAg,4%Cu

HSepithermalgolddepositscanbe
Thisenduringmodel
wasproducedbefore veryimportanteconomically
thedistinctionbetween
HSandLSdeposittypes
wasrecognised.

Highsulfidationdeposits Ahistorylesson:Ransome1907
– wellunderstoodtoday EconomicGeologyv.2p667Ͳ692

Norte

Oeste
Sur http://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/pan/6a07000/6a07600/6a07642r.jpg
CerroYanocochaPit Encajon
• Described“TheassociationofalunitewithgoldintheGoldfield
• OneofthebiggestgolddepositsonEarthisYanacochainPeru District,Nevada”
• Produced3.3Moz(100t)in2005 • Recognisedthreeoccurrencesofalunite:
• Totalresource>60Moz(1800t) • “bytheattackofsulfurousvapoursonfeldspathicrocks”[TODAY:STEAMͲ
• ItisaclusterofatleastninehighͲsulfidationepithermal HEATED]

deposits • “duetotheactionofpercolatingsurfacewater,chargedwithsulfuric
acidbytheoxidationofpyrite”[TODAY:SUPERGENE]
• Todaythisdeposittypeisamajorexplorationtarget,yet30
• from“solutions(that)wereessentiallyemanationsfromasolidifying
yearsagoitwashardlyrecognised bodyofdaciticmagma”[TODAY:HYPOGENE]
 Epithermalgolddeposits:Production+reserves(circa2000)
Epithermaldepositclassification
• HighͲsulfidation depositshavemineralogyandtexturesthatare
distinctfromtheothers
Inter. sulfidation
• IntermediateͲ andlowͲsulfidationdepositshavemanysimilarities,
butdifferencesinmetalcontentandmineralogy,andslight
differencesintextures Alkalic LS subtype

• Simpleobservationsmostlyallowclassificationinminutes!
Vi?

Rhodochrosite,Kelian,Indonesia

HSdeposits:Wheredotheyoccur? Locationofmajorepithermalgolddeposits

• CalcͲalkalinemagmaticarcs
• Mostlysubaerialenvironments,rarelysubmarine
• Proximalvolcanicsettingscommon
TETHYSBELT
• Manyinvolcanicrocks
• Increasinglyrecognisedinbasement

Andeanvolcanicarc,northernChile
 Chinkuashih Formofdeposits
HowdowerecogniseHSdeposits? Highsulfidation

Bytheircharacteristicfeatures:
• Keytextures
• Formofdeposits
• Mineralogyandzoningofore
LaCoipa
• Mineralogyandzoningofhydrothermalalteration
• Chemistryandchemicalzoningofore Akeshi

Let’sreviewtheirmaincharacteristics…

VuggyquartzͲalunite,Lepanto Sulfidevein,ElIndio

OremineralsinAuͲrichores HSoremineralogy
Frequencyofoccurrence(abundance)
LowͲSulfidation HighͲSulfidation
Pyrite ubiquitous(abundant) ubiquitous(abundant)
Sphalerite common(variable) common(veryminor)
Galena common(variable) common(veryminor)
Chalcopyrite common(veryminor) common(minor)
EnargiteͲLuzonite rare(veryminor) ubiquitous(variable)
TennantiteͲTetrahedrite common(veryminor) common(variable)
Covellite uncommon(veryminor) common(minor)
Stibnite uncommon(veryminor) rare(veryminor)
Orpiment rare(veryminor) rare(veryminor)
Realgar rare(veryminor) rare(veryminor)
Arsenopyrite common(minor) rare(veryminor)
Cinnabar uncommon(minor) rare(veryminor)
GoldͲaluniteintergrowths,Tambo,Chile
Electrum uncommon(variable common(minor)
Metallicmineralsinclude: electrum,enargite–
NativeGold common(veryminor) common(minor)
luzonite,chalcocite,bornite,chalcopyrite,
TelluridesͲSelenides common(veryminor) uncommon(variable) tennantiteͲtetrahedrite,tellurides(calaverite,etc.)
 Colquijirca,Peru Colquijirca,Peru
Oremineralogy
Highsulfidation epithermaldeposits

enargite enargiteandpyrite

Lepanto,Philippines PuebloViejo,DominicanRepublic

NativeAu, Enargite, Luzonite, Covellite,

LaZanja,Peru Colquijirca,Peru Lepanto,Philippines Yanacocha,Peru

Metallicmineralsinclude: electrum,enargite– luzonite,covellite,digenite,

chalcocite,tennantite– tetrahedrite,bornite,chalcopyrite,calaverite,etc.
luzoniteͲcementedbreccia Colloformandbrecciatedsphaleriteveins

Kelly,Philippines Kelly,Philippines
HSoremineralogy
Frequencyofoccurrence(abundance)
Pyrite ubiquitous(abundant) Calv
Cpy
Sphalerite common(veryminor) Glfd En
Galena common(veryminor)
Cpy
Chalcopyrite common(minor)
EnargiteͲLuzonite ubiquitous(variable) Tenn
Au
TennantiteͲTetrahedrite common(variable)
200Pm 250Pm
Covellite common(minor)
Chalcocite common(minor) Kelly,Philippines Collahuasi,Chile

Orpiment rare(veryminor)
Realgar rare(veryminor) Glfd
Arsenopyrite rare(veryminor) Cv
Cinnabar rare(veryminor)
Cpy
Electrum common(minor) Au
NativeGold common(minor)
Tellurides uncommon(variable)
HSore,RosarioVein, afterWhiteand Py
Collahuasidistrict,Chile Hedenquist,1995 Pyrite– chalcopyrite– bornite– chalcocitevein
 Colquijirca,Peru
Ganguemineralogy
Frequencyofoccurrence(abundance)

LowͲSulfidation HighͲSulfidation
Quartz ubiquitous(abundant) ubiquitous(abundant)
Chalcedony common(variable) uncommon(minor)
Calcite common(variable) absent(exceptoverprint)
Adularia common(variable) absent
Illite common(abundant) uncommon(minor)
Kaolinite rare(exceptoverprint) common(minor)
PyrophylliteͲ absent(exceptoverprint) common(variable)
Diaspore
Alunite absent(exceptoverprint) common(minor)
Barite common(veryminor) common(minor)

Vuggyquartzandalunite Bornite andcovellite WhiteandHedenquist (1995)

HSganguemineralogy Highsulfidationdeposits– mineralogy

frequencyofoccurrence(abundance)

Alunite (H=4)KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6
Kaolinite/Dickite (H=2Ͳ 2.5) Al2Si2O5(OH)2
Pyrophyllite (H=1Ͳ 2)Al2Si4O10(OH)2
QuartzͲaluniteͲalteredrhyolite,LaCoipa,Chile Diaspore (H=6.5Ͳ 7)aAlO.OH
Quartz ubiquitous(abundant)
Svanbergite (APS)SrAl3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6
Chalcedony uncommon(minor)
Calcite absent(exceptoverprint) Woodhousite (APS)CaAl3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6
Adularia absent
Illite uncommon(minor) Enargite /Luzonite (H=3)Cu3AsS4
Kaolinite common(minor)
Famatinite (H=3.5)Cu3SbS4
PyrophylliteͲDiaspore common(variable)
Alunite common(minor)
Barite common(minor) Advancedargillic alteration&HSmineralisation,Rosario,NChile
afterWhiteandHedenquist,1995
 Advancedargillicmineralogy
Associatedwithores
Mineralassemblage
Hydrothermalalteration
WhiteandHedenquist (1995)
LowSulfidation HighSulfidation
nearͲneutralpH acid(pH<1to>3)
illite (sericite)interstratified Quartz,alunite,kaolinite,
clays(illiteͲsmectite) pyrophyllite,diaspore

Zoning zonedhigherTÎ lowerT zonedacidÎ neutralpH

Alunite(bladed) Alunite(pseudoͲcubic) APSmineralinalunite

Zunyite&pyrophyllite Diaspore Dickite

Alunite alteration,Zijin HSdeposit,China
Advancedargillicalterationminerals,Palinpinon,Philippines

Alteration
mineralogy: Alterationzonation
Temperature–
pHcontrols Lowandintermediatesulfidation: Highsulfidation:
Highsulfidation epithermalores

sulfidation epithermalores

advanced potassic
argillic/silicic Crustiformbandedore Altered Disseminated Altered
“ Lz withlatticetextures host massive host Kaolinite(pyrophyllite?)
LowͲintermediate

argillic skarn
“ Lz inner/outer rock ore rock ± sericite/illite
phyllic
propylitic
Abbreviations: smectite
Ab– albite I– illite illite
Act– actinolite IͲSm– illiteͲ smectite
Ad– adularia smectite pyrite
Al– alunite K– kaolinite
And– andalusite Lau– laumontite
Bio– biotite Lz – luzonite
Cb – carbonate Mt– magnetite
“ En Ch – chlorite Mor – mordenite
“ En Chab – chabazite NatͲ natrolite
ChͲSm– chloriteͲ op– opal
smectite PyrͲ pyrophyllite
Chlorite
Illite
Chd – chalcedony Q– quartz calcite
Cor – corundum Ser Ͳ sericite chlorite
epidote
Cpx – clinopyroxene Sid– siderite calcite
Cr– cristobalite Sm– smectite
Ct– calcite Stb – stilbite
pyrite
“ Tm Dik – dickite Tm– tourmaline epidote
Do– dolomite Tr – tremolite
Dp – diaspore Tri– tridymite quartz,chalcedony, quartz residualquartz Quartz, illite/chlorite
“ Tm Ep – epidote Ves –vesuvianite adularia,pyrite, adularia (vuggy&massive),alunite, alunite
En– enargite Ser – sericite
Fsp – feldspar Wai – wairakite
basemetalsulfides, illite sulfides,sulfosalts,AuͲCuͲ
Ga– garnet Wo – wollastonite carbonates,AuͲAg pyrite (Ag)
Hal– halloysite Zeo – zeolite
Heu – heulandite
1Ͳ 10m
ModifiedfromCorbettandLeach(1998)– SEGspecialpublicationNo6 ModifiedfromSillitoe (1993)
 Silicicalteration– Vuggyquartz Silicicalteration– Massivequartz

Pierina,Peru Penelope,Argentina

DDH40Ͳ16m DDH82Ͳ336m
Quartztexturesinsilicicalteration Qtz III
– Veladero,Argentina
rutile Qtz I
Qtz II Qtz III Qtz II Qtz IV
Qtz V
Qtz II Qtz I
Qtz II Qtz VI
Qtz II
Qtz V
Qtz IV Qtz III

500ʅm 500ʅm
TypeI TypeII TypeIII(latereplacement)and CLimage CLimage
igneous earlyreplacement typeIV(brecciacement) DDH82Ͳ19m DDH71Ͳ405m

Qtz III
rutile
Qtz III

Qtz III

Qtz VI Qtz VI
TypeV Qtz IV
TypeVI
replacement veins Qtz II
Qtz III
DDH84Ͳ75m: massivequartzand
500ʅm 500ʅm
vuggyquartzclasts cementedbyquartz CLimage CLimage
Residual(vuggy)quartzin
ignimbriteprotolith,
Pierina,Peru
Residual(vuggy)quartzin
andesiteprotolith,
Pierina,Peru
– anextremelyusefulmineralinHSenvironments
JinͲdo,SouthKorea
Hypogene alunite in
ignimbriteprotolith,
Pierina,Peru
Residualquartz,Pierina Hypogenealunite,ElTambo
Arribasetal.,2000
Residual(vuggy)
quartz,Summitville
QuartzͲalunite,Summitville
Residual(massive)quartzinandesiteprotolith ,Temora,NSW SlideCourtesyofJeffHedenquist
Alunite Alunite– Significance
Alunitecrystals,Chinkuashih,Taiwan
Implies: Theseconditionscanoccurfrom
‡ Acidconditions ‡ Magmaticgases(HS)
‡ Highsulfate concentrations ‡ NearͲsurfacecondensationofboiledoff
Zijinshan,China Zijinshan,China ‡ Availablealkalis gases(HS,IS,LS)
‡ Supergeneoxidation(anysulfiderichrock)
 Lithocap (± HS)settingsonly LSsettingsonly PuebloViejo, Magerang,Indonesia
(steamͲheatedblanketpossible) H2S+2O2 o H2SO4 DominicanRepublic

SteamͲheatedwaters,
LS,IS,HSpossible

2.STEAMͲHEATED
pyriteveinwithvuggyquartzandquartzͲ
pyrophyllite alunitealterationhalos
(HCl,SO2)
1.MAGMATIC
Tambo,Chile Collahausi,Chile

alunite

barite
AnysulfideͲrichsetting
alunite

3.WEATHERING
Sillitoe,1993
Peripheralepidotevein
withchlorite– illitehalo

Summitville,CO: vuggyqtzwithalunitehalo
Pyrophyllite– Significance

Itsformationrequiresacidconditions
BUT…
‡ Ifatquartzsaturation,T~300oC
Steven&Ratté,1960
‡ Ifsupersaturatedw.r.t.quartz,Tlow
Inpractice
‡ Pyrophyllite+dickite/kaolinite
meanshightemperatures
‡ Pyrophyllite+chalcedonyor
amorphoussilicameans lowT
Vuggyqtzzone (SlideCourtesy
pH~ >6 4Ͳ 6 2Ͳ 4 <2
flaresupward JHedenquist)
 TemperatureoC
AlterationZoning Mineral 100 200 300 Mineralstabilities
pH Alunite
NansatsuͲtypehighsulfidationepithermaldeposits Jarosite
Halloysite
commonly2Ͳ3metres Kaolinite
Mineralassemblages

A c idi c
Dickite
Pyrophyllite allowustoestimate
Diaspore
Zunyite,topaz temperatureandacidity
Silicic Clay Propylitic Anatase
Rutile
alteration alteration alteration Cristobalite
Quartz 6LQWHU
vuggyto Pyrite OLWKRVWDWLF
Marcasite

N eutral
massive Smectite 

Illite/smectite
pH quartz 2 kaolinite 3 kaolinite 4 illite 5 chlorite Chlorite/smectite

'HSWKP

Illite
alunite alunite illite smectite albite Chlorite
Epidote  K\GURVWDWLF
pyrite carbonate Biotite ZDWHUZW&2

Adularia

A l k alin e
kaolinite Epidote Calcite


  

dickite sphene Mordenite 7HPSHUDWXUHR&
Laumontite
Wairakite
GOLD AfterWhite,1991

Epithermaloredeposition Hedenquistetal.,1998

PNIRS Australia ~US$25,000

China ~US$17,000 SWIRspectracanbeusedto
• Identifyalterationminerals illite
• determinetheircrystallinity
NaͲalunite
• Estimatechemicalvariations

1300– 2500nm ‡ SomeadvantagesoverXRD KͲalunite

PIMA ‡ Butsomedisadvantages
pyrophyllite
too
SpecTERRA 350Ͳ2500nm
TerraSpec
‡ Measurementsarefastand
diaspore
cheap
USA ~US$55,000
‡ Suitableforlargesurveys

USA ~US$55,000
Itisnoweasiertostudyalteration
mineralogyusingportableinfraͲ
350Ͳ2500nm
redspectrometers
 Geochemicalassociations Metalzoning– highsulfidation deposits
WhiteandHedenquist (1995)

LowSulfidation HighSulfidation
Au Ag As Sb Bi Cu Pb Zn Te Se Hg Mo W Sn
High Au,Ag, Au,Ag,
As,Sb, As,Sb,Bi,
Zn,Pb,Hg, Cu,Pb,Hg,
Se,K,Ag/Au Te,Sn,Mo,
Te/Se
Low Cu,Te/Se(unlessalkaline) K,Zn,Ag/Au
Levels 0.00XͲ 0.XͲ X00Ͳ X0Ͳ XͲ X0Ͳ XͲ XͲ XͲ XͲ 0.0XͲ X X XͲ
(ppm) X00 X00 X0,000 X0,000 X00 X0,000 X0,000 X00 X00 X00 X000 X000

Vuggy quartz,Tantahuatay,Peru
AsͲSbsulfideswithAu,Osorezan,Japan
basedonunpublisheddatabyN.C.White

Sphalerite asanindicatoroffluidchemistry Genesisofhighsulfidation

epithermaldeposits

‡ OxidationstatedetermineshowmuchFecansubstituteforZnin
sphalerite
‡ PaleͲcolouredsphaleriteindicatesoxidisedconditions
¾ HSorsomeISdeposits
‡ DarkͲcolouredsphaleriteindicatesreducedconditions
¾ LSorsomeISdeposits
DavidRCooke,StuartSimmonsandNoelCWhite

AbundantfreegoldinvuggyquartzͲpyritealtereddacite,LaZanja,Peru
 WhiteIsland,NewZealand: Highsulfidation deposits
drownedfumaroles,2007 Genesis
• Magmaticheatandvolatile
source
acidsulfatewaters craterlake
solfatara

acidchloride
pH0.2 waters/brines
200°C
300°C
400°C 300°C • HighͲTacidalterationin
upflow zone(deep
muscovitezonesupwardsto
pyrophyllite,dickite,alunite
andkaolinite

2 km
• Lateraloutflowalong
permeablehorizonsmay
acidicstream, 2km
Magma produceextensivedomains
pH~0.6 ofsilicicandadvanced
argillic alteration(‘lithocap’)

MagmaticͲhydrothermalfluidsintheshallowcrust Fluidinclusiondata
Highsulfidationdeposits
Ͳ20
*$63+$6(
ORZGHQVLW\ Lepanto

Temperatureoffinalicemelting(°C)
KLJK62+&O Nansatsu 20
Rodalquilar
ORZ1D&OPHWDOV Ͳ15

Wt %NaCl equivalent
LaMejicana
ElIndio

0$*0$7,& 3DUWLWLRQLQJFKDQJHV Ͳ10

15

)/8,' ZLWKFKDQJHVLQ37
10
Ͳ5
/,48,'3+$6( 5
KLJKHUGHQVLW\
ORZ62+&O
Atshallowdepths(<4km) 0 0
KLJK1D&OPHWDOV 0 100 200 300 400 500
aqueousmagmaticfluids Homogenisation temperature(°C)
splitintotwoseparatephases
White,1990 Bladedalunite,Palinpinon
geothermalfield,Philippines CookeandSimmons(2000)
 Oxygenanddeuteriumisotopedata Sulfurisotopedata
Highsulfidationdeposits Highsulfidationdeposits

0
'34SH SͲSO
Volcanicvapors G34S6S
2 4
Sulfides Sulfates Temp(°C) H2S/SO4
Ro
Ͳ20 Ro PV
Pueblo Viejo Iw
Rodalquiliar Felsicmagmas
Ͳ40 Nevados delFamatina Ka
Lepanto 220– 4202– 6
GD (‰,SMOW)

Nansatsu Nansatsu 200– 2403

Ͳ60
PuebloViejo 180– 260Ͳ
Lepanto
LepantoͲ alunite
Ͳ80 Julcani
Acidicfluidsinhigh LaMejicana Ͳ quartz 210– 2705
sulfidationdeposits
Ͳ100
LaMejicanaͲ sericite Rodalquilar 220– 3305
Alunitealterationstage

Ͳ120 Oremineralizationstage Ͳ10 0 10 20 30

Alteration/mineralisation G34S(‰,CDT)
Ͳ140
Ͳ20 Ͳ15 Ͳ10 Ͳ5 0 5 10 15 20
G18O(‰,SMOW)
ModifiedafterArribas(1995) Arribas(1995)

Strongly Weakly Weakly Strongly

Goldtransport Ͳ26
Acidic Acidic Alkaline Alkaline

alun
kaol

Ca+2
anhy
Aspectrumoffluid

H SO4Ͳ
Epithermalfluids o xidis e d

SO42Ͳ
anhy
calcite
Acid,Oxidised
compositionsoccur
Goldspeciation: inepithermal Ͳ28 kaol H S O4 Ͳ
environments reduced Hematite
• Reduced,dilute,SͲrichwaters H2S

‡ Au(HS)2Ͳ (aq) orAuHS (aq) ‡ HSdepositsare Ͳ30

relatedtoacidic Pyrite
• HighͲTbrines: NearͲ H2S SO42Ͳ
oxidised
fluids Ͳ32
‡ AuCl2Ͳ (aq)

Logf(O2)
neutral HSͲ
‡ IS/LSdepositsare reduced
• Gases: associatedwith Ͳ34
‡ AuS(g) (?) nearͲneutralpH Magnetite
Goldtransport fluids Ͳ36
‡ Metaltenorrelates
• Goldtransportedashydrosulfide complexes Pyrrhotite
torelativeacidity
Ͳ38
inLSͲ ISdeposits andoxidation T=300ºC

H 2S
kaol

HSͲ
Sal=0.5eq.wt.%

ms

ms
potential:(m(SO42)

Kf
• HowisgoldtransportedinHSdeposits? Ͳ40
SS=0.004molal
/m(H2S)) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
OldFaithfulGeyser,Yellowstone,USA pH
 Goldsolubilities:pHandredox HSdeposits– genesis

Highsulfidationdeposits Lowsulfidationdeposits Highsulfidationdeposits Lowsulfidationdeposits

Ͳ26 Ͳ26

anhy
n
l
oxidised 300ƒC ALTERATION OREDEPOSITION

calcite
0.5wt%NaCl
HSO4Ͳ Ͳ6 HSO4Ͳ Ͳ6
A Fumaroles B1 B2
oxidised 0.004mSS
Ͳ28 Ͳ28
Hematite H2S AuCl2Ͳ (aq)
Ͳ5 Ͳ5
0
Ͳ30 reduced Ͳ30 10ppb Coolmeteoric
SO42Ͳ (km) water Ores
Alteration Mixingwith
H2 S Ͳ4 SO4 2Ͳ Ͳ4 shallowmeteoric
Acidsulfatewater envelope
Ͳ32 oxidised Ͳ32 AuHS (aq) H2S water

RH
H2S
logfO2

withlowAusolubility
Pyrite AbsorptionofhighͲP Meteoricwater
HSͲ Ͳ3
HSͲ Ͳ3
vaporproduces transportsgold
reduced,acid asAuHS(aq)??
HeatedgroundͲ
Ͳ34 Ͳ34 lowsalinitywater Heated
Magnetite 1ppb 1 water withhighAu
groundͲwater
solubilitiesas
Ͳ2 Ͳ2 AuHS(aq) convectivecell
reduced Magmaticvapors Alteration Heated
Ͳ36 Pyrrhotite reduced Ͳ36 (incl.SO,HCl)
2
Vuggyquartz
groundͲwater
Ͳ

AuCl2Ͳ (aq)
Ͳ1
Au(HS)2 (aq) Ͳ1 Alunite Acidbrine
transportsgold
Gasphase
Ͳ38 Ͳ38 Kaolinite metaltransport asAuCl2Ͳ ??
300ƒC 0.1ppbAu Magmatic Sericite
kaol

Magmatic
2 brine
ms

ms

0.5wt%NaCl
HSͲ
Kf

brine
0.004mSS 0 H2S HSͲ 0 KͲsilicate
Ͳ40 Ͳ40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

pH pH

ModifiedafterArribas,1995;Heinrichetal.,2004;White,1991

Golddeposition Theporphyry– epithermalinterface

Lowandintermediatesulfidationdeposits
• Boilingistheprincipalmechanism
• Mixingmayoccurduringcollapseofthe
hydrothermalsystem

Highsulfidationdeposits
• Unequivocalevidenceforfluidmixingatsome
deposits
• Boilingisaviablemechanismfordepositswhere
goldistransportedasabisulfidecomplex

DavidRCooke,NoelCWhite,GlenMasterman
andMarcRinne
Electrum,telluridesandbasemetalsulfides,
Acupan,Philippines •Cathedral Peak, Cerro Casale
 TheporphyryCuͲAumodel Porphyry– epithermalsuperposition

ReproducedfromSillitoe,2010
Sillitoe(2010)
Vuggyquartzwithdickite infill,Lepanto,Philippines

Upliftandexhumation Epithermalsuperposition
Progressiveuplift&erosion
Changefromlithostatictohydrostaticload

HSbreccia/
stockwork

Adv.Arg.
Chlorite Chloritic Alteration
Alteration LSvein

Propylitic Propylitic
Alteration Alteration
HSmassive
sulfidelode
Sericitic
KͲsilicatealt.& KͲsilicatealt.&
Alteration
CuͲAuͲMo CuͲAuͲMo
1km stockwork 1km stockwork

Porphyry Porphyry
Stock Stock

Modifiedfrom Modifiedfrom
QzͲbnͲcpveinscutbyepi 1km EpithermalveincuttingPCDveins: 1km
Sillitoe(1995) Sillitoe(1995)
vein,Ridgeway http://geode.ethz.ch/abcd_apuseni.html
 Topaz– Butte,Montana
GusanoTexture
gusano=worm

‡ Gusanotextureisincreasingly
reportedfromHSdepositsin
SouthAmericaandAsia
‡ Gusanoconsistsofpyrophyllite,
diasporeandaluniteinasiliceous
matrixformingapatchyorwormy
texture
‡ Itcanoccuratthebaseofthe
vuggyquartzalterationzoneas
transitiontounderlyingaltered
rocks
‡ Itisalsoreportedtooccuratany ReproducedfromReedetal.(2013)
levelinsomedeposits
‡ Itsoriginisobscure
Bantug,Philippines Coka Kuruga,Serbia

AcidͲleachedzonewithlimonitestainingand DisseminatedAu– Ag

Proximalrelationship nativesulfuratcontactbetweensupergene& mineralisationin
Proximitytoporphyry:Butte,Montana– Planview ofHSandporphyry QH
hypogeneore lacustrinesediments
X QA
V X
deposits V
Andesiteflows
V V X Dacite
dome X V
QA V QH
QA QA
QA
IA X V QA V
V V QK V X
QA Au– Aginvuggy
quartz QK IA
QA QA
QA
500m IA
Au– enargitein QA
LS Au – hydrothermalbreccia QK QA QK
Ag veins
Au– enargitein
QA IA massivepyrite
QA QD

LSZn– Pb– Ag– QD QA

Auveins IA QD

Vuggy QP
0 quartz
QD IA
500m Topofbasement QD QS

IA QP +
ALTERATION QD
QS
IA:Intermediateargillic +
+
QS Pyrite– enargite/bornite
K:KͲsilicate
Zn– Pb– Agmanto + + replacementbody
+ IA
QA:quartz– alunite QS
QD:quartz– dickite + + K
K
QH:quartz– halloysite Limestone + DisseminatedCuͲsulfides
++ K
QK:quartz– kaolinite + ChalcopyriteinKͲsilicatealteration
QP:quartz– pyrophyllite + + ± intermediateargillicoverprint
+
QS:quartz– sericite porphyry
stock
ReproducedfromReedetal.(2013)
ModifiedfromSillitoe(1999)
 Hybridporphyry– HSepithermaldeposits
Telescopingmechanisms Example:Rosario,Chile
ProgressiveupliftanderosionduringmagmaticͲhydrothermalactivitypromotes
transitionfromlithostatic tohydrostaticloadandepithermaloverprinting
RosarioHS
vein 1%Cu
LSEpithermal
Rosario overprint
Porphyry SeawardͲdirected
sectorcollapse
>1.5%Cu

Biotite
alteration 1%Cu

1km
1km

1km 1km
(Masterman etal.,2004)
Gradualtransition Instantaneoustransition ‡ Earlychalcopyrite– bornite mineralisation associatedwithorthoclaseand
e.g.,gravitationalcollapseofanuplifted e.g.,sectorcollapseofanalteredvolcanic biotitealterationinandaroundtheRosarioporphyry(Collahuasi,Chile)
mountainrange edifice ‡ Lateenargite– chalcocite– tennantite mineralisation andquartzͲalunite
Collahuasi,Chile(Mastermanetal,2005) Lihir,PNG(Sillitoe,1994) alterationsuperimposedonpotassicalterationbytheRosariofault
SynͲmineralizationRosarioPorphyry,Collahuasi,Chile

Lithocaps Lithocaps
‡ AseriesofAMIRAprojectsatCODEShasbeen
studyinglithocapsforthepasttwelveyears
‡ Onlyintroductoryinformationisprovidedhere– see
Changetal.(2011)
‡ Thevolumeandintensityofalterationinmajor
lithocapscanonly bederivedfrommajormagmatic
systemswithpotentialtoformmajororedeposits

•Cathedral Peak, Cerro Casale Vuggyquartzwithdickiteinfill,Lepanto,Philippines

 Whatarelithocaps?
• Lithocaps arelargemasses
ofpyriticadvancedargillic
andsilicic(leached)
alterationthatarelocated
betweenanintrusionand
thepaleosurface
• Theintrusionsmayhost
porphyryCu,Au,MoorSn
deposits
FromSillitoe,1995
• Lithocapsmayexceed20km2 inoriginalarealextentand1kmin
thickness,andaretopographicallyprominent
• Theirdimensionshavecommonlybeenreducedbyerosion
• Acontributiontothelargearealextentoflithocaps ismadebylateral
flowoftheacidicsolutions
Lithocap,Asia
Extendsfor>20km
Chlorite– illite
Quartz– alunite
Vuggyquartz– alunite
Texturedependsonoriginalrock!
Howweusetheterm,anditsimplications
Lithocaps:alteredhorizonsofhypogeneleachedrockassociated
withadvancedargillicandsilicicalteration(± vuggytexture)
• Lithocaprecognition:
• Firstmapthedistributionofalterationminerals
• Ifhypogene silicic(residualquartz),advancedargillicandargilliczonesforma
laterallyextensivehorizon,thenitcanbetermedalithocap
• Alllithocapshavestructuralroots;however,notallacidͲalteredstructures
haveanassociatedlithocapifstructuresdidnotintersectlateralpermeability
• Lithocapsmayhostmineralisation
• Alithocapdoesnotprovethatmineralizationispresent
• Itcanhosthighsulfidationmineralisation(enargitewithgold)iforefluid
introducedsubsequenttoleachingandadvancedargillicalteration
Tantahuatay,Peru
Advancedargillicsizematters(muchofthetime,cf.ElIndio)
ElIndio8Moz
(Arribasetal.,Goldin2000– SlideCourtesyJHedenquist)
 Aproblem… Exploringforhighsulfidation deposits
‡ Whenweseeveryextensivelithocaps,aretheyonebigsystem,
orseveraloverlappingsmallerones?
‡ Bothsituationsprobablyoccur
‡ Oneswehavestudiedappear tohaveemanatedfromone
centre Shuteen,Mongolia
‡ Somecanbeshown
tobeunrelated to
themostobvious
nearbyintrusion
‡ Donotjumpto
conclusions
‡ Datingiscritical DavidRCooke,NoelCWhiteandZhaoshanChang

PhotocourtesyofDanilo Marcos,GoldFields Maricunga belt,Chile

Whattolookfor Explorationtools

‡ Hydrothermalalterationzoneson ‡ Geology
geologicalmaps,satelliteimages ‡ Alterationmineralogyandzoning(SWIR)
‡ Zonesofsubduedmagneticresponse ‡ Veindistribution,mineralogyandtextures
duetoalteration ‡ Satelliteimagesandgeophysicaldata
‡ Vein/siliceousmaterial(floatin
‡ Geochemistry
creeks)
‡ Geochemicalanomaliesandzoning
‡ Mineraloccurrences
‡ Geophysics
‡ Geochemicalanomalies(Au,Ag,As,Sb,
Hg,Pb,Zn,Cu,Te,Se,Sn) ‡ Magneticlowsduetomagnetitedestruction
‡ Resistivityhighsduetoquartzveinsand
‡ Bewareofsteamheatedzones!
alteration
‡ Chargeabilityhighsduetopyrite
MassivequartzclastsinpyriteͲ
cementedbreccia,Yanacocha Enargite,ElIndio,Chile
 Geochemicalpatternsareconsistent Hydrothermalalteration
ƒ RemovesCa,Sr,Mg,Na,K
• Therelativedistribution isconsistent,not
absolutelevels ƒ AddsSi,Al,K,Rb,Ba
NOTE:Theseelementscanappeartohave
• Fromsurfacedowntherewillbesuccessive increasedbecauseothermajorelements
peaksin wereremoved
ƒ Totalisstill100%soremovalofoneisbalancedby
‡ 0HUFXU\ Elementlevelscanbeplotted apparentincreaseinothers
‡ $QWLPRQ\ directly,orratiosofelements
NOTE:Muscoviteorillite alterationdoesnot
‡ $UVHQLF againstotherelements(e.g.,Pb +
moveAl– theKisaddedorremovedto
Zn)canbeplottedtoemphasise
‡ *ROG converttheAltomuscoviteorillite
variationsandreducevariability
‡ 6LOYHU duetototalmetalcontent ƒ KͲrichrocksmayundergoKremoval
‡ %DVHPHWDOV ƒ forKͲpoorrocks,itinvolvesaddition

QuartzͲalunitealteredporphyritic
quartzlatite,Summitville,Colorado

YanacochahighsulfidationAu(Cu)deposit,Peru
Magneticsurveys
ƒ Magneticsurveysareveryvaluablefor
clarifying3Dgeology
ƒ Theymustbeusedcarefully withagood
appreciationofverticalvariationsinmagnetic
properties
ƒ Porphyryalterationcanaddmagnetiteor be
magnetitedestructive
ƒ Epithermalalterationisalways magnetite
destructive

Hoschke 2011
RTPmagneticsEpithermaldepositsnotapparent
Patchytexture,Caspiche,Chile againstbackgroundintrusionsignatures
 IPsurveys BUT...
ƒ Whatappliesinthedeeperporphyry
‡ IPisanimportanttoolinexploringfor environmentisDIFFERENT intheshallow
porphyrydeposits epithermalenvironment
‡ Many(notall)depositshavecentral ƒ ALLepithermalalterationismagnetite
disseminatedore,surroundedbyahaloof destructive
barrenpyrite– chargeabilityanomaly– ‡ lookinMAGNETICLOWS
MOSTUSEFUL
ƒ Siliceousrocks(veins,vuggyquartz)are
‡ Somedepositshaveacentralzonewith typical
intensequartzveining– resistivityanomaly
‡ lookforRESISTIVITYHIGHS
ƒ Sulfidecontentanddistributionvariable
‡ CHARGEABILITYLESSUSEFUL

BladedcovelliteͲpyriteveinin
BrecciatedcovelliteͲpyriteveinin
aluniteͲalteredgranite,Zijin,China
aluniteͲalteredgranite,Zijin,China

YanacochahighsulfidationAu(Cu)deposit,Peru Yanacocha
Alteration

‡ Goldhostedbyresistive
silicicͲalteredbodies

Resistivity
Goldie(2000)

Hoschke 2011 SlidecourtesyofTerryHoschke

 TDEM1DRapidImage
YANACOCHA Purnama highsulfidationAudeposit,Martabe,Indonesia
CORͲ14 SLTͲ1 CORͲ9 CORͲ16
Corimao Deposit
CORͲ17

logResistivity(ohmͲm)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

CORͲ14 SLTͲ1 CORͲ9 CORͲ16

alluvialcover
CORͲ17

Alteration
Massivequartz quartz– clay/clay 140m/2.48g/t

Granularquartz Freshrock
188m/1.58g/t
200m
quartzͲ alunite
81m/5.82g/t

FromGoldie(2000) Hoschke 2011

Purnama highsulfidationAudeposit,Martabe,Indonesia MartabehighsulfidationAudeposit,Indonesia

Purnama

Hoschke 2011 Hoschke 2011

IPResistivityMap,CollahuasiDistrict,Chile
Radiometrics

ƒ UsuallydoneaslowͲcostadditionto
magneticsurveys
ƒ Valuevaries– becarefulhowyouinterpret
radiometricdata
ƒ Responsetoalterationdependsonhost
rockcomposition– bothpositiveand
negativeKanomaliesmaybesignificant
‡ Sericitised basalt– Kadded
‡ Sericitised rhyolite– Kremoved

FluoriteͲbearingbreccia,Baijiantan,HebeiProvince,China

YanacochahighsulfidationAu(Cu)deposit,Peru
Explorationpotentialoflithocaps

• Theirpresenceindicatespotential forhighͲ
sulfidationand/orporphyrydeposits
• AMIRAprojectsP765,P765A,P1060and
P1153developedtoolsforexploringlithocaps
• Geochemistry
• Mineralogy/mineralchemistry
} MOSTLY
FOCUSEDON
THESE

• Texturalcharacteristics
• Mappingiscritical

Hoschke 2011
Radiometrics:K/ThratioHSepithermaldepositsinlows(i.e.,Kdepletion)
Vuggyquartzwithdickiteinfill,Lepanto,Philippines
 Mankayanlithocap,Luzon,Philippines Mankayandistrict,Philippines
Changetal.(2011)
200km

MankayanDistrict
7.69MtCu,37MozAu
BaguioDistrict
2.7MtCu,35MozAu

FigurecourtesyofPaddyWaters,AngloAmerican,Philippines

LateOligoceneto
midͲMiocene
Apaoan Slightlyyounger
Pliocenevolcanism
volcaniclastics Balili 3.3Ͳ 1.8Ma,multipleeruptions
volcaniclastics

Mankayan Imbanguila dacite porphyry

(3.3– 1.8Ma)

basement
Imbanguila pyroclastics
geology (3.3– 1.8Ma)

CretaceousͲ
Paleogene
Lepanto
metavolcanics
12Ͳ13MaBagon
intrusive
complex

Qtz diorite
1km porphyry 1km
 Youngvolcanism
<1.2Ma

Bato
pyroclastics
(1.2Ma)

Bato dacite
porphyry
(1.2Ma)

1km 1 km
Lapangan tuff NWendoflithocap:qtzͲalunitecliffsat
(0.19Ma) unconformity,withkaolinitehalo

Mineralisation
LepantoHS:>0.9Mt
X Cu&102tAu

X:>1g/tAuinsilicicstructure Buaki porphyry:30Mt FarSoutheast:650Mt@0.65%

X Cu,1.33g/tAu
@0.4%Cu,0.5g/tAu

Cu,Mo,As,etc.:
<50ppbAu • Lowabundances
X • Noobvioustrends Victoriaveins,11Mt
@7.3g/tAu+AgͲCuͲ
orzonation PbͲZn
Guinaoang,500Mt@
patterns 0.4%Cu,0.4g/tAu
Teresaveins,0.8Mt
X @5.74g/tAu

Nayaksurfaceveins,
artisanal+0.3Mt@
1km 1km 3g/tAu
Mohong Hill
porphyry+HS:100
Mtresource
 Porphyry,lithocapandHSmineralization

alunite~1.4Ma
~900mdepthto alunite~1.4Ma
magnetiteͲbearing
potassicalteration
atFarSoutheast:
thus,magneticlow
overporphyry

Dickite“ kaolinite

biotite~1.4Ma

Geneticrelationship betweenporphyryandlithocap
establishedbyArribasetal.(1995),Mancano and
QuartzͲalunite
Campbell(1995),Hedenquistetal.(1998)– dating;
fluidinclusionstudy;isotopegeochemistry
Dickite“ kaolinite

TargetingconcealedporphyryandHSoredeposits:
LepantoͲ FarSoutheast,Philippines
~1MtCu,4Moz Auand5MtCu,20Moz Au Whatinformationcanwegetfrom
anapparentlybarrenlithocap?
• Upwardflareofleachingduetocooling
• Hydraulicgradientcausesoffsetoflithocap fromcausativeintrusion
• Asymmetricalterationzonationlikelytherule ratherthanexception

200C

300C

LongsectionalongLepantofault

Hedenquistetal.,1998;HedenquistandTaran,2010
 Aluniteabsorptionpeakat~1480nmshifts Alunite~1480nmpeakposition
tohigherpositionclosertointrusivecentre Ͳ RelatedtoNacontent

HigherNa/(Na+K)ratio
indicateshigherformation
temperature(Stoffregen
andCygan,1990)

Wavelengthpositionofthealuniteabsorptionfeatureata1480nm
Changetal.,2011

Alunitecompositions
(microprobedata) Ca Traceelementsinalunite

Huangite,
5.1wt%Ca Alunitesupergroup:
>40mineralspecies

Jambor,1999
K,Na,Ag,Tl,NH4,H3O,Ca,Ba,
Pb,Sr,Zn,Cu,Th,Bi,REE
S6+,As5+,P5+

DG3(TO4)2(OH,H2O)6
Note:mostaluniteformedpriortothe
As3+,Fe3+,V,
mineralisationstageindepositswithore
Ga,Cu
 Alunitecompositions Alunitecompositions La,La/Pb,Sr/Pb increases,
(LAͲICPMSdata) Sr (LAͲICPMSdata) Pb Ag/Audecreases

PIXEimage Pb Onlyplottingsampleswith nomineralfilterapplied

Alunitechemistry Cu<0.1%,Au<0.1ppm Pb (wholerockdata)

Ionicradii: Changetal.,2011

Pb2+ (1.32) K+ (1.33) Na+ (0.98)

Sr2+ (1.27) Ca2+ (1.06)

Controlledbytemperature
~4000ppm

Pb

Sr

Withoutapplyingamineralfilter,wholerockPb
~7000ppm Changetal.,2011 ~950ppm datadonotdefineanyobvioustrends
Onlyplottingsampleswith alunitemineralfilterapplied Onlyplottingsampleswith alunitemineralfilterapplied
Cu<0.1%,Au<0.1ppm Pb (wholerockdata) Cu<0.1%,Au<0.1ppm Sr/Pb (wholerockdata)

Changetal.,2011 Changetal.,2011

FilteringthedatasothatonlyaluniteͲbearingsamplesmakesthetrendapparent La/Pb increases;Hg,Ag,Ag/Au,Te,As/Zndecrease

Wholerockgeochemistry 4kmlonglithocap
Decrease:
– whyfilterthedata? ‡ Alunite:Pb,Ag/Au
‡ WholeͲrock(aluniteͲbearingonly):Pb,Ag,Ag/Au,Hg
Mineralizationoccurs
atalaterstage… Increase:
‡ SWIR:alunite1480nmpeakposition
Mineralization ‡ Alunite:La,La/Pb,Sr,Sr/Pb
‡ WholeͲrock(aluniteͲbearingonly):
La/Pb,Sr/Pb

Lithocapandoredeposits
– Schematiccrosssection
 Whentestingprospects…
ƒ Useallavailabledatasets
ƒ Useobservationsandinterpretationsto
determinepositioninthesystem
ƒ Drilltointersectat>250° paleotemperature
ƒ Drillmore;drilldeeper

Thechallengeisgreat;
soisthereward!
FluoriteͲbearingbreccia,Baijiantan,HebeiProvince,China