146

CHAPTER IV

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

4.1 Chapter Overview

Deviant behavior can be defined is action or behaviour that violates widely-

accepted cultural norms including formally-enacted rules as well as informal violations of

social norms. For example, theft is a common instance of deviant behavior which violates

the social norms and could be said to have been driven by sociological pressures such as

poverty. Homicide is a form of extreme deviant behavior which violates the cultural norm

which states that it is unacceptable to kill another human being. Several psychological,

biological and sociological issues can play a role in deviant behaviour of children.

This chapter focused the phenomenon of deviant behaviour of children and how

this is influenced by family combinations both in Indian and global context. There is

analysis of deviant behaviour, intact family, broken homes with child left with father or

mother only, step parent influence to juvenile deviant behaviour and situation where a

child has lived in a children’s home and finally with a grandparent. During the last

several decades, a good number of research studies were published on various aspects of

family-child relationship. An attempt is made here to present a detailed review of

research works that have direct and indirect relation to the research problem. These

studies are collected from various professionally referred journals, from commercial

database of journal publications such as EBSCO, ProQuest, JSTOR and repository of

 147

theses and dissertations available web portals like Shodhganga. Further, these research

studies are delineated according to the variables studied for readers’ ease.

4.2 Family Unit Structure

A family may influence a person’s behaviour either negatively or positively both

at childhood and adulthood. An intact family can be said to be a functioning union

between a mother and a father, so when a break up exist, the turmoil may affect a child to

a greater extent. A functioning family is beneficial to a child than a dysfunctional one.

Family separation was a great contributor of child neglect which generally leads to child

deviant behaviour. For example, leaving homes and addicted to vices and the like from

parental and family neglect, lack of supervision and guidance.

Many family characteristics and family environments influence juvenile deviant

behaviour such as the number of people in a family, inconsistent parenting, family

problems, child neglect and children’s attachment to parents.180

If violence encompasses all emotional environmental aspects of a juvenile’s life,

he is more likely to engage in delinquent activities.181 In a study by H. Juby and D.

Farrington,182 delinquency rates were found to be higher among the children who live in

permanently disrupted families compared to those living in intact families. The same

180
Ibid. 10, p 7.
181
Hagan J. and Foster H. (2001), ‘Youth Violence and the End of Adolescence’, American Sociological
Review, Vol. 66, pp 874-899
182
Juby, H. and Farrington D. (2001), ‘Disentangling the Link between Disrupted Families and
Delinquency’, British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 41, pp 22-40.
 148

pattern was found in case of intact but high-conflict families. Cohesiveness of the family

successfully predicts the frequency of delinquent acts for non-traditional families.183

The lack of supervision and the absence of close relationships between the

teenager and his or her parents are factors that influence delinquency.184 A. Mullens185

found that children from biologically intact homes have a lower incidence of illegal

behaviour that is paralleled by their lower rate of susceptibility to peer pressure to

commit deviant acts. The study suggests that there is a link between juvenile deviance

and family structure. The study also suggests that juveniles who are charged with more

serious acts of delinquency are from incomplete homes than juveniles charged with lesser

acts of misconduct.

A broken home is a factor in personality mal-adjustment. For males, the largest

proportion of crimes brought to the attention of the court was the petty theft offenses.

The female delinquents were referred for running away from home and involved in some

type of sexual deviancy. Certain types of delinquency are related to broken homes (e.g.

runaway, truancy and fighting). Juveniles from broken homes according to A. Mullens186

are 2.7 times more likely to run away from their family than children living in intact

homes. The core belief is that a broken home has an imbalance and as a result is

detrimental to a child’s socialization and personality adjustment. As a result, a child may

be more susceptible to negative peer pressure and may ultimately commit acts of

183
Matherne, M. and Thomas, A. (2001), ‘Family environment as a predictor of adolescent delinquency’,
Adolescence, Vol. 36, pp 655-65
184
Demuth, S., and Brown, S. (2004), ‘Family structure, family processes, and adolescent delinquency: The
significance of parental absence versus parental gender’, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,
Vol. 41, No. 1, pp 58-81.
185
Ibid. 13, p 8.
186
Ibid.
 149

delinquency not committed by children from intact homes where there is a balanced

structure of man and women who act as good role models in child acquiring proper roles.

While examining the relationship between family structure and juvenile

delinquency, it was found that proportionately more juvenile offenders come from family

arrangements other than the two-parent family home.187

M. Mugo and K. Kamau188 say that various reasons such as poor marriages, lack

of parental controls, ineffective parental behaviour and failure to provide a natural and

loving environment attribute to the rise in delinquency. A family has a greater effect on

individual’s trait acquisition and development.

I. Ngale189 explored the relationship between family structure and juvenile

delinquency. The analysis revealed the following significant relationships: the moral

education of juvenile delinquents is undertaken more by others than their biological

parents; most delinquent children come from the lowest socio-economic stratum of

society; about two-thirds of the juvenile delinquents come from homes where 7 persons

and above live under the same roof; most parents of our respondents have low paid jobs

which keep them for long periods away from their children. A growing number of parents

need additional socioeconomic support, development of vital skills of responsible

parenting, in order to adequately manage periods of rapid social change and simultaneous

multi dimensional challenges.

187
Murray, C., Williams, J. and Salekin T. (1996), ‘Juvenile Delinquency and Family Structure: Links to
Severity and Frequency of Offending’, The University of Alabama McNair Journal, Available at
graduate.ua.edu/mcnair/journals/2006/CrystalMurry.pdf
188
Ibid. 14, p 8.
189
Ngale, I. (2009), ‘Family Structure and Juvenile Delinquency’, Internet Journal of Criminology,
Available at www.internetjournalofcriminology.com
 150

A.K. Kimani190 investigated the causative relationship between family unit

structure and juvenile delinquency. The research revealed that there was a strong

correlation between murder and a child having come from an intact family. For a single

parent family parenthood, there was a strong correlation between street life, sex and

defilement offences. Children brought up in a step parent home had a strong inclination

towards substance abuse but the correlation was even greater for stealing and refusing

school. For children having come from a children’s home, they had a strong correlation

towards substance abuse and street life but showed a negative strong correlation with

refusing school. For children brought up in a grandparent family structure, the correlation

was strong for substance abuse and the highest for stealing. Murder was the least

committed offence while refusing school and street life were the most dominant. This

research concludes that single parenthood families were the most significant for all

offences in the study except murder.

In another study by K. Sanni and others,191 the results indicated that three family

variables namely: family stability, family cohesiveness and family adaptability impact

strongly on juvenile delinquency among secondary school students in Nigeria. J. Fry192

examined the effects over time of changes in the family structure and juvenile

delinquency. Although mixed, the research has shown that increase in divorce, female-

headed households and working mothers can increase the likelihood of juvenile

190
Kimani, A.K. (2010), ‘Influence of Family Structure on Juvenile Delinquency’, Available at
http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/family-structure-juvenile
191
Sanni K., Udoh, N., Okediji, A., Modo F., and Ezeh, L. (2010), ‘Family Types and Juvenile
Delinquency Issues among Secondary School Students in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria: Counseling
Implications’, Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 23, No.1.
192
Fry, J. (2010), ‘Change in Family Structure and Rates of Violent Juvenile Delinquency’, Available at
www.scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd.../Fry_JF_T_2010.pdf
 151

delinquency. Specifically, this study looked at the annual variation in juvenile violent

crime rates and its relationship with changes in the family structure.

E. Obioha and M. Nthabi193 investigated the social background patterns of juvenile

delinquents to ascertain their contributions to juvenile delinquencies in Lesotho. The

results in the main corroborated what exists in literature that most delinquents come from

broken homes; most delinquents are males; delinquency is at a higher rate in urban areas

compared to the rural areas and that most delinquents are part of peer groups who engage

in delinquent behaviours. The most committed offence across the country was robbery.

5.3 Influence of Parenting Practices

K.N. Wright and K.E. Wright194 suggest positive parenting practices during the

early years and later in adolescence appear to act as buffers preventing delinquent

behaviour and assisting adolescents involved in such behaviour to desist from

delinquency. Research indicates that various exposures to violence are important sources

of early adolescent role exits, which means that not only can a juvenile witness violence

within the family but on the outside as well.

D. Gorman-Smith and P. Tolan195 found that parental conflict and parental

aggressiveness predicted violent offending; whereas, lack of maternal affection and

paternal criminality predicted involvement in property crimes. Familial characteristics

193
Ibid. 16, p 9
194
Wright K.N. and Wright K.E. (1994), ‘Family Life, Delinquency, and Crime: A Policymakers Guide’,
Research Summary, OJJDP, Washington DC.
195
Gorman-Smith, D., and Tolan, P. (1998), ‘The role of exposure to community violence and
developmental problems among inner-city youth’, Development and Psychopathology, Vol. 10, pp 101–
116.
 152

suggesting familial antisocial behaviour or values such as family history of criminal

behaviour, harsh parental discipline, and family conflict have been among the most

consistently linked.

D.G. Myers196 identified one reason why people believe so strongly in the nurture

assumption is that they can see parents influencing their children. They observe the child

of permissive parents being obnoxious and the child of abusive parents looking cowed

and fearful, in the presence of their parents. The fundamental attribution error causes

observers to assume that these children will be obnoxious or fearful in other social

contexts too. In another study conducted by D. Gorman-Smith and her colleagues197, data

show that children are more likely to resort to violence if there is violence within

relationships that they may share with their family.

Another study links parental care with high levels of psychological distress, which

leads to delinquency. J. Chambers and others198 found that high parental control, such as

in an authoritarian parenting style, leads to a faster first arrest. They also discovered that

low parenting care, such as in a permissive parenting style, is related to high levels of

distress in adolescents. These finding would also indicate harmful results from being

reared in a permissive or authoritarian home.

196
Myers, D.G. (1999), ‘Social Psychology’ (6th Ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York.
197
Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P., Sheidow, A., and Henry, D. (2001), ‘Partner Violence and Street Violence
among Urban Adolescents: Do the Same Family Factors Relate?’, Journal of Research on Adolescence,
Vol. 11, pp 273-295
198
Chambers, J., Power, K, Loucks, N. and Swanson, V. (2001), ‘The Interaction of Perceived Maternal
and Paternal Parenting Styles and Their Relation With the Psychological Distress and Offending
Characteristics of Incarcerated Young Offenders’, Journal of Adolescence, Vol. 24, pp 209-227.
 153

A study by M. Wittenborn199 evaluated the relation between parenting styles and

juvenile delinquency. The results revealed that there were no significant relations

between permissive and authoritarian parenting styles and rate of delinquency but there

was a significant inverse relation between authoritative parenting style and delinquency.

G. Okorodudu200 investigated the influence of parenting styles on adolescents’

delinquency. Parents who are positively oriented in their styles will make their

adolescents socially competent and goal directed. Parents who exerted control and

monitored adolescent activities and promoted self-autonomy were found to have the most

positive effects on adolescents’ behaviour. Uninvolving parents and also non responsive

to adolescents needs had negative impacts on their behaviour.

4.4 Influence of Single Parent

The major area within juvenile delinquency and families is single parent

households versus two parent households. K. Klein and R. Forehand201 suggest that the

prediction of juvenile delinquency in early childhood depends on the type of maternal

parenting skills that are imposed upon the child during early adolescence.

J. Millar and T. Ridge202 found single parent families are at a higher risk of

poverty than couple families and on average single mothers have poorer health than

199
Wittenborn, M. (2002), ‘The Relations between Parenting Styles and Juvenile Delinquency’, Honors
Theses, Available at http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/uhp_theses/266
200
Okorodudu, G. (2010), ‘Influence of Parenting Styles on Adolescent Delinquency in Delta Central
Senatorial District’, Available at http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ejc/article/viewfile/52682/41286
201
Klein, K. and Forehand, R. (1997), ‘Delinquency during the transition to early adulthood: Family and
parenting predictors from early’, Adolescence, Vol. 32, pp 61-81
202
Millar, J. and Ridge, T. (2001), ‘Families, Poverty, Work and Care: A review of literature on lone
parents and low income couple families’, Available at http://research.dwp.gov.uk/asd/asd5/rrep153.pdf
 154

couple mothers. M. Rickard203 and R. Mackay204 opined many factors influence how

children develop in single-parent families: the parent's age, education level and

occupation; the family's income and the family's support network of friends and extended

family members. Disadvantages in these factors that often accompany single parenting

appear to cause most of this association rather than single parenting itself.

B. Muehlenberg205 poses the question of how do children from single parent

family homes fare educationally compared to children from intact two parent families. A

number of studies have been undertaken which show a very real connection between

delinquent and /or criminal behaviour and single parent families. K.N. Wright and

K.E. Wright’s206 research shows that single parent families and in particular mother-only

families, produce more delinquent children than two parent families.

A Swedish study by the journal, The Lancet207 stated that those living with a

single parent were about three times more likely to kill themselves or end up in the

hospital after an attempted suicide by the age of 26 than children living with two parents,

however this only happened to 2.2 percent of girls and 1 percent of boys.

203
Rickard, M. (2002), ‘Children of Lesbian and Single Women Parents’, Research Note no. 41 2001-02,
Social Policy Group, Parliament of Australia, Available at
http://www.aph.gov.au/LIBRARY/Pubs/RN/2001-02/02rn41.htm
204
Mackay, R. (2005), ‘The impact of family structure and family change on child outcomes: a personal
reading of the research literature’, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, Available at
http://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-
policy-journal/spj24/24-impact-of-family-structure-and-family-change-on-child-outcome-p111-133.html
205
Muehlenberg, B. (2002), ‘The case for two-parent family Part II’, National Observer, Vol. 53, pp 49-58.
206
Ibid. 194, p 151
207
The Lancet (2003), ‘Single-Parent Kids More at Risk’, January 25, 2003.
 155

A variety of viewpoints do exist, with different readings of the research possible.

The Institute for the Study of Civil Society208 reports that children of single parents, after

controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems.

There are impacts of sole parenting on children, however the weight of the evidence it is

suggested, do not appear to support a view that sole parents are a major cause of societal

ills and are doing irreparable damage to their children.

4.5 Effects of Maternal Employment

The strongest research examining the psychosocial outcomes of children of

mothers with borderline personality disorder is a small pilot study conducted by

M. Weiss and others.209 They confirmed that children of mothers with BPD, compared to

children with mothers without BPD, had a significantly higher number of psychiatric

diagnoses and scored higher on a global rating of impairment. The authors demonstrated

that children of mothers with BPD are at an increased risk for developing impulse control

disorders and borderline tendencies of their own. Even when childhood trauma was

controlled for, significant group differences in functioning between children of mothers

with and without BPD were found; approximately 20% of the variation in child

functioning and 8% of the variation in borderline pathology was accounted for by

maternal diagnosis alone. The findings provide a little but good insight into the

development of children of mothers with BPD.

208
Mackay, R. (2005), ‘The impact of family structure and family change on child outcomes: a personal
reading of the research literature’, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, Available at
http://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-
policy-journal/spj24/24-impact-of-family-structure-and-family-change-on-child-outcome-p111-133.html
209
Weiss, M., Zelkowitz, P., Feldman, R., Vogel, J., Hey-man, M., and Paris, J. (1996), ‘Psychopathology
in offspring of mothers with borderline personality disorder: A pilot study’, Canadian Journal of
Psychiatry, Vol. 41, pp 285-290.
 156

The children of mothers who return to work full time in the years before they start

school have slower emotional development and score less well in reading and maths tests.

The disadvantage starts in primary school and persists into early adulthood, with lower

educational attainment, higher unemployment and greater likelihood of childbearing early

in life. An early return to work by the mother reduces the child's chances of progressing

to A-level from 60% to 50%. The employment patterns of the father have little effect.

They said the consequences were less severe for children of better-educated mothers.

And the positive effects of higher household income brought about by the mother

returning to work went some way to compensate for the negative effect of reduced

contact in early years.210

J. Hill and others211 demonstrated small but significant negative effects of

maternal employment on children’s cognitive outcomes for full-time employment in the

1st year post birth as compared with employment postponed until after the 1st year.

Multiple imputation yields noticeably different estimates as compared with a complete

case approach for many measures. Differences between results from propensity score

approaches and regression modeling are often minimal. Dysfunctional attitudes were

found to have an effect on coping style. The results of a study212 indicate some

possibilities for explanation how fragile self-image, dysfunctional attitudes and self-

punishing coping patterns may develop as a possible effect of mother-child interaction

dynamics.

210
Ermisch, J. and Francesconi, M. (2003), ‘Return to Work after Childbirth: does Parental Leave Matter in
Europe’, Institute for Social & Economic Research, University of Essex, UK
211
Hill, J., Waldfogel, J., Brooks-Gunn, J. and Han, W. (2005), ‘Maternal Employment and Child
Development: A Fresh Look Using Newer Methods’, Developmental Psychology, 2005, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp
833–850.
212
Szili, I. and György, S. (2005), ‘The role of mother-child relationship in development of self-image,
dysfunctional attitudes and coping strategies’, Psychiatr Hung, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp 26-40.
 157

Children's temperament was related to the frequency and quality of conflict, that

is, children who were highly active and who had problems controlling their behaviour

had more conflict with mothers than less active children and children who did not have

trouble controlling their behaviour.213

In addition, highly active children and children who frequently and intensely

experienced negative emotions had less constructive conflict with their mothers,

involving less resolution, more aggravation and less justification, than children who did

not have these qualities. Attachment security was not related to the frequency of conflict

between mothers and their children, but to the quality, the study found. Mothers and

children who had secure relationships had constructive conflict involving high levels of

resolution, compromise and justification. In sum, both the quality of children's

relationships with their mothers and children's personality types were found to shape the

nature of conflict between mothers and their children at age two. A 2008 study by

UNICEF214 claimed that mothers who went back to work less than a year after giving

birth were gambling with their children’s development.

In a study by Columbia University,215 findings are in stark contrast to previous

research which has suggested that mothers who return to work put their children at risk of

a barrage of ill effects. Working mothers had better mental health, were able to build

213
Laible. D, Panfile. T, and Makariev, D (2008), ‘The Quality and Frequency of Mother-Toddler Conflict:
Links with Attachment and Temperament’, Child Development, Vol. 79, No.2.
214
UNICEF (2008), ‘English children at risk because mothers go back to work too soon’, Available at
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3701376/Unicef-English-children-at-risk-because-mothers-go-
back-to-work-too-soon.html
215
Columbia University (2010), ‘First-Year Maternal Employment and Child Development in the First 7
Years’, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 75, Available at
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118539445/home.
 158

healthier relationships within the family and boosted the household income, all of which

aided the child’s development. Children whose mothers worked were also likely to

benefit from higher-quality childcare outside the home, because their parents could afford

to shop around for the best nannies and nursery places. Though babies suffered some ill

effects when their mothers returned to work within a year such as spending less time

interacting with a parent, the researchers found that the net effect on their cognitive and

social development over time was neutral.

A study by H. Liua and others216 analysed the roles of and inter relationships

among school inputs and parental inputs in affecting child development through the

specification and estimation of a behavioural model of household migration and maternal

employment decisions. The study found that the impact of our school quality measures

diminishes by factors of 2 to 4 after accounting for the fact that families may choose

where to live in part based on school characteristics and labour market opportunities. The

positive statistical relationship between child outcomes and maternal employment

reverses sign and remains statistically significant after controlling for its possible

endogeneity. The estimates implied that when parental responses are taken into account,

policy changes in school quality end up having only minor impacts on child test scores.

4.6 The Role of father

Fathers are a significant contributor to offspring development and a capability in

adapting to society. The presence of a functioning father in the home is associated with

positive adjustment in children. Among the cross-sectional group studies, children who

216
Liua, H., Mrozb, T., and Klaauwc, W. (2010), ‘Maternal employment, migration, and child
development’, Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 156, No.1, pp 212-228
 159

are living with their natural fathers show significantly fewer incidences of fighting,

delusions-hallucinations, delinquency, isolation and benefit from living in an intact home.

An intact home enjoys the socialisation roles of both mother and father.

Over the past 30 years, father involvement research has advanced dramatically.

There is now a substantial literature that establishes a number of important trends in the

way that men approach parenting and the effects that their involvement has on their

children’s development.

Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate more cognitive

competence on standardised intellectual assessments217 and have higher IQ’s. Children of

involved fathers are more likely to enjoy school, have better attitudes toward school,

participate in extracurricular activities and graduate. They are also less likely to fail a

grade, have poor attendance, or have behaviour problems at school.218

Children of involved fathers are more likely to become educationally mobile

young adults with higher levels of economic and educational achievement, career

success, occupational competency and psychological well being.219 Infants whose fathers

are involved in their care are more likely to be securely attached to them, be more curious

and eager to explore the environment, relate more maturely to strangers, react more

217
Radin, N. (1994), ‘Primary caregiving fathers in intact families’, In Gottfried, A.E and Gottfried, A.W.
(Eds.), ‘Redefining families: Implications for children’s development, Plenum, New York.
218
William, M. (1997), ‘Reconceptualizing Father Involvement’, Unpublished master’s thesis, Georgetown
University, Washington, DC.
219
Harris, K., Furstenberg, F., and Marmer, J. (1998), ‘Paternal involvement with adolescents in intact
families: The influence of fathers over the life course’, Demography, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp 201-216
 160

competently to complex and novel stimuli and be more trusting in branching out in their

explorations.220

Father involvement is positively correlated with children experiencing overall life

satisfaction, less depression,221 less emotional distress and fewer expressions of negative

emotionality such as fear and guilt.222

Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate a greater tolerance for

stress and frustration, have superior problem solving and adaptive skills,223 be more

playful, resourceful, skilful and attentive when presented with a problem and are better

able to manage their emotions and impulses in an adaptive manner.

Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate a greater internal

locus of control, have a greater ability to take initiative, use self direction and control and

display less impulsivity.224

Father involvement is positively correlated with children’s overall social

competence, maturity and capacity for relatedness with others.225 Children of involved

fathers are more likely to have positive peer relations and be popular and well liked.

220
Pruett, K. (1997), ‘How men and children affect each other’s development’, Zero to Three, Vol. 18, No.
1, pp 3-11.
221
Field, T., Lang, C., Yando, R., and Bendell, R. (1995), ‘Adolescents’ Intimacy with Parents and
Friends’, Adolescence, Vol. 30, pp 133-140.
222
Easterbrooks, M. A. and Goldberg, W. A. (1990), ‘Security of toddler-parent attachment: Relation to
children’s sociopersonality functioning during kindergarten’, In Greenberg, M.T., Cicchetti, D. and
Cummings, E.M. (Eds.), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research and Intervention, University
of Chicago Press, Chicago
223
Biller, H. B. (1993), ‘Fathers and Families: Paternal Factors in Child Development’, Auborn House,
Westport, CT.
224
Williams E., and Radin, N. (1999), ‘Effects of father participation in child rearing: twenty year follow-
up’, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 69, No. 3, pp 328-336
225
Parke, R. D. (1996), ‘Fatherhood’, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
 161

Their peer relations are typified by less negativity, less aggression, less conflict, more

reciprocity, more generosity and more positive friendship qualities.226

Children of involved fathers are more likely to have pro social sibling

interactions,227 show fewer negative emotional reactions during play with peers,

experience less tension in their interactions with other children, and solve conflicts by

themselves rather than seeking the teacher’s. Children who have involved fathers are

more likely to grow up to be tolerant and understanding, be well socialised and successful

adults, have long term, successful marriages, have supportive social networks consisting

of long-term close friendships.

The strongest predictor of empathic concern in children and adults is high levels

of paternal involvement. Father warmth and nurturance significantly predicts children’s

moral maturity, is associated with more pro-social and positive moral behaviour in boys

and girls228 and is positively correlated with higher scores on measures of internal moral

judgment, moral values, and conformity to rules.

Father involvement protects children from engaging in delinquent behaviour, and

is associated with less substance abuse among adolescents, less delinquency,229 less drug

use, truancy, and stealing, less drinking, and a lower frequency of externalizing and

internalizing symptoms such as acting out, disruptive behaviour, depression, sadness and

226
Lieberman, M., Doyle, A., and Markiewicz, D. (1999), ‘Developmental patterns in security of
attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations’,
Child Development, Vol. 70, No. 1, pp 202-213.
227
Volling, B. and Belsky, J. (1992), ‘The contribution of mother-child and father-child relationships to the
quality of sibling interaction: A longitudinal study’, Child Development, Vol. 63, pp 1209-1222.
228
Mosley, J. and Thompson, E. (1995), ‘Fathering Behaviour and Child Outcomes: The role of race and
poverty’, In Marsiglio, W. (Ed.), Fatherhood: Contemporary theory, research, and social policy, Sage,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
229
Zimmerman, M. A., Salem, D. A., and Maton, K. I. (1995), ‘Family structure and psychosocial
correlates among urban African-American adolescent males’, Child Development, Vol. 66, pp 1598-1613
 162

lying.230 Adolescents who strongly identified with their fathers were 80% less likely to

have been in jail and 75% less likely to have become unwed parents.231

One of the most important benefits of a positive relationship between mother and

father, and a benefit directly related to the objectives of the CPS caseworker, is the

behaviour it models for children. Fathers who treat the mothers of their children with

respect and deal with conflict within the relationship in an adult and appropriate manner

are more likely to have boys who understand how they are to treat women and who are

less likely to act in an aggressive fashion toward females. Girls with involved, respectful

fathers see how they should expect men to treat them and are less likely to become

involved in violent or unhealthy relationships. In contrast, research has shown that

husbands who display anger, show contempt for, or who stonewall their wives are more

likely to have children who are anxious, withdrawn, or antisocial.232

The influence of a father's involvement on academic achievement extends into

adolescence and young adulthood.233 Numerous studies find that an active and nurturing

style of fathering is associated with better verbal skills, intellectual functioning and

academic achievement among adolescents.

J. Mosley and E. Thompson234 studied school-aged children and found that

children with good relationships with their fathers were less likely to experience

230
Ibid. 228, p 161
231
Furstenberg, F. F., and Harris, K. M. (1993), ‘When and why fathers matter: Impacts of father
involvement on the children of adolescent mothers’, In Lerman R. and Ooms T. (Eds.), ‘Young unwed
fathers: Changing roles and emerging policies, Temple University Press, Philadelphia
232
Gable, S., Crnic, K., and Belsky, J. (1994), ‘Coparenting within the family system: Influences on
children's development’, Family Relations, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp 380-386
233
Goldstine, H. S. (1982), ‘Fathers' absence and cognitive development of 12-17 year olds’, Psychological
Reports, Vol. 51, pp 843-848.
234
Ibid. 228, p 161
 163

depression, to exhibit disruptive behaviour, or to lie and were more likely to exhibit pro-

social behaviour. This same study found that boys with involved fathers had fewer school

behaviour problems and that girls had stronger self-esteem. In addition, children who

live with their fathers are more likely to have good physical and emotional health, to

achieve academically, and to avoid drugs, violence, and delinquent behaviour.

R.D. Parke235 stated that the way fathers play with their children also has an

important impact on a child's emotional and social development. Fathers spend a much

higher percentage of their one-on-one interaction with infants and preschoolers in

stimulating, playful activity than do mothers. From these interactions, children learn how

to regulate their feelings and behaviour. Rough-housing with dad, for example, can teach

children how to deal with aggressive impulses and physical contact without losing control

of their emotions. Generally speaking, fathers also tend to promote independence and an

orientation to the outside world. Fathers often push achievement while mothers stress

nurturing, both of which are important to healthy development. As a result, children who

grow up with involved fathers are more comfortable exploring the world around them

and more likely to exhibit self-control and pro-social behaviour.

Children with involved and caring fathers have better educational outcomes.

K.Pruett236 suggested that fathers who are involved, nurturing, and playful with their

infants have children with higher IQs, as well as better linguistic and cognitive capacities.

Toddlers with involved fathers go on to start school with higher levels of academic

readiness. They are more patient and can handle the stresses and frustrations associated

with schooling more readily than children with less involved fathers.

235
Ibid. 225, p 160
236
Pruett, K. (2000), ‘Father-need’, Broadway Books, New York
 164

Even from birth, children who have an involved father are more likely to be

emotionally secure, be confident to explore their surroundings, and, as they grow older,

have better social connections with peers. These children also are less likely to get in

trouble at home, school, or in the neighborhood.237

One of the most important influences a father can have on his child is indirect.

Fathers influence their children in large part through the quality of their relationship with

the mother of their children. A father who has a good relationship with the mother of

their children is more likely to be involved and to spend time with their children and to

have children who are psychologically and emotionally healthier. Similarly, a mother

who feels affirmed by her children's father and who enjoys the benefits of a happy

relationship is more likely to be a better mother. Indeed, the quality of the relationship

affects the parenting behaviour of both parents. They are more responsive, affectionate,

and confident with their infants; more self-controlled in dealing with defiant toddlers; and

better confidants for teenagers seeking advice and emotional support.238

A. Mullens239 stated high-quality father-child ties may be particularly important

for child well-being because fathers who develop close affective bonds with children can

be more effective in monitoring, teaching, and communicating with children, thereby

allowing the social capital inherent in the father-child relationship to be realised.

237
Yeung, W. J., Duncan, G. J., and Hill, M. S. (2000), ‘Putting fathers back in the picture: Parental
activities and children's adult outcomes’, In Peters, H., Peterson, G., Steinmetz, S. and Day, R. (Eds.),
‘Fatherhood: Research, interventions and policies’, Hayworth Press, New York.
238
Lamb, M. E. (2002), ‘Infant-father attachments and their impact on child development’, In Tamis-
LeMonda, C. and Cabrera, N. (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives, pp.
93-118
239
Ibid. 13, p 8
 165

4.7 Influence of Siblings

Research shows that if one sibling is a delinquent, there is a significant likelihood

that his brother or sister will engage in delinquent behaviour. For example, if an

adolescent takes drugs and engages in delinquent behaviour, so too will his sibling. A

number of interpretations of these data are possible: siblings who live in same

environment are influenced by similar social and economic factors; deviance is

genetically determined and the traits that cause one sibling to engage in delinquency are

shared by his brother or sister; deviant siblings grow closer because of shared interests. It

is possible that the relationship is due to personal interactions older siblings are imitated

by younger siblings.240

While a variety of family characteristics are recognised as risk factors for violent

behaviour of children, siblings may be particularly likely to influence each other’s

behaviour, including acting as deviant peer role models, given the long-term and

emotionally close relationships most share. Thus, a sibling-specific risk factor may

operate across the family and peer domains during adolescence, making sibling

influences on delinquency a vital area for research and prevention efforts.241

Interest in the ways in which siblings may influence delinquency stems from

research demonstrating that offenders tend to live in large families and that a small

240
Siegel, L. and Welsh, B. (2010), ‘Juvenile Delinquency: The Core’, Cengage Learning, Ohio, USA
241
Sampson, R. J., and Laub, J. H. (1993), ‘Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
 166

number of families often account for a large proportion of officially convicted or self-

reported offenders.242

About 10 per cent of London families were responsible for 64 per cent of the

adult convictions of male respondents in the Cambridge Study in delinquent

development, while the same proportion of families accounted for 76 per cent of all self-

reported offenses, 94 per cent of all felony theft offenses, and 100 per cent of all

robberies in the National Youth Survey. Further evidence of a concentration of

delinquent siblings in some families stems from research demonstrating that adolescent

offenders are more likely than non-offenders to have delinquent siblings.243

These findings have led researchers to focus on the sibling relationship more

closely, to determine the extent to which siblings are likely to engage in similar offending

behaviours and to examine the ways in which brothers and sisters may directly influence

one another’s involvement in crime. Assessing sibling similarity in delinquency, Rowe

and his colleagues244 reported an average sibling correlation of 0.35. Other non-

intellectual traits have an average correlation of 0.12, suggesting that siblings may be

particularly likely to emulate and/or influence one another’s involvement in delinquent

behaviour. Moreover, some investigations demonstrate sibling associations as high as

0.50, with sibling similarity particularly likely for same-sex sibling pairs and those close

in age. Such siblings may be most likely to view each other as salient role models, given

242
Jones, M. B., Offord, D. R., and Abrams, N. (1980), ‘Brothers, sisters, and antisocial behaviour’, British
Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 136, pp 139–145.
243
Farrington, D. P., Barnes, G. C., and Lambert, S. (1996), ‘The concentration of offending in families’,
Legal and Criminological Psychology, Vol. 1, pp 47–63
244
Rowe, D. C., Linver, M. R., and Rodgers, J. L. (1996), ‘Delinquency and IQ: Using siblings to find
sources of variation’, In Brody, G. (Ed.), ‘Sibling relationships: Their causes and consequences’, Ablex
Publishing, Norwood, NJ
 167

their similar demographic characteristics, increased amount of time spent together, shared

history of significant events, and so on.245

Sibling resemblance has been found for a range of behaviours, including

aggression and externalizing behaviour, delinquency, and drug and alcohol use.246

Moreover, some investigations demonstrate sibling effects over time and into adulthood.

For example, Reiss and Farrington247 found that having a delinquency sibling helped

predict chronic offending for London males through age 32. Other research shows that

sibling effects remain significant controlling for shared family experiences. In other

words, even though both siblings may experience similar risk factors within their

families, such as parental arrest, single-parent status, or low family income, these

experiences cannot fully account for sibling similarity in behaviour.

4.8 Domestic Violence

Around 40 million children under the age of 14 years are estimated to suffer from

abuse and neglect around the world. The prevalence of child abuse is showing an

increasing trend in India. India has a large child population and many children are

vulnerable to abuse, exploitation and neglect.

245
Slomkowski, C., Rende, R., Conger, K., Simons, R.L., and Conger, R. (2001), ‘Sisters, brothers, and
delinquency: Evaluating social influence during early and middle adolescence’, Child Development, Vol.
72, pp 271–283
246
Kim, J.E., Hetherington, E.M., and Reiss, D. (1999), ‘Associations among family relationships,
antisocial peers, and adolescents’ externalizing behaviours: Gender and family type differences’, Child
Development, Vol. 70, pp 1209–1230
247
Reiss, A. and Farrington, D. (1991), ‘Advancing knowledge about co-offending: Results from a
prospective longitudinal survey of London males’, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 82,
pp 360–395
 168

A growing body of clinical experience and research reveals that domestic

violence and child abuse occur in the same families and are highly associated with similar

social and economic risk factors. Domestic violence and child abuse take a devastating

toll on children and society at large. Early childhood victimization, either through direct

abuse, neglect, or witnessing parental domestic violence, has been shown to have

demonstrable long-term consequences for youth violence, adult violent behaviours and

other forms of criminality.248

Violence on children is often part of a pattern of family violence. The family

structure that should provide security, safety and cater to the emotional needs for one’s

better mental health, often in reality, is the most frequent place for violence.

Strengthening family bonds, providing crisis intervention services, and giving family life

education to parents and children is needed to alleviate violence on children.

In a study249 on maternal employment and domestic violence where results

indicated significant incidence of violence in Indian families which warrants the need for

appropriate intervention programmes. Family life education programmes, and

opportunities for learning alternative non-punitive ways of managing interpersonal

conflict are suggested, to help reduce violence in families. Parenting skills especially for

young mothers need to be imparted.

248
Widom, C. (1989), ‘The cycle of violence’, Science, Reprint Series, Vol. 244, pp 160-166.
249
Devi Prasad, B. (2001), ‘Maternal employment and child abuse’, Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol.
62, No. 3.
 169

In another study,250 the incidence of children abused at their work place was

higher in households with higher income and higher education levels. Children in the red

light area received better care than those in slums, but were easy targets for being

befriended by liquor/drug peddlers and criminal gangs. Children living in Muslim

dominated slums had a lesser degree of parental care and nutrition. Runaway children had

poor interpersonal relationship with either of their parents than those living with their

families and a majority of them were subjected to aggressive, dominating or indifferent

treatment. Low economic status and illiteracy was also found to be a contributory factor.

High income group felt that the incidence of abuse, especially substance abuse, was more

prevalent in low income families, while the latter viewed employers and businessman of

higher income brackets as the main perpetuators of child abuse. With respect to impact of

abuse, the low income group identified family disturbances, increase in rate of crime and

threat to social harmony as the after effect of child abuse, while high income/skilled

group showed least concern for the after-effects of child abuse.

The children who witness violence on their mothers in the family are affected in

various ways. Often they remain neglected and hence are called ‘victims of domestic

violence’. In Indian society, very few services are available for women who face violence

within their family as patriarchy accepts this violence as normal. S. Sengupta251

documented the effects of violence on children/ adolescents who witnessed abuse of their

mothers by their fathers; and compared the differences, if any, of the effects on boys and

girls. The study recommends that women need a safe environment to express their

250
Ghosh, K. (2001), ‘On the Threshold: the Journey Begins’, Research Abstracts on Children in Need of
Care and Protection, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, New Delhi
251
Sengupta, S. (2001), ‘Effects on children who witnessed abuse of their mothers’, Research Abstracts on
Children in Need of Care and Protection, 2009, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child
Development, New Delhi.
 170

conflicts without this being defined as ‘risk’ to their children. It also recommends that the

blame for any negative impact on the mother – child relationship lies solely with the

perpetrator of violence. The harsh reality of domestic violence is that it affects a woman’s

ability to care. The impact of continual physical attacks, verbal degradation, emotional

torture and social isolation can have upon a woman’s life should never be underestimated

or minimised. Women in such situations will try very hard to hold a family together and

to maintain stability. Being ‘caught in the middle’ of domestic violence can have adverse

effects on a child. Every child’s experience of this conflict is different and every child

utilizes different coping mechanisms to deal with the situation. Such coping mechanisms

are unique to each child and determine how a child will react to domestic violence.

4.9 Influence of Media

A study was conducted by Organisation for Applied Socio-Economic Systems,252

New Delhi to find out if delinquent persons, children and youth, had a higher or different

media exposure that changed their behaviour patterns. The study indicated that those

who were more exposed to mass media were not necessarily delinquents. It was revealed

that a combination of media exposure or consumption and other factors, either inherent in

a person or in his/her social milieu influenced their behavioural patterns. A higher

percentage of delinquents tried to copy scenes from TV, compared to cinema. It was

found that advertisements led to a feeling of deprivation among the population, more

among delinquents than non-delinquents. One-third of the delinquents, mostly youth, felt

that they were influenced by mass media in their criminal behaviour. Majority of those

who felt that media had influenced their criminal activities blamed films, but it was found
252
Organisation for Applied Socio-Economic Systems, New Delhi (1996), ‘Impact of media on juvenile
delinquency and youth crime’, Research Abstracts on Social Defense and
Trafficking Prevention, Available at http://nipccd.nic.in/reports/rasd.pdf
 171

that they watched more TV. Merely watching movies is not enough to make a person

delinquent, but if he prefers to be ‘mostly alone’ then his chances of being a delinquent

increases. The study was able to highlight a number of contextual issues related to

influence of mass media on criminal behaviour among juveniles and youth. Media should

censor stories involving sex, violence, crime, etc., and show self-restraint by following a

system of internal censorship. It is also necessary for media persons to understand how

their stories influence people. UNESCO253 studied the role of media particularly T.V. in

the life of children and found a strong relationship between media violence and

aggressive behaviour of children.

Media, specially television, was seen to have massive impact on children’s

perceptions of violence being the main source of information. Violence was generally

associated with the male sex and this was seen across all ages and both genders.

Suggestion was made for reduction of social ills like poverty, unemployment, etc., and

better parental guidance would help in moulding the thoughts of young minds and thus

can control the increase in crime and violence.254

Not all but some of the children who watch violence based programs in television

felt that all the things will be set right by violence only. They recommended that some

preventive measures should be taken so that these children are not exposed to

programmes which convey negative values and are full of violence, perversion, vulgarity

253
UNESCO (1999), ‘Global Study on Media Violence’, World Organisation of the Scout Movement and
Utrecht University, Research Abstracts on Child Welfare, 2009, National Institute of Public Cooperation
and Child Development, New Delhi.
254
Gupta, P. (2000), ‘The Paradigm of violence: Adolescents Conceptions’, Research Abstracts on Child
Welfare, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, New Delhi
 172

and cruelty.255 Pornography has both psychological and sociological effects and promotes

negative social issues on one hand, such as child sexual abuse, violence against women,

rape, family breakdown and youth crime.256

4.10 Other Factors

In the Western world, kinship is no longer the powerful social institution that

governs status within the family. Now that many adult caretakers are working long hours

away from their homes, children have less contact and less interest in family affairs.

Individuation has superseded familial solidarity. Children are neglected, as too neglecting

their families themselves. Overshadowing this is the recent awareness of child abuse that

adds to the reasons to call for revision of the traditional view that the family is focal to

our childhood, development and social orientation. The Convention on the Rights of the

Child begins to give children much needed protection and a voice of their own. It does

not protect the family, nor is there any equivalent legislation for the family. A paper by

A. Milne257 is based on some findings of research into the lives of children and youth who

have run away from home in the Netherlands. Those young people, thrust into a world of

self-dependence are just one symptom of the malaise within nuclear family structures in

the modern world. However, evidence begins to reveal another aspect of these changes:

they are often not willful, indeed child abuse is sometimes the only expression of

affection possible. The paper, therefore, concludes that improvements for children and

255
Pant, M. and Prakash, D. (2000), ‘Television: the Pied Piper of the Century’, Research Abstracts on
Child Welfare, 2009, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, New Delhi
256
Savithri, R., Kole, S. and Sakhuja, A. (2002), ‘Sexual Behaviour among Adolescents and Young People
in India’, Research Abstracts on Child Welfare, 2009, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child
Development, New Delhi.
257
Milne, A. (1993), ‘Nga tamariki Mäori ata mohio: Gifted Mäori children’, The Proceedings of the
N.Z. Council for Gifted Education, May 1993, pp 47-61
 173

their families must come with legal and constitutional changes that give children voices

that express their needs and points of view.

A study258 was carried out about the social, economic and psychological

consequences of riots on children and to see how such children coped with the postriot

situation in Shillong. The first major communal riot in Shillong took place in 1979,

followed by riots in 1987, 1989 and in 1992. The study revealed that communal tension

and riots resulted in the displacement of families, the loss of homes and property, and

feeling of insecurity in the respondents. Community life was thrown out of gear and the

impact of the same was noticeable on the psyche of the children. This hampered their

overall personality development. The worsening inter-community relationships were

reflected in the behaviour of the children, who grew up into psychologically impaired

youths, after the riots. In schools and colleges, students tend to form small insular groups

and rarely built strong friendships with children of other communities. Riots also badly

affected the academic life of children. Many children from poor families were forced to

drop their studies, and many lost their sense of discipline and order. Many children

became orphans overnight due to the trail of murders and killings. They often grew up

with a sense of vengeance towards communities responsible for their parents' death. Case

studies were used to illustrate the impact of death, assault witnessed by the children or

being stranded which affected them directly or indirectly.

258
Subba, T. B. (1996), ‘Problems of riots affected children of Shillong’, Research Abstracts on Children
in Need of Care and Protection, 2009, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development,
New Delhi
 174

A. Joglekar and R. Patel259 compared the delinquents and the neglected children

with respect to their - intellectual abilities, personality profiles and psychiatric morbidity

and discussed the implications of the differences between the two groups. The results

revealed that more number of respondents in the delinquent group fall in the categories of

mild mental retardation and border line intellectual functioning compared to the

neglected group. The neglected children were found to be affected more by feelings and

were more emotional. The same group was found to be more humble and conforming and

relaxed than the delinquents. The delinquents were found to be more expedient and have

a tendency to evade rules suggesting a weak super ego. Study suggested that there is a

definite need to give more importance to the entity called Neglected children and further

it suggested that the children in observation home should not be looked at with a bias and

must be screened at the earliest in order to separate the neglected children from the

delinquents as the former may become deviant through observation.

4.11 Chapter Summary

This review looked at the connection between family structure, non-cordial

relations and family environment in adverse situation and its impact on children leading

to deviant behaviour and the children coming in conflict with law and order in society in

different countries. The chapter also looked at the influence of several factors like

parenting practices, single parent, maternal employment, father, siblings, domestic

violence etc., leading to the deviant behaviour of children. The presented preliminary

research findings point to the need for further research on the role of family on a whole

on a child’s development and behaviour.

259
Joglekar, A. and Patel, R. (1997), ‘Usefulness of V code diagnosis : neglected child and juvenile
delinquents’, Research Abstracts on Social Defense and Trafficking Prevention, National Institute of
Public Cooperation and Child Development, New Delhi