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016580eo PDF
016580eo PDF
ISBN 92-3-101243-6
French edition 92-3-201243-X
With a view to promoting global and regional synthesis of national Association of Engineering Geology, summarizes
knowledge and the general advancement of geological the views of an international commission of experts and in¬
science, and to providing the scientific basis for a better un¬ corporates experience from various countries in which en¬
derstanding of the world's mineral and land resources, Unesco gineering geological mapping is already undertaken at an
has, for many years, been concerned with the preparation advanced level. This book does not pretend to give detailed
and publication of small-scale geological maps of various instructions for mapping, but rather to be a synthesis of
kinds. The present booklet is devoted to a particular aspect present-day experience in this field. The views expressed are
of this programme, namely engineering geological mapping. those of the authors and are not necessarily those of Unesco.
The purpose of such maps is to show the distribution of Unesco wishes to express its gratitude to all those who
specific geological phenomena and characteristics of rocks collaborated in the preparation of this text, and especially to
and soils affecting the engineering use of different terrains. Professor M. Arnould, President of the International Asso¬
The ever-growing demand for such maps has revealed the ciation of Engineering Geology, to Professor M. Matula of
need for a standardization of principles, systems and the Comenius University, Bratislava, President of the
methods. This is an urgent but at the same time a difficult Commission on Engineering Geological Maps of the Inter¬
problem which can best be solved through international co¬ national Association of Engineering Geology, and to
operation. Professor W. R. Dearman of the University of Newcastle
The present guidebook, prepared for Unesco by the upon Tyne who kindly edited the text.
Commission on Engineering Geological Maps of the Inter
Contents
3.4.3 Boring and sampling techniques 19 8.3 Published engineering geological maps 78
3.4.4 Laboratory and in situ testing 22
3.5 Analysis and interpretation of data 22 9 Acknowledgements 79
3.6 References 22
Engineering geological mapping began to be developed with Naturally, such maps cannot replace a detailed investigation
the first steps towards co-operation between geologists and of a construction site, but will help both in the rational
engineers in the building of the larger engineering works design of a site investigation and in the interpretation of the
such as tunnels, dams and railways. The first maps hardly results.
differed from current stratigraphie-lithologie and tectonic- Maps can be prepared for the most varied purposes: for
structural maps. Gradually, increasing demands by engineers example, in land-use planning for complex utilization and
for more and more quantitative geological data led to the development of regions of varied character (including scarce¬
appearance first in explanatory texts, then in enlarged map ly mastered areas with permafrost, semi-arid climate, seismic
legends and finally on the actual geological maps, of more hazard) and of differing extents varying from whole state-
specific information on the technical aspects of geological territories to individual city districts. They can serve for cer¬
phenomena and their engineering interpretation. Up to the tain specific purposes only, or may present a broader, multi¬
present such interpretative maps are those in current use and purpose view necessary for solving more general problems;
may even be called engineering geological maps. they can serve as first steps in planning, as well as in the final
Developments in the theory and practice of mapping in stages of designing urban, industrial, transport, hydrotechni-
engineering geology, however, have shown that such techni¬ cal or other constructions. Dependent upon purpose, maps
cal or interpretative or derived maps are not what true en¬ may be of varied extent, scale and detail; they can have
gineering geological maps should be. different contents and a varied choice of mapping attributes,
The task of engineering geology is to provide engineers, as well as different aspects of their evaluation.
planners and designers with such information as will help In all this variety and individuality, engineering geologi¬
them to create engineering structures and to develop the cal maps as with stratigraphical-lithological and tectonic
country in the best possible harmony with the geological maps must embody certain conventions, a common classifi¬
environment. Without harmony, every civil engineering cation as well as common principles, and a certain degree of
work, and these are mainly dams, tunnels, highways, cities, standardization. The achievement of this is a considerable
industrial agglomerations and big open pit mines, interferes and very difficult task in international co-operation between
often to a considerable extent with the dynamic equilibrium engineering geologists.
of the geological environment. This may result in detrimental At recent international congresses and symposia, and in
consequences which can affect not only the economy and the professional literature a wide ranging discussion has
durability but also the safety of the works. taken place on the problem of the principles of engineering
The geological environment is a very complex multi- geological mapping. These discussions embrace such topics
component dynamic system which cannot be studied in its as: what is an engineering geological map? What are its
entirety in connexion with construction works or other en¬ basic concepts and methodological background? How may
gineering activities. Using the method of model analysis a various kinds of maps be classified according to their pur¬
simplified picture has to be created of this system comprising pose, scale and content? What basic criteria should be used
only those components of the geologic environment which in the classification of rocks (as well as other phenomena)
from the point of view of engineering geology are of a deci¬ and territorial units on engineering geological maps? What
sive significance: namely the distribution and properties of are the problems of collection, interpretation and representa¬
rocks and soils, groundwater, characteristics of the relief and tion of engineering geological information? How can com¬
present geodynamic processes. An engineering geological puters be used in the preparation of maps and what is the
map, showing the distribution and spatial relationships of future of engineering geological mapping? What is the likeli¬
these basic components, can reflect the history as well as the hood of international co-operation in standardization, termi¬
dynamics of the development of engineering geological condi¬ nology and in exchange of experience?
tions; it enables a prognosis to be made of the influence of A confirmation of the importance of mapping and of
the environment on the engineering works, as well as to the necessity of international co-operation towards its subse¬
predict in which way the works will interfere with the envi¬ quent development was given when the General Assembly of
ronment. It is in a key position, and of immeasurable impor¬ the International Association of Engineering Geology
tance in the system of engineering geological information. (IAEG) established in 1968 as its first commission the
Engineering geological maps
Working Group on Engineering Geological Mapping. The devoted, among other things, to the techniques of engineering
task of this commission was determined as : (a) to make clear geological mapping and the amplification of the views set out
the present situation in engineering geological mapping ; (b) to in this guidebook. A very important part of future work will
analyse the various types of maps called engineering geologi¬ be an attempt at international co-operation in the selection
cal maps, or maps which are to serve for building, construc¬ and adoption of an agreed list of standard symbols for use
tion and land-use planning ; (c) to outline the trends for the on engineering geological maps.
future development of engineering geological cartography The commission members realize that this guidebook is
and to present general recommendations on the information not an exhaustive treatment of the subject, and hope that
to be provided by a complex engineering geological map; more complete versions may be prepared in the future. Any
and (d) to contribute to international exchange of informa¬ comments and suggestions that would be of assistance in
tion on this subject. preparing future guides to engineering geological mapping
After the publication of reports on the present stage of would be greatly appreciated.
engineering geological mapping in various parts of the world Members of the IAEG commission who have taken part
{IAEG Bulletin, No. 3, 4), the presentation of this brief guide¬ in the preparation of this guide are :
book is the first accomplishment of the commission in re¬
sponse to its stated aims. Professor Milan Matula (Chairman), Department of En¬
The text is in four main chapters. A discussion of the gineering Geology and Hydrogeology, Comenius Universi¬
principles of engineering geological mapping involves the ty, Gottwaldo nam. 2, Bratislava (Czechoslovakia).
definition and classification of engineering geological maps, Professor W. R. Dearman (Editor), Department of Geology,
the classification of rocks and soils, consideration of hydro- Engineering Geology Unit, University of Newcastle-upon-
geological and geomorphological conditions, and the evalua¬ Tyne (United Kingdom).
tion of geodynamic phenomena. This is followed by a Professor G. A. Golodkovskaja, Geological Faculty, Mos-
description of the techniques which may be adopted for kovskij Universitet, Moskva 117234 (U.S.S.R.).
acquiring and interpreting data. After a brief reference to the Professor Ing. M. Janjic, 1 100 Beograd, Tolstojeva 5 (Yugos¬
usual methods of geological mapping, the special requirements lavia) .
and techniques of engineering geological mapping are dealt Dr A. Pahl, Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Roh¬
with. Finally the question of the presentation of data on stoffe, 3 Hannover, Postfach 230153 (Federal Republic of
engineering geological maps and the layout of a descriptive Germany).
memoir are considered. A. Peter, Service Géologique Régional Massif Central,
This guidebook sets out to answer such questions as 22 Avenue de Lempdes, 63800 Cournon d'Auvergne
'What is an engineering geological map?' 'How is an en¬ (France).
gineering map made?' and 'How is engineering geological Mrs Dorothy H. Radbruch-Hall (Secretary), United States
information presented on such a map?'. Future efforts of the Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, Menlo Park,
IAEG Commission on Engineering Geological Maps will be CA 94025 (United States of America).
10
Principles 2
11
Engineering geological maps
2.3 Classification of engineering logical characteristics. These are: (a) mineralogical composi¬
tion closely related to specific gravity, Atterberg limits and
geological maps plasticity index; (b) textural and structural characteristics,
such as particle size distribution, related to unit weight,
Engineering geological maps may be classified according to porosity; (c) moisture content, saturation moisture content,
purpose, content and scale. consistency, degree of weathering and alteration, and joint¬
ing, related to the physical state of soils and rocks and indi¬
2.3.1 According to purpose, they may be : cating strength properties, deformation characteristics, per¬
2.3.1.1 Special purpose, providing information either on meability and durability.
one specific aspect of engineering geology, or for one spe¬ Classification of rocks and soils on engineering geologi¬
cific purpose. cal maps should be based on the principle that the physical
2.3.1.2 Multipurpose, providing information covering or engineering geological properties of a rock in its present
many aspects of engineering geology for a variety of plan¬ state are dependent on the combined effects of mode of ori¬
ning and engineering purposes. gin, subsequent diagenetic, metamorphic and tectonic histo¬
ry, and on weathering processes. This principle of classifica¬
2.3.2 According to content, they may be : tion makes it possible not only to determine the reasons for
2.3.2.1 Analytical maps, giving details of, or evaluating in¬ the lithological and physical characteristic of soils and rocks,
dividual components of the geological environment. Their but also for their spatial distribution. This is a basic principle
content is, as a rule, expressed in the title, for example, of engineering geological mapping as of other geological
map of weathering grades, jointing map, seismic hazard mapping, and implies not only the classification of individual
map. rock samples but also the use of many individual rock sam¬
2.3.2.2 Comprehensive maps. These are of two kinds they ples, field observations and measurements to delineate uni¬
may be maps of engineering geological conditions depict¬ form and continuous rock units.
ing all the principal components of the engineering geolog¬ The following classification,1 based on lithology and
ical environment; on the other hand they may be maps of mode of origin, is suggested: (a) engineering geological type
engineering geological zoning, evaluating and classifying (ET); (b) lithological type (LT); (c) lithological complex
individual territorial units on the basis of the uniformity of (LC); (d) lithological suite (LS). There will be different
their engineering geological conditions. These two types degrees of homogeneity for each unit.
may be combined on small-scale maps. The engineering geological type has the highest degree
2.3.2.3 Auxiliary maps. These present factual data and are, of physical homogeneity. It should be uniform in lithological
for example, documentation maps, structural contour character and physical state. These units can be charac¬
maps, isopachyte maps. terized by statistically determined values derived from
2.3.2.4 Complementary maps. These include geological, individual determinations of physical and mechanical
tectonic, geomorphological, pedological, geophysical and properties and are generally shown only on large-scale maps.
hydrogeological maps. They are maps of basic data which A lithological type is homogeneous throughout in com¬
are sometimes included with a set of engineering geologi¬ position, texture and structure, but usually is not uniform in
cal maps. physical state. Reliable values of average mechanical proper¬
ties cannot be given for the entire unit; usually only a gener¬
2.3.3 According to scale, they may be : al idea of engineering properties, with a range of values, can
2.3.3.1 Large-scale: 1 : 10000 and greater. be presented. These units are used on large-scale, and where
2.3.3.2 Medium-scale: less than 1 : 10000 and greater than possible, on medium-scale maps.
1 : 100000.
A lithological complex comprises a set of genetically
2.3.3.3 Small-scale : 1 : 100000 and less. related lithological types developed under specific palaeogeo-
graphical and geotectonic conditions. Within a lithological
complex the spatial arrangement of lithological types is uni¬
2.4 Principles of classification of form and distinctive for that complex, but a lithological
rocks and soils for engineering complex is not necessarily uniform in either lithological
character or physical state. In consequence, it is not possible
geological mapping to define the physical and mechanical properties of the whole
lithological complex, but only to give data on the individual
The boundaries of rock and soil units shown on engineering lithological types comprising the complex and to indicate the
geological maps of various scales should delimit rock and general behaviour of the whole lithological complex. The
soil units which are characterized by a certain degree of lithological complex is used as a mapping unit on medium-
homogeneity in basic engineering geological properties. scale and some small-scale maps.
The main problem in engineering geological mapping is
the selection of those geological features of rocks and soils
The classification adopted for engineering geological rock and soil units may be
which are closely related to physical properties, such as 1.
compared to the unit terms used in lithostratigraphical classification (Hedberg, 1972)
strength, deformability, durability, permeability, which are The conventional hierarchy of lithostratigraphical terms is as follows
important in engineering geology. This is because, at present, Bed = named or unnamed distinctive individual layer;
Member = named or unnamed lithological entity within a formation ;
we lack regional data on the variability of engineering prop¬ Formation = fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy;
erties of rocks and soils. Neither have suitable methods and Group = two or more formations
The unit terms are used in engineering geology without any stratigraphical implica¬
techniques been developed for determining them in sufficient tions and in fact cannot be used in that way, and it is for this reason that the
quantity, over large areas, quantitatively, quickly and cheap¬ conventional lithostratigraphical terms were not used and a new set of terms were
adopted specially for engineering geological use There is, however, an approximate
ly. It is for this reason that we have to use those geological
general equivalence of terms , for example engineering geological type = bed , lithologi¬
properties which best indicate physical or engineering geo cal type = member, lithological complex = formation, lithological suite = group
12
Principles
The lithological suite comprises many lithological com¬ 2.6 Geomorphological conditions
plexes that developed under generally similar palaeogeo-
graphical and tectonic conditions. It has certain common
lithological characteristics throughout which impart a gener¬ Geomorphological mapping is helpful in explaining the recent
al unity to the suite and serve to distinguish it from other history of development of the landscape such as the formation
suites. Only very general engineering geological properties of of valleys, terraces, slope configuration and the processes
a lithological suite can be defined. These units are only used active in the landscape at the present time. It is an essential
on small-scale maps. part of engineering geological mapping which can be carried
On engineering geological maps the distribution of out quickly and cheaply and is often a decisive factor in
mapping units as well as their stratigraphical and structural planning an engineering geological investigation.
arrangements and age relationships are shown. The engineer¬ Evaluation of geomorphological conditions in engineer¬
ing geological properties of the map units should be de¬ ing geological mapping should be more than a simple de¬
scribed in an accompanying explanatory legend. These map scription of surface topography. It should include an expla¬
units will be used on both multipurpose and special purpose nation of the relationship between surface conditions and the
comprehensive or analytical maps. geological setting; the origin, development and age of indi¬
vidual geomorphological elements; the influence of geo¬
morphological conditions on hydrology and geodynamic
processes. Also very important in engineering geology is the
2.5 Hydrogeological conditions prediction of impending development of geomorphological
features such as the lateral erosion of river banks, movement
of dunes, collapse in karst or undermined areas.
Hydrogeological conditions affect land-use, planning, site Surface topography is shown by contours on maps of all
selection and the cost, durability and even the safety of struc¬ scales. Point symbols are used to indicate significant geomor¬
tures. Ground and surface waters play a prominent part in phological elements on small-scale maps. On medium and
such geodynamic processes as weathering, slope movements, large-scale maps the actual boundaries and details of geo¬
mechanical and chemical suffusion, the development of kar- morphological features can be mapped.
stic conditions, volume changes by shrinking and swelling,
and collapse in loessic soils. Rock and soil properties are
often changed by groundwater. Groundwater may influence
excavation and construction methods by flowing into exca¬ 2.7 Evaluation of geodynamic
vations, by producing seepage forces and uplift pressures and
by its corrosive action. Hydrogeological conditions may also
phenomena
affect underground waste disposal.
Natural groundwater and surface water régimes may be Geodynamic phenomena are those geological features of the
directly influenced by hydraulic structures and by extraction environment resulting from geological processes active at the
of groundwater, and indirectly by factors such as urbaniza¬ present time. Excluded are depositional or alteration
tion and deforestation which increase runoff, sediment load processes as these are included in the description of rock and
in streams and erosion, thereby influencing other processes soils units. The geological features include those due to ero¬
such as slope movement and sedimentation. sion and deposition, aeolian processes, slope movements,
One aim of engineering geology, facilitated by the provi¬ permafrost, formation of karstic conditions, suffusion,
sion of hydrogeological data on maps, is the prediction of volume changes in soil, seismic and volcanic activity. All
undesirable changes in the hydrogeological régime and the these features are important in engineering geological plan¬
recommendation of procedures to avoid them. In engineer¬ ning and construction. They can be shown on special-pur¬
ing geological mapping, therefore, the following important pose or multipurpose maps, and on analytical or comprehen¬
information on hydrogeological conditions should be eva¬ sive maps. The amount of detail shown depends on the scale
luated and represented on maps: the distribution of surface of the map. It is important to show not only the features but
and subsurface water; infiltration conditions; water content; also the conditions favouring their development, their inten¬
direction and velocity of groundwater flow ; springs and seep¬ sity and frequency of occurrence.
ages from individual water-bearing horizons; depth to wa¬ Excessive erosion commonly produces many steep-sided
ter table and its range of fluctuation; regions of confined gullies and ravines on hillsides and in extreme cases
water and piezometric levels; hydrochemical properties such badlands. Erosion removes material and steepens slopes
as pH, salinity, corrosiveness; and presence of bacterial or along streams, reservoirs and natural shorelines. Erosion of
other pollutants. hillsides not only damages agricultural land but also causes
On small-scale maps hydrogeological information is construction problems. It creates an irregular surface, in¬
represented by symbols and numbers. On medium-scale creases sediment load in streams and thereby increases ero¬
maps the water table may be represented by contours and its sion, removes lateral support from parts of slopes thus in¬
range of fluctuation indicated by numbers. In mountainous creasing the possibility of slope movements. Sediment
regions this is not possible and depth to water table and washed from hillsides may accumulate in culverts, storm
other features can only be shown by numbers. Both depths drains, gutters and other drainage facilities, or contribute to
to confined water and piezometric levels can be shown by the rapid silting up of reservoirs.
contours. On large-scale maps hydrogeological conditions Favourable conditions for excessive erosion are soft
are represented by isohypses, isobaths and isopiestic lines, rocks of low permeability, moderate to steep slopes, sparse
with known fluctuations shown numerically. vegetation and high rainfall concentrated in a short period of
time. Contributory factors are overgrazing, overcultivation,
deforestation and urban development.
13
Engineering geological maps
The erosion features commonly shown on engineering juxtaposition of recent and older deposits, or raised and
geological maps are hillside gullies and ravines, and river tilted terraces and shorelines. Features associated with active
banks and shorelines that are being actively eroded. faults include offset streams, terraces and man-made struc¬
Aeolian processes are generally among the less damag¬ tures; scarps; sag ponds; shutterridges ; lines of springs;
ing geodynamic processes, but may be troublesome to en¬ linear trenches.
gineering structures in certain areas. Dunes that develop in Volcanic activity may have associated seismic activity
sandy arid and semi-arid regions can move across and block and current local uplift and depression, but it is the frequen¬
transportation lines which then require constant mainte¬ cy and intensity of the activity and the nature, location and
nance. Overgrazing, overcultivation or deforestation can extent of the volcanic products that may be of more impor¬
create dune fields in some sandy areas. Conversely, dunes tance in engineering geology.
can often be stabilized by planting. Dunes and similar fea¬ It should be the aim of engineering geology not only to
tures should be shown on engineering geological maps. show the extent and distribution of geodynamic features, but
Slope movements take place under the influence of grav¬ also wherever possible to indicate their age and degree of
ity and include creep, slide, flow and fall of all types of rock activity.
and soil. On small-scale maps point data on geodynamic features
Geological conditions favourable for the development can be shown by symbols. On medium-scale maps areas of
of slope movements are varied. They include hard resistant the occurrence of geodynamic features should be delineated
rocks overlying softer ones, such as volcanic rock over clay, and the boundaries of individual features should be shown
or sandstone beds with shale overlying shales with minor where possible. The actual boundaries of individual geo¬
intercalations of sandstone, or relatively undisturbed beds dynamic features, and where possible their internal structures,
over rocks highly sheared by faulting; rocks that are highly can be shown on large-scale maps.
jointed, fractured or sheared; hard and soft rocks alternating
in a slope; unconsolidated sediments overlying relatively im¬
permeable bedrock; presence of groundwater. Slope move¬
2.8 Principles of engineering
ments are caused or triggered off by other natural processes geological zoning
or by the activities of man. The conditions suitable for slope
movements, and the features that are the result of such Comprehensive engineering geological maps may present in¬
movements can be shown on maps; the factors that trigger formation in terms of engineering geological zoning. These
the movement often cannot be shown. are individual areas on the map which are approximately
The factors that cause slope movement can be divided homogeneous in terms of engineering geological conditions
into those that reduce shear strength and those that increase and the area covered by any particular map sheet may be
shear stresses on the slope. subdivided into a number of distinctive zoning units.
Permafrost, permanently frozen ground, is widespread The detail and degree of homogeneity of each engineer¬
in arctic and subarctic regions. Construction problems can ing geological zoning unit will depend on the scale and pur¬
be expected in permanently frozen fine-gained materials such pose of the map. For example, on small-scale maps the cri¬
as silt, particularly those containing ice lenses and wedges. terion of zoning would be the general uniformity in the main
Certain features indicating permafrost can be shown on elements comprising the geological environment, such as
maps; for example, polygonal ground, thaw lakes and subsi¬ geotectonic structure or regional geomorphological features.
dence due to thawing after interference by man. On larger scale maps, zones are based on an evaluation of
In northern regions, seasonal freezing and thawing of the uniformity of the structural arrangement and composi¬
the ground, particularly in fine-grained materials, can also tion of rock and soil units, on hydrogeological conditions,
cause problems such as frost heaving of piles or damage to and on geodynamic phenomena.
highways. Engineering geological zoning can be undertaken either
Karst features result from the solution of rocks. Com¬ for a general purpose or for a special purpose. On a map of
mon karst features on the surface are sinkholes, blind valleys general purpose zoning the following taxonomic natural ter¬
and dry valleys with steep walls; underground, cave systems ritorial units would be recognized :
are also common. In addition the bedrock surface is ex¬ 1. Regions, based on the uniformity of individual geotecton¬
tremely irregular and is usually covered by soils of varying ic structural elements.
compressibility. 2. Areas, on the basis of the uniformity of individual
Suffusion is the washing out of fine particles from un¬ regional geomorphological units.
consolidated materials, in particular sands and gravels. It is a 3. Zones, on the basis of the lithological homogeneity and
minor geodynamic process, but may give rise to considerable the structural arrangement of lithofacial complexes of
problems in the design of hydraulic structures. The most rocks and soils.
common suffusion feature that can be shown on a map is the 4. Districts, in which hydrogeological conditions and geo¬
location of upwelling water or suffusion springs. dynamic phenomena are uniform.
Volume changes in shrinking and swelling soils can In this way, the characteristics of a territory can be defined
cause damage to structures. Areas of such soils should be by zoning which, in turn, can then be used to evaluate the
shown on engineering geological maps. complexity of engineering geological conditions in individual
Geodynamic seismic features are the result of seismic territorial units for land-use and engineering purposes.
activity recent enough for the effects still to be visible as A map of special purpose engineering geological zoning
geomorphological forms. In addition, it is sometimes pos¬ would be prepared with a particular type of engineering un¬
sible to show on engineering geological maps areas of conti¬ dertaking in mind, for example, highways, dams, tunnels. On
nuing relative tectonic uplift and depression as determined such a map the zoning units would be based on the analysis
by geodetic measurements, and inferred active faults deter¬ of geological phenomena and on geotechnical parameters,
mined from historical records or geological data such as the and evaluated in terms of a particular engineering purpose.
14
Principles
scale maps, whereas at large scales all the details within the
2.9 General principles landslide area would have been mapped to scale.
On engineering geological maps, of all types and at all
The main principles of engineering geological mapping scales, the information provided should be presented in such
should be applicable to maps of all types and all scales. If a way that not only the true nature but also the engineering
this is done, it will be possible to compare maps prepared at significance of the data can be understood and fully appre¬
the same scale and at a variety of scales. The basic difference ciated.
between maps at different scales should only be in the
amount of data presented, and in the way in which informa¬
tion is presented. For example, the scale of the map will
2.10 Reference
determine whether a landslide is represented by a point sym¬ Hedberg, H. D. (ed.). 1972. An international guide to stratigraph¬
bol appropriate to small-scale maps. A generalized symbol ie classification, terminology, and usage. Lethaia, vol. 5, p. 297-
representing the type of landslide and occupying the actual 323. (International Subcommission on Stratigraphie Classifica¬
area covered by the landslide would be used on medium- tion, report no. 7B.)
15
Techniques for acquiring 3
and interpreting data
17
Engineering geological maps
terms. These terms should be applied to both the rock 4. Engineering geological type. In situ testing of mechanical
material and the rock mass and should include a description and other rock properties. Systematic laboratory testing
of colour, grain size, texture, structure, discontinuities within of physical and mechanical properties.
the mass, weathered state, alteration state, strength proper¬ Basic requirements for both investigation methods and
ties, permeability and other terms indicating special en¬ characterization methods in delineating mapping units are
gineering characteristics. summarized in Figure 1 in which the application of the
Adequate description of a rock or soil mass may require methods to maps at successively larger scales is illustrated.
additional information including the dip and strike, or the
attitude, of structures and discontinuities, the surface charac¬ 3.3.3 MAPPING HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
ter of bedding planes and other discontinuities, the variabili¬
ty of structures and discontinuities, the details of the wea¬ The principal hydrogeological conditions which need to be
thering profile. Of particular importance is the estimation of recorded or monitored in engineering geological mapping are
the degree of isotropy and homogeneity of the rock mass. of two types. The first is concerned with surface information,
All these characteristics should be described by using such as springs, seepages, rivers, lakes.
semi-quantitative descriptive terms which have been defined The second relates to subsurface information obtained
for use in different countries. from existing boreholes and wells or from exploratory bore¬
holes made for the purpose. Hydrogeological conditions
3.3.2 MAPPING OF ROCKS AND SOILS FOR should be quantified wherever possible.
ENGINEERING PURPOSES Springs and seepages both permanent and intermittent
should be mapped ; stream flow should be recorded and the
From the results of an engineering geological survey, the direction and flow of underground streams, for example in
engineering geologist should aim to produce a map on which karstic areas, should be determined
units are defined by engineering properties. In general the Boreholes should be used to provide information on
boundaries of these units could be expected to follow litho¬ piezometric levels, coefficient of permeability, storage coeffi¬
logical boundaries, but the engineering property boundaries cient, and groundwater chemistry.
might well bear no relation to either geological structure or Water samples should be collected for laboratory analy¬
to stratigraphical boundaries. An example would be where sis. Special attention should be paid to the determination of
deep weathering has differentially affected various rock pH and carbon dioxide and sulphate content as factors caus¬
types. The boundaries of rock and soil units shown on en¬ ing corrosion of engineering works. Wherever possible refer¬
gineering geological maps of various scales should therefore, ence should be made to hydrogeological maps and publica¬
as has been stated before (2.4), delimit rock and soil units tions if they are available.
which are characterized by a certain degree of homogeneity
in basic physical properties. Selection of an appropriate
method for drawing boundaries to mapping units in the field 3.3.4 MAPPING THE RESULTS OF
depends in the first instance on the purpose for which the GEODYNAMIC PROCESSES
mapping is being undertaken. In turn, purpose will dictate
an appropriate scale and scale will define the basic taxonom- The method adopted for the mapping of geodynamic
ic or mapping unit which may be the lithological suite, the phenomena (2.7) depends on the scale of the map. It is im¬
lithological complex, the lithological type or the engineering portant to describe not only the features but also the condi¬
geological type. tions favouring, and the factors causing, their development.
There are suitable methods for mapping the boundaries It is important to determine not only the extent of the
of each of these units, and these are: various phenomena, but also their frequency of occurrence,
1 . Lithological suite. The interpretation of existing geologi¬ die severity and the degree of activity and the rate at which
cal maps; reconnaissance mapping; photogeology. each process is going on. An attempt should also be made to
2. Lithological complex. Areal mapping with facial analysis predict the future development of the geodynamic phenome¬
to group together genetically related lithological types. na. Wherever possible each geodynamic system should be
3. Lithological type. Detailed areal mapping and pétro¬ evaluated quantitatively or semi-quantitatively.
graphie investigation. At small scales individual phenomena may be mapped
4. Engineering geological type. Detailed investigation of the from aerial photographs and by using other methods of
physical state of the rock or soil mass within a mapped remote sensing, or by a reconnaissance survey. Quantitative
lithological type. evaluation may be possible by using the past records of exist¬
Methods used in characterizing each of the basic taxonomic ing maps, by studying aerial photographs taken at different
or mapping units include : times in the past, or from historical and other archival
1. Lithological suite. Evaluation of probable rock behaviour records.
from a knowledge of the properties of known rock types. At large scales, on the other hand, it is possible to map
2. Lithological complex. Geophysical investigations in the the full geomorphological results of the activity, either by
field. Systematic boring and sampling in the field. In situ detailed topographical survey or from aerial photographs.
testing. Laboratory or field-laboratory testing of physical Detailed surface mapping may be supplemented by us¬
and index properties. Pétrographie investigation and the ing boreholes and geophysical methods. The rate of individ¬
evaluation of rock behaviour from a knowledge of the ual processes may be determined by direct measurement in
properties of known rock types. the field over a period of time. If the appropriate maps,
3. Lithological type. Detailed pétrographie investigation. photographs and archival material are available this aspect is
Geophysical testing in the field. Systematic determination aided by examination of successive editions of large-scale
of index properties in the laboratory. In situ and laborato¬ maps, by aerial photographs taken at intervals of time, and
ry testing of mechanical and other rock properties. by analysis of other records.
18
Techniques for acquiring and interpreting data
19
Engineering geological maps
I I I //// //
/ : °
°
0
' o
o
:
"
"
° :
\
o
o
« :
:
!
i ;
! ;
;
!
! ;
! ; i
/ .
° \ o : ° o ! ; : / / :
o .o . » : 0 : ; ; : ; ; / / /
o o : o : ; / / ./..' / / / /
o o : ° / / / / : / / / ./ ,
o o : » 1 / / / / / .- / / /
0 a . 0 /
0 o : o 1 j ; /
°
o
o
«
.
/
/ // .' . .
° . /
o ' /
Granitic suite. Multiple granitic intrusion Lower Triassic conglomerate complex. Lit¬
+ with remnants of schists comprising granite,
granodiorite, amphibolite, paragneiss
toral; conglomerates, sandstones and subor¬
dinate mudstones
Lower Triassic clastic suite. Conglomerate, Lower Triassic sandstone complex. Flys-
sandstone and mudstone complexes choid; calcareous sandstones, mudstones
and subordinate siltstones (lithostratigraphi¬
cal Omewa formation)
Fig. 1. The effect of scale on the basic requirement for the investigation and characterization of basic engineering geological mapping units.
20
Techniques for acquiring and interpreting data
Light greyish-brown, fine to very fine-grained Light greyish-brown, fine to very fine¬
thinly bedded micaceous MUDSTONE grained, thinly bedded, closely jointed
slightly weathered, micaceous MUDSTONE
which slakes slowly on exposure, moderate¬
ly weak
Dark brown and yellowish-brown, coarse¬ Light greyish-brown, fine to very fine¬
grained, medium to thickly bedded cal¬ grained, laminated, extremely closely joint¬
careous SANDSTONE ed, moderately to highly weathered,
micaceous MUDSTONE which crumbles in
the fingers, very weak
21
Engineering geological maps
predetermined depths be entirely suitable for engineering those which are not. The latter information is not processed
geological investigations. Likewise, sampling should be dic¬ further. At this stage an attempt should be made to assess
tated rather by the geological conditions than by a rigid the geological reliability of the data. This requires consider¬
system. able geological experience and a sound appreciation of those
general geological principles which may be applied to the
3.4.4 LABORATORY AND 'IN SITU' TESTING area being mapped. Data that appear to be unreliable after
this geological assessment should not be included in any fur¬
3.4.4.1 Laboratory tests ther processing.
Having selected and grouped the information, the
Basic properties of rocks and soils may be determined by various groups may now be arranged in classes. This in¬
standardized laboratory tests. volves the use of various geological, engineering geological
Properties which are independent of moisture content and engineering classifications adopted, for example, for the
include: particle size analysis; liquid and plastic limits; bulk classification of rocks and soils according to their various
density, both dry and saturated ; mineral grain specific gravi¬ properties, for the classification of groundwater and so on.
ty; porosity (voids ratio); mineralogy and petrography. The classification systems used may be those agreed upon
Many of the tests to determine physical properties internationally or those adopted by different countries. Clas¬
require undisturbed samples at their natural moisture con¬ sification is an important step in data processing; it enables
tent. They include : consistency ; cohesion and angle of inter¬ considerable quantities of data to be arranged into sets each
nal friction; compressibility; permeability; compressive of which can be considered homogeneous.
strength; tensile strength; attrition value; compaction. A logical or a statistical approach may be used to assess
In engineering geological mapping, twenty-five to thirty the generalized qualitative or quantitative characteristics of
samples are normally required for the statistical determina¬ each homogeneous set of data.
tion of the characteristics of each engineering geological The final step in data processing is the synthesis of gen¬
type. eralized information on the different individual components
of the engineering geological conditions in order to deter¬
3.4.4.2 In situ testing mine and define individual territorial units that are charac¬
terized by a certain and specified degree of uniformity in
Sophisticated instrumental techniques are available for their engineering geological conditions.
down-the-hole in situ determinations of, for example, the Beside these informal methods based on the skill and
deformation characteristics of rocks and soils, the shear experience of the engineering geologist, computers are now
strength of soils, natural radio-activity, resistivity and spon¬ beginning to be applied successfully to engineering geological
taneous potential, and piezometric pressure. mapping. There are three main areas of interest in the use of
Pumping-in and pumping-out tests may be carried out computers in this field: storage of coded data; statistical
in existing boreholes to provide data on the hydrogeological analysis of data and the correlation of a great number of
characteristics of subsurface materials variables; plotting or automatic drawing of computer pro¬
The walls of boreholes may be observed, and the details duced maps.
recorded, by borehole cameras which may be linked to sur¬
face monitors.
Tests not requiring the use of a borehole include deep 3.6 References
sounding tests. In these, static and dynamic penetrometers
are used to determine the resistance of the ground to the Bondarick, G. K. 1971. Osnovy teoriyi ismenchivosti inzhenerno-
penetration of a cone-shaped point. In the static penetration geologicheskikh svoistv gornikh porod [Principles of the theory of
test the cone is jacked into the ground causing steady pene¬ the variability of engineering-geological properties of rocks].
tration; a free-falling drop-hammer is used in the dynamic Moskva, Nedra.
test.
Bondarick,G. K..; Komarov, I. S.; Ferronsku, V. 1967. Polevie
metody inzhenerno-geologischeskikh issledovanii [Field methods
of engineering-geological investigations]. Moskva, Nedra.
Komarov, I. S. 1972. Nakoplenie i obrabotka informatsii pri inzhe-
3.5 Analysis and interpretation nernogeologischeskikh issledovamach [Acquisition and analysis
of data of information in engineering-geological investigations]. Mosk¬
va, Nedra.
Krynine, D.P.; Judd, W.R. 1957. Principles of engineering geo¬
In carrying out an engineering geological survey of an area, logy andgeotechnics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. 730 p.
information would have been gathered on all aspects of en¬ Lahee, F. H. 1961. Field geology. 6th ed. New York, Harper.
gineering geological conditions. The results obtained in the Low, J. W. 1957. Geological field methods. New York, Harper.
field and laboratory would include, for example, data on the Rengers, N. 1967. Terrestrial photogrammetry : a valuable tool
distribution and properties of rocks and soils, on ground¬ for engineering geological purposes. Rock mechanics and en¬
gineering geology, vol. 5, p. 150-4.
water, and on both geomorphological conditions and geo¬
Terzaghi, K.; Peck, R. B. 1967. Soil mechanics in engineering
dynamic processes (2.1). This information would have been practice. 2nd ed. New York, Wiley.
recorded directly on the field map sheet, in field notebooks,
as borehole logs, and as the tabulated results of laboratory
investigations.
Analysis of the data involves the selection and grouping
of all the available information into those aspects which are
considered of importance and absolutely necessary for the
specific purposes for which the map is being made, and into
22
Presentation of data on engineering 4
geological maps
23
Engineering geological maps
complex of surficial deposits may be shown by light colours mapped. On medium-scale maps areas occupied by geo¬
selected according to a standard scheme1 representing their dynamic features should be delineated and the boundaries of
lithogenetic character. Bedrock may be shown by darker individual features should be shown where possible.
colours or coloured patterns in which the colour indicates On medium-scale maps on which zoning is shown, zones
the genesis and the pattern the lithology of the rocks and are discriminated on the basis of the homogeneity and struc¬
soils. The age of rocks and soils may be represented by tural arrangement of rock and soil map units. Where pos¬
generally adopted geological symbols on the map or on the sible, smaller areal units may be indicated in which either
legend. hydrogeological or geodynamic phenomena, or both, are
Hydrogeological data may be shown by isolines or uniform.
numerically as point symbols in a generalized form for each
complex of rocks and soils. Position of water tables, estimat¬ 4.2.2.3 Large-scale comprehensive multipurpose maps
ed quantity and details of groundwater chemistry may also
be given. Large-scale maps are prepared by detailed field investiga¬
Surface topography is shown by contours, and point tions and mapping, using all existing archival material, syste¬
symbols may be used to indicate significant geomorphologi¬ matic subsurface exploratory and geophysical work and field
cal elements. and laboratory testing. It is necessary to determine the physi¬
Selected point symbols may be used to show areas of cal and mechanical properties of all rock and soil units
active geodynamic processes, and seismic activity is shown represented on the map. Sufficient data may be available to
by isoseisms. permit statistical analysis of the results.
On small-scale maps on which zoning is shown a general Lithological and engineering geological rock and soil
uniformity of the main components of the geological envi¬ types and their structure and spatial arrangement in depth
ronment is the criterion adopted for discriminating individ¬ may be shown by a combination of colours and coloured
ual zoning units. These could be regions on the basis of patterns (or simply in black and white). Two or more upper¬
geotectonic elements, areas determined by macrogeomor- most rock and soil units should be shown on the map to¬
phology, and possibly zones on the basis of uniformity in gether with a lithological description in engineering geological
lithofacial character and structural arrangement. terms. Statistically determined rock and soil properties may
be indicated in the legend.
4.2.2.2 Medium-scale comprehensive multipurpose maps In deciding the depth to which engineering geological
conditions should be shown, the main purpose for which the
Medium-scale maps are prepared on the basis of field investi¬ map may serve will have to be taken into account as well as
gations and mapping supplemented by the use of existing the complexity of the geology.
archival material and any necessary complementary work. Different methods available for three-dimensional repre¬
The same information should be shown on medium-scale sentation of thickness and depth conditions are dealt with in
maps as on small-scale maps but should be presented in section 4.5.
greater detail. Lithological suites may be divided into litho¬ On large-scale maps hydrogeological conditions may be
logical complexes and, if possible, into even smaller combi¬ represented at suitable intervals, say 1 m, by isohypses, iso¬
nations of lithological types. Two or three uppermost rock baths and isopiestic lines, with known fluctuations shown
and soil units may be shown on the map together with a numerically. The results of chemical analyses of groundwater
lithological description of engineering geological terms. may be shown numerically or by symbols. Other necessary
Rock and soil properties may be indicated in the legend. data on water conservation areas and other aspects of hydro-
In determining the depth to which engineering geologi¬ geology may be shown.
cal conditions should be shown, the main purpose as well as Surface topograhy is shown by contours, and the actual
geological complexity will have to be taken into account. boundaries and details of geomorphological features can be
As with small-scale maps, the rocks and soils at the shown. The actual boundaries of individual geodynamic fea¬
surface may be shown by colour, and underlying complexes tures, and where possible their internal structures, can be
may be shown by distinguishing coloured patterns. If more shown on large-scale maps.
than two rock and soil complexes are to be shown different Zoning on large-scale maps is based on the homogeneity
methods of three-dimensional representation may be applied and structural arrangement of the mapped rock and soil
(4.5). Gradational values of thickness could be shown by units, as well as on the uniformity of hydrogeological condi¬
different intensities of the colours used to distinguish various tions and geodynamic phenomena.
complexes, by variation in thickness of the coloured pat¬
terns, by isolines of thickness, or by numbers. Similar varia¬
tions in colour or thickness of line in patterns could also be 4.3 Special purpose maps
used for indicating different graduation in depth. Depths
may also be shown by isolines or by numbers. Special purpose engineering geological maps are prepared
On medium-scale maps the water table may be repre¬ for one specific purpose or provide information on one spe¬
sented by contours and its range of fluctuation indicated by cific aspect of engineering geology. They may be analytical
numbers. In mountainous regions this is not possible and or comprehensive and are prepared at all scales.
depth to water table and other features can only be shown by Techniques used for representation of rock and soil
numbers. Both depths to confined water and piezometric units, hydrogeological conditions as well as geomorphology
levels can be shown by contours. and geodynamic features are the same as those used for
Data on groundwater chemistry should be shown on the multipurpose maps (4.2.1 to 4.2.2.3).
map by symbols or numerically.
There is at present no generally recognized international standard scheme of colours
Surface topography is shown by contours and the actual 1
and symbols for use on engineering geological maps However, there is an interna¬
boundaries and details of geomorphological features can be tional legend for hydrogeological maps (Unesco, 1970)
24
Presentation of data on engineering geological maps
4.3.1 ANALYTICAL SPECIAL PURPOSE MAPS bedrock surface and details of the surficial deposits should if
possible be shown by any one of several methods: the stripe
These maps represent individual components of the engineer¬ method; bedrock contours; point logs of borings; cross-
ing geological conditions and evaluate them from the view¬ sections (4.6); isometric diagrams; or isopachous lines. No
point of one specific purpose. For example, landslides may method used should overcrowd the map to the point of il¬
be evaluated in the context of urban development in which legibility. For showing on medium- and large-scale maps the
the engineering geological component is the landslide and depth and thickness of Quaternary deposits with only a few
the specific purpose for which the map is made is urban units between the ground surface and the bedrock surface,
development; other examples involving landslides would be the stripe method is suggested as being particularly useful.
landslides and land reclamation, or landslides and the
stability of reservoir slopes. To quote but a few examples,
rocks and soils could be considered from the point of view of
industrial use, of quarrying, of settlement characteristics of 4.6 Engineering geological
the ground and of water seepage from natural or artificial
reservoirs; each of these combinations would be represented
cross-sections
on a single analytical special purpose map. Engineering geological cross-sections are a necessary adjunct
to all main types of engineering geological maps. The num¬
ber and direction of cross-sections are chosen, taking into
4.3.2 COMPREHENSIVE SPECIAL PURPOSE MAPS account geomorphology and geological structure, to illus¬
trate the relationship between the components of the en¬
Comprehensive special purpose maps represent on one map gineering geological conditions.
sheet all the basic components of engineering geological con¬ The horizontal scale of cross-sections should be equal
ditions (2.1) and classify and evaluate them from the view¬ to, or larger than, the scale of the map. Vertical scale is
point of one specific purpose. The specific purpose could be chosen so that it is possible to show the extent and character
urban development, underground construction or transpor¬ of the uppermost rock and soil units. The depth to which the
tation routes as some examples. cross-section is drawn should be directly related to the depth
Evaluation for different specific purposes could also be of available boreholes and other excavations.
done on a map of engineering geological zoning by grouping All information presented on the map should also be
territorial units on the basis of the uniformity of their en¬ shown on the cross-sections, for example hydrogeological
gineering geological conditions. Such a zoning map could be conditions, engineering geological zoning, the results of geo¬
a separate map sheet, or at small scales could be combined dynamic processes and engineering properties of all rock and
with the map of engineering geological conditions. soil units. The degree of detail on the cross-section will cor¬
respond with the detail shown on the map.
25
Engineering geological maps
26
Examples of engineering 5
geological maps
27
Engineering geological maps
28
Examples of engineering geological maps
Legend
LANDSLIDE ABUNDANCE RANKS
m Most abundant
29
Engineering geological maps
30
Examples of engineering geological maps
SAN GREGORIU
STATE BEACH
POMPON 10
STATE BEACH
PESCADERO
STATE BEACH
31
Engineering geological maps
32
Examples of engineering geological maps
Comment
The map was prepared for the purposes of regional and symbols in blue colour. Point symbols in red are used to
land-use planning. show areas of technically important geodynamic phenomena
Basic engineering geological data on rocks, groundwater (e.g. landslides, gully erosion, karst phenomena).
and geodynamic phenomena are represented, and on the The method of zoning is applied to delimit different
basis of their uniformity engineering geological areas and types of engineering geological areas and zones. The discrim¬
zones are delimited. ination of areas is based on the uniformity of individual
Rocks and soils are divided into lithological suites and regional geomorphological units, and zones are delimited on
complexes. Colours are used for the representation of litho¬ the basis of the general character and structural arrangement
logical character and patterns for the lithology of Quater¬ of hthological complexes.
nary surficial materials (in ochre) and pre-Quatemary base¬ The illustration is a small part of a map by R. Ondrasik
ment (in grey). Quaternary deposits are shown only where and M. Matula (Czechoslovakia), at a scale of 1 : 200,000.
thicker than 3 m. The age of rocks is shown only in the
legend by geological symbols.
Hydrogeological conditions are represented in a gener¬
alized form for each complex of rocks and soils by numerical
(D = clays)
Lower
terrigenous
suite
Qti
Ki Littoral quartzitic
complex
A, = quartzite (conglomerate),
A2 = shales
(continued overleaf)
33
Engineering geological maps
5.2.2.1 continued
Symbols Main lithological Dry bulk Porosity Uniaxial Indentation Modulus of Durability
types density % compressive hardness deformation
g cm"3 strength (Srejner) E
kgf cm "MO1 kgfmm~2 kgf cm-2 10s
tu« Tuffs 1.30-1.70 30-40 1-2.5 50-80 0.4-0.8 Variable, not frost
resistant, slake
Tuffites 1.68-1.85 29-37 1-1.15
34
Examples of engineering geological maps
Ease of
excavation
2-4 Thickness 1-9 m, fragmentary debris at the base, very low permeability, without permanent groundwater table, much gully erosion and
landsliding used for brick materials, impervious materials for dams.
5 Dome-shaped bodies, stratified structure, open fissures, slightly permeable along fissures and cavities, slightly soluble in water; used for
construction purposes
4 Cross-bedded sandy gravels and sands with alternating silty clays and clays; lateral transitions and wedging out. Sands and gravels are dense
2-3 and slightly to moderately permeable; suitable for fills, locally may be suitable for concrete. Lenticles of cohesive soils are well consolidated,
slightly permeable to effectively impermeable; used for brick making
7 Outliers and remnants of lava flows several metres to tens of metres thick, predominant prismatic jointing. Homogeneous, except marginally.
3-5 Intense weathering to several metres, moderately permeable along fissures. Suitable for building stone and crushed aggregates. Irregular
bodies of ashy to coarse-clastic tuffs, very heterogeneous, permeable along fissures and through pores. Suitable for light construction material
6-7 (a) irregular andesitic bodies several to 100 m thick, homogeneous except at the margins, predominantly prismatic jointing, frequent
5-7 tectonic disturbance, sometimes propylitized. Fissure permeability. Suitable as a construction material
(b) tuffs tens to hundreds of metres thick, very heterogeneous tuffs and agglomerates, variably cemented, permeable through pores and
along joints. Of limited use as a construction material
5-6 Tens to hundreds of metres thick irregular horizons of chaotic and stratified tuffs alternating with tuffites of varied grain size and degree of
heterogeneity. Irregular jointing and frequent selective weathering. Permeable through pores and fissures. Of limited use as a construction
material
5-6 Thick to massive bedded relatively homogeneous limestones and dolomites. Limestones are highly karstilied and highly peimeable. Used as
4-6 a construction material; purer horizons are used for lime production
Massive dolomites with intercalations of shale and limestone are tectonically disturbed. Weathered to various depths to dolomite sand
containing dolomite fragments Locally used as fill material
4-6 Thickly bedded to massive quartzites with horizons of sencitic and chlontic shales, dynamometamorphosed to a varying degree. Weathered
to a fine rubble. Permeable in tectonically disturbed zones. A suitable material for crushed aggregates
Massive, homogeneous, in places tectonically disturbed and dynamometamorphosed. Polyhedral jointing. Permeable along fissures and
disturbed zones. A suitable construction material
(continued overleaf)
35
Engineering geological maps
5.2.2.1 continued
AREAS ZONES
Ce Dm Loamy slopewash soils 2-7 m Very slightly water-bearing to Intense slope erosion in ero¬
Areas of the volcanic high¬ Zone of slope- thick. In the substratum there practically dry sive furrows and gullies
lands wash deposits are solid and semi-solid,
Young and variegated moun¬ on magmatic slightly compressible volcanic
tainous landscape, formed by and metamor¬ and pyroclastic rocks
the destruction of original phic rocks
stratovolcanic forms due to
differencial neotectonic move¬
ments and erosion
Dg Fu Coarse-grained gravels, sandy Gravel deposits are highly Washing out of the banks
Areas of intramountain basins Zone of flood- gravels, sands and sandy to saturated. The groundwater causes small slope failures in
Tectonically originated plain alluvial clayey loams. Large rivers level is at a depth of 5 m. some places
regional depressions, in which deposits may also have sapropelic fills Large areas often flood at high
selective erosion and accumu¬ in abandoned river branches groundwater levels
lation of soft Pliocene and and depressions. Thickness of
Quaternary sediments condi¬ alluvium 5-1 1 m
tioned moderate to flat forms
of landscape/large river flood-
plains and terraces dominat¬
ing
Nk Moderately compacted Plio¬ On the gTavelly Pliocene Intensive slope erosion in the
Zone of pre- cene gravels, with silty-clayey complex abundant small hill¬ form of deep furrows. Fre¬
Quaternary bond, and weakly consoli¬ side springs may occur on quent small slides at contacts
alternating dated Pliocene clays of higher slopes with tuffites
cohesive and plasticity
uncohesive sedi¬
ments
Note. In this table the characteristics for only two selected types of areas and three types of zones are presented as an example.
36
Examples of engineering geological maps
Cuttings and side-slope The construction of larger Foundation conditions are very When determining the line of Brick clays
cuts will mainly be fills may lead to slope fail¬ good. The only serious problem roads and railways difficulties
excavated in slopewash ure. Use of a combination of is the question of ensuring arise because of the effect of
deposits and the under¬ half fill-half cut would be slope stability during construc¬ the gullies, and the need
lying weathered rocks; advantageous tion for good drainage to maintain
ground water issuing stability
from the slope is easily
collected and drained
from the site
As a rule foundation Does not cause difficulties, In foundation of buildings with With regard to its very slight Abundant stocks of
excavations have to be but strongly compressible cellars difficulties are caused by relief the zone is convenient. high quality gravel and
made below ground¬ non-load-bearing sludgy the high water table. Necessity Difficulties occur in districts sand for the produc¬
water level. In deeper and putrified muddy accu¬ of installing waterproofing of marshes and oxbow lakes tion of concrete.
excavations in gravels mulations in oxbow lakes (uplift pressure), in some cases Abundant fill material
large influxes of water and the fringes of alluvial precautions against
cones require attention corrosiveness. Fluctuating
groundwater level and frequent
flooding deteriorate the
foundation materials
Cuttings are excavated The construction of bigger This zone is less suitable for On account of clayey mate¬ Possible advan¬
mostly in moderate fills may lead to slope fail¬ heavy construction of larger rials and the presence of deep tageous large gravel
slopes. Eventual ure. Use of a combination of settlements and industrial struc¬ scours, the zone is only condi¬ pits and clay pits.
groundwater influxes half fill-half cut of smaller tures. It is mainly suitable for tionally suitable for transport Gravels of Pliocene
from the slope are easily dimensions would be simpler structures constructions complex are, however,
collected and drained advantageous of lesser quality
from the site
37
Engineering geological maps
38
Examples of engineering geological maps
GENETlC-LITHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
DC
Slopewash ÍQ3-4 Sandy-loessic to clayey slope loams
(Deluvial)
Lacustrine frN2 Lacustrine and alluvial sandy to loamy gravels with sand
fluvial beds
(contumed overleaf)
39
Engineering geological maps
5.2.2.2 continued
Symbol Building Road construction Soil Ease of For rock ni.ilcnal of the principal lithological types (on undisturbed samples)
foundation classification excavation
.conditions Foundation Material for Lithological types
embankments
D2
MV MV CL Loessic-clayey soil
i'fN2 2-3
D3 ML Sandy-loessic soil
40
Examples of engineering geological maps
2.692 1 51 43 06 30 24 14
1.42-1.62' 39-47 0.1-0.9 25-32 21-30 32-14 10-22
2.61 1.57 0.8 29 29 41 16
1.30-1.78 36-51 0.4-1.3 15-35 18-35 30-54 7-24
2.65-2.68 1.80-1.90
2 63 176 45 29 25 40 16
1.15-1.60 40-55 0.3-1.0 23^6 19-40 29-60 12-23
1 67 37 09 20 20 36 15
1.30-1.70 30-50 0.7-1.1 14-39 15-24 22^18 6-24
2.68 1.68 36 16 48
2.71 1.69 37 26 70
2.61 1.85 29
ft onimued o\ ci leafJ
41
Engineering geological maps
5.2.2.2 continued
III. ENGINEERING-GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIC (cOtlt.)
For rock material of the principal lithological types (on undisturbed samples) (coni.)
25 0.5 85
ÍQ3-4
11 0.8
?Q3 27 0.1
?Q3-4 30 36
0Q3
302 84 kz=0.87<¡
'N2-Q4
118 kz = 0.60
9 1.0 80
i'rN2
14 0.7 147-105
frN2
42
Examples of engineering geological maps
Thickness 0-2 m. Horizontal thin to laminar bedding. Vertical anisotropy. Strong slaking. Soft to solid consistency. Intercalations of organic soils.
Slight permeability.
Thickness 0-1.5 m. Medium sands, intercalations of silts, cross-bedded. Considerable loam admixture decreases the permeability and increases
coherence. Facially very variable. Strongly weathered in older terraces.
Sandy medium gravels with sand intercalations 3-9 m thick. Irregular bedding, vertical anisotropy. Moderate permeability 5.10-4 m/s. Water-bearing,
locally corrosive. Boulders at the base. In older terraces strongly weathered, loamy, permeability 3.10-6. In lateral valleys coarse, bouldery,
heterogeneous.
Deposits occupy numerous irregular abandoned river arms and depressions at the edges of alluvial cones. Sandy and loessic sapropelic muds,
very soft to soft consistency, water saturated. Very low permeability, slakes readily. No bearing capacity, very strongly compressible.
Irregularly to cryptobedded, predominantly 1.5-3 m thick, at the foot of slopes more than 10 m thick, sandy-loessic brown loams, with fragments
of volcanic rocks. On Pliocene deposits more clayey, rust-brown, with gravels. Stiff to very stiff, weather to prismatic fragments. In places slake
readily. Very slightly permeable. Used for brick making.
Irregular bodies, accumulations and sheets adapted to the relief. Variable thickness. Semi-solid rocks, strongly fissured, macroporous and permeable.
Soluble, karstified. Hardly suitable for building or decorative stone.
Facially very homogeneous cryptobedded clayey to sandy-loessic soils, up to 10-15 m thick. Brown to rusty-brown, spotted. Stiff to very stiff
consistency. Diagenetically consolidated. Prismatic disintegration. Practically impermeable.
Sandy-loamy medium gravels 5-50 m thick. Lenticular intercalations of sands. Strongly weathered, in places weakly cemented. Medium permeability.
Coarse-bedded psephitic-psammitic tuffs deposited in water environment. They alternate with psephitic to pelitic tuffites. Varied colours, facial
variability and physical heterogeneity. Weak semi-solid rocks, weather readily, disintegrate in water. Little jointing and low permeability.
43
Engineering geological maps
44
Examples of engineering geological maps
SUBZONES
Dm Slopewash loams 5-8 m thick Very slightly water¬ Extensive sheet h2B' Slopewash loams,
on andesitic agglomerates and bearing slopewash on and gully erosion. clayey, less sandy, stiff
tuffs. Moderate slopes, locally relatively permeable Shallow landslides to very stiff, 2-5 m
intensively dissected by bedrock and earth flows DM thick, on agglomeratic
erosion h2 tuffs and agglomer¬
ates, interbedded with
lapiHi tuffs
Fu Floodplain alluvium formed Territory regularly In places the river klg3B' Loam and sand
of gravel beds 5-9 m thick affected by large floods. banks are 0.5-2 m thick, under¬
covered by sand, or loam Water table usually undercut lain with sandy
0.5-2 m thick <2 m deep. Water gravels 6-9 m thick. In
locally corrosive (high the depth of 5-9 m
SO4 content) substratum as in zone
Dm (tuffs)
Note In this table the characteristics for only three selected types of subzones of three typical zones are presented as an example.
45
Engineering geological maps
Subzones are quasihomogeneous models of qualitative Strata thickness Depth of pre-Quaternary sur¬
and quantitative vertical structure of zonation grounds and face
their delimitation is made according to the following criteria
(abbreviated) : 1= <2m l = <5m
2 = 2-5 m 2=5-10m
Quaternary deposits Pre-Quaternary basement 3=>5m 3=>10m
g = Gravelly soils S= Solid (hard) rocks
p = Sandy soils B = Semisolid (weak) rocks
n= Alternation of gravelly F = Alternation of hard and
and sandy soils weak rocks (flyschoid)
h = Cohesive soils Z= Highly weathered rocks Subzones are indicated by symbols, which are formed by
k=Combination of cohesive G = Gravelly soils grouping the corresponding signs for soil and rock (type,
and uncohesive soils P= Sandy soils thickness, or depth of the pre-Quaternary basement) accord¬
s= Loess soils N = Alternation of gravels ing to vertical sequence of delimited strata. For example the
o = Organic soils and sands symbol hlg2S' expresses the model of the foundation soil, in
b = Bouldery soils I = Cohesive soils which cohesive soils (thickness <2 m) are underlain by
K = Combination of cohesive gravels (thickness 2-5 m) and in the depth to <5 m hard
and non-cohesive soils rocks of pre-Quaternary basement occur.
Estimated bearing capacity Pile bearing Foundation evaluation according Suitability for road founda¬ Capillarity Frost Evaluation of road
q kgf/ cm "2 at a 2m,6 m depth capacity to the standard for foundation tion according to standard for susceptibility construction
for foundation width m1 Piles 01,000 cm2, transport roads conditions
Depth of water below length 6 m
foundation Road on Embankment
natural on natural
subgrade subgrade
46
Examples of engineering geological maps
Dry
1:1.4 1:2.2 15 50 2-3 Gravel and loam Because of the irregular occurrence of
1:1.8 1:2.5 extraction ; gravels of poor sand and clayey-sand intercalations a
quality dense network of boreholes is required
1:1.4 1:2.2 40 180 400 1-2 Considerable quantities of Variable corrosive ground water
1:1.8 1:2.5 2-3 a good quality fluvial properties
gravel for concrete
47
Engineering geological maps
Legend
Map of relative ease of excavation, Utah (United States), at a
Excavation very easy
scale of approximately 1 : 2(X),000
Excavation easy
Excavation easy to difficult; variability due to inter-
3
bedded resistant and soft rocks
Excavation difficult
48
Examples of engineering geological maps
This map shows relative ease (or difficulty) with which rocks Comment
and surficial deposits can be excavated. Because of rapidly
changing technology of excavation and considerable local The map selected here as an example of a special purpose,
variability of many rock units, it is not practical to specifical¬ analytical, small-scale map is one of a series of maps prepared
ly categorize rock units according to type of equipment for the same area at a scale of 1 : 250,000. Map 1-591 (sheet 1
needed for their excavation. However, it may be stated in of two) is a standard type of geological map with an exten¬
general that rock units classed as very easy and easy can in sive descriptive legend of surficial and solid formations. It
most places be excavated by hand tools and by light machin¬ serves to emphasize the close relationship between structure
ery such as backhoes and small bulldozers ; units included in and stratigraphy and the derived 'ease-of-excavation' map
easy to difficult require blasting and (or) heavy machinery illustrated here.
such as rippers and large bulldozers for resistant rocks, and Other complementary maps in the series provide an ex¬
hand tools or light power equipment for soft rocks, and units ample of the use of structural contours (map 1-591, sheet 2
classed as difficult and very difficult probably require blasting of two). Hydrological and hydrogeological maps include
and heavy machinery. map 1-59 1-D, showing normal annual and monthly precipi¬
The excavation units shown here are based on map units tation in the Salina Quadrangle, Utah; map I-591-F, surface
of the geologic map of the Salina quadrangle. Where water, map 1-59 1-G, springs; map 1-59 1-K, general chemi¬
bedrock is mantled with thin unmapped surficial deposits, cal quality of groundwater; map I-591-M, general avail¬
ease of excavation shown is that of the bedrock, not that of ability of groundwater; and map 1-59 1-N, drainage basins
the thin surficial mantle; where surficial deposits are and historic cloudburst floods. Other specialized maps in¬
mapped, ease of excavation shown is that of the surficial clude map I-591-E showing the length of freeze-free season,
deposits. and map 1-59 1-H which shows the distribution of different
types of bedrock and surficial deposits. The latter is a litho¬
logical map showing twenty-one lithological groupings with
short descriptions, in the place of the eighty-three formations
and other lithostratigraphical types depicted on the geologi¬
cal map. Basically map H is a simplified version of the main
geological map, and illustrates the difference between litho¬
logical maps and lithostratigraphical maps.
This example has been redrawn from a part of
P. L. Williams, Map Showing Relative Ease of Excavation in
the Salina Quadrangle , Utah. Folio of the Salina Quadrangle,
Utah Map I-591-J. United States Geological Survey, 1972.
49
Engineering geological maps
50
Examples of engineering geological maps
Legend
Good or very G to 3 m. r G to 6 m.
good. GVG B3-9m GVG 6-9 m
from 0 to 9 m
A
Good on the G to 3 m. G to 6 m.
whole. G from VB 3-9 m B6-9m
Oto 9 m
J
I
Bad, locally GVG to 3 m. G to 6 m.
mediocre. G 3-9 m VB 6-9 m
B from 0 to 9 m
J
Very bad and GVG to 3 m. GVG to 6 m.
fill. VB B3-9m
from 0 to 9 m 2ZZZ °16-9 m
VB to 3 m. GVG to 3 m. GVG to 6 m.
GVG 3-9 m VB 3-9 m
"777? B6-9m
VB to 3 m. VB to 6 m. W / / Ä GVG to 6 m.
G 3-9 m GVG 6-9 m mSmy vB6-9m
S
VB to 3 m. VB to 6 m.
B3-9m G 6-9 m
B to 3
GVG 3-9 m
m. .
^
/X /VA
VB to
B6-9m
6 m. GVG
B to 3 m. B to 6 m.
G 3-9 m GVG 6-9 m
21
B to 3 m. B to 6 m.
B3-9m G 6-9 m
6.00 m
G to 3 m. B to 6 m. to
GVG 3-9 m VB 6-9 m 9.00 m
21
51
Engineering geological maps
Map of part of the Northeast Corridor, Washington, D.C., to Boston (United States), reproduced at approximately 1:265,000;
produced for transport planning
Legend
The map units are based on lithology and do not Quartzite, with interbedded conglomer- ^^(li°<
imply stratigraphie succession. See pages 52 and 53 ate, schist and gneiss
for detailed descriptions and engineering properties.
Massive to gneissic granitic rocks.
Range in composition from quartz dio-
Basalt flows, diabase dykes, and sills
rite to granite
Greenstone
bolite, hypersthene granulite, quartz-plagioclase gneiss, biotite-quartz-
feldspar gneiss, mica schist, greenstone and schistose felsite.
Legend
Contact
52
Examples of engineering geological maps
53
Engineering geological maps
Geological description
Physical properties 2
Dry unit weight (kg per cubic metre). 3,000-3,200.
Compressive strength.3 High to very high.
Engineering characteristics
Evaluation of rock for construction.4
Hydrologie conditions1
1 The stratigraphie nomenclature used in this report is that of the authors of the various
. Inferred for intact rock Modulus is reduced by physical defects and chemical altera¬
data sources and does not necessarily conform with usage of the United States Geo¬ tion in rock, it differs with respect to bedding, foliation, or direction of principal
logical Survey. residual stress
2. Physical data available only for some rock units; where data are lacking, the physical Modulus class Range of static modulus
properties are inferred from comparisons with those of rock elsewhere that possess of elasticity (kgfjcm2)
similar composition, structure and geological histories Very high >8 4x105
3 Classification is for uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock. Strength is reduced High 5 6x105-8.4x10'
by physical defects and chemical alteration in rock, it may differ with respect to Medium 2 8 x lO'-S 6 x 10'
bedding, foliation or direction of principal residual stress. Low 7 x 10*-2.8 x 105
Strength class Range of compressive Very low <7 x lfjt
strength (kgf¡cm2) Number indicates rock most difficult to drill Numbers increase with ease of drilling.
1
Very high > 2,200 The well-yield data used here are based on public-supply and industrial wells in which
High 1,100-2,200 the maximum potential of the aquifer was being developed
Medium 550-1,100
Low 280-550
Very low <280
4 Reported construction characteristics are limited in number. Evaluations of rock
units, for the most part, are inferred from generalized conditions of structure, altera¬
tion, hydrology and state-of-stress Specific conditions can change within short dis¬
tance. More renned engineering evaluations must be based on more detailed know¬
ledge of geological conditions.
54
Examples of engineering geological maps
Geological description
Symbol and designation. Qt. Younger ground moraine. Yield of wells. Range: 4.5-68 litres per minute; median: 27 litres
Lithology. Till (GM, GC, SM).i Chiefly an unsorted mixture of per minute.
clay, silt, sand, gravel and boulders. Varies from a cohesive, Coefficient of permeability. Range: 0.8-180 litres per day per
moderately clayey material with embedded pebbles, cobbles and square metre; median: .
boulders (boulder clay) to a very-well-graded sand with gravel, Specific capacity6 (litres per minute per metre). Range : ; median:
cobbles, boulders and minor silt derived mostly from nearby
bedrock. Stratification generally lacking, poor to crude where
present. Generally very compact, firm and friable; upper few Water-table conditions
feet may be somewhat loose. Colour varies with weathering (ox¬ Specific yield.1 5-17 per cent.
idation) and with colour of dominant source bedrock. Generally Free water content* 60-210 litres per cubic metre.
grey when unweathered, buff to brown when oxidized; reddish- Excavation permeability.9 5.5-190 litres per day per square metre.
brown in areas of reddish-brown bedrock. Locally contains or
underlies thin lenticular sand and gravel. Overlain by many
small, thin swamps containing muck and peat, and stream
courses with post-glacial alluvium that are not shown on map.
Locally patchy; numerous bedrock exposures within unit not
shown.
Thickness. Very irregular, generally less than 7 m. Unit normally
thin to absent on hill crests and along major escarpments,
thickness downslope to 15 m or more on lower slopes. In
drumlins may be 45 m thick or more.
Alteration. Upper 1-18 m oxidized; most stones unweathered or
nearly so.
Topography. A nearly ubiquitous mantle overlying the bedrock
surface. Unusually thick till underlies streamlined hills, called
drumlins, which may be as much as 45 m high; some drumlins
have a core of bedrock.
Technical characteristics
Evaluation
1 Unified Soil Classification System adopted by Corps of Engineers, United States 7. The ratio of the volume of water which a saturated rock or soil will yield by gravity to
Army. The Unified Soil Classification System, Waterways Experimental Station, its own volume, staled as a percentage Values used in this text are laboratory deter¬
Vicksburg, Miss , 1953, Vol 1, 30 p , 9 pi ; Vol 2, 1 1 p., pi (Tech. Memo 3-357 )
1 minations or estimates based on field experience.
Based on grain size, gradation, plasticity and compressibility of soil Symbols assigned 8. Litres per cubic metre yielded by gravity drainage
are approximate, based upon limited test data. 9. Rate of flow of water in litres per day through a cross section of 1 square metre under
2 Bearing capacity (numerical values (tons per square metre) applied to qualifying a unit hydraulic gradient at prevailing water temperatures.
adjectives) : very poor = less than 1 , poor = 1-43 , fair = 43-86 ; good = 86-350 , excel¬
1 1
lent = greater than 350 Compressibility = volume decrease in a soil mass in response
to an external load Expansion = volume increase that is a function of load, time,
density, water content and type of clay minerals.
3. Cut slopes (numerical values, m degrees, applied to qualifying adjectives)' verti-
cal = 90, near vertical = 80-89 , steep=45-80, moderate - 30-45 ; gentle = 0-30.
4. The well-yield data used in the preparation of this text are based on public-supply and
industrial wells in which the maximum potential of the aquifer was being developed
(litres per minute).
5. Data given under general conditions should be used for calculations pertaining to
artesian aquifers in tunnelling or deep excavations where it may not be possible to
dissipate the hydrostatic head.
6. Specific capacity is the discharge expressed as a rate of yield per unit of drawdown.
Data used are selected to represent conditions of optimum well development and
therefore reflect aquifer characteristics.
55
Engineering geological maps
Legend
Geodynamic phenomena: Structural and tectonic phenomena :
Upper limit of beach cliff and limit of wave -> Bedding, dip and strike
attack
Legend
Terrain classified on the basis of stability : Other symbols:
tesi Unstable
O Exploration borehole
[jiT 1 Unstable, partly stabilized
t Sample for geomechanical analysis
^^^ Potentially unstable
<W- Trace of electrical resistivity traverse
^^^ Conditionally stable (in conditions of predo-
^^^ minantly horizontal relief) Trace of seismic refraction profile
^^ Stable
56
Examples of engineering geological maps
Lithological composition and some important properties of the Map of seismic microzoning (bottom map) :
engineering geological complexes (top map).
Limestone and chert. Limestone with beds and lenses Part of complexes of carbonate and limestones with
of chert, silicified marlstone and claystone cherts, tectonically moderately disturbed or in a zone of
Limestone is thinly to thickly bedded, tectonically more high slopes (K = 0.05)
fractured, karstification rather poor, porosity from
fractured to cavernous, permeability irregular More fractured and tectonically disturbed parts of
complexes of carbonate and limestones with cherts,
where large blocks are liable to fall (K = 0.06)
Carbonate rocks undivided. Limestone with subordi¬
nate dolomite, dolomitic limestone, sandy and marly
limestone Complex of flysch and flyschoid rocks, small isolated
Mechanically rather resistant, considerable karstifica¬ masses of carbonate rocks on flysh, as well as highly
tion, cavernous to fractured, mainly readily permeable; consolidated semi-cohesive and uncohesive materials in
rockfalls and talus on steep slopes the zone of surface weathering (K = 0.08)
57
Engineering geological maps
5.3.2.3 Special purpose, comprehensive, large-scale map frozen and partly frozen water, thickness of Quaternary de¬
posits, and contemporary geological processes and phenome¬
Map of a mining area, originally produced at 1 : 10000,
na. It also gives an evaluation of the area for construction
reproduced here at 1 : 100,000 approximately
purposes.
58
Examples of engineering geological maps
Other symbols :
Diluvial, Upper Quaternary (dQm)
V7, Depth of seasonal melting in metres (numerator)
I- s
¿à 1
Lithological boundaries
(a) Io to 2°
(b) + Io to +2°
I J I +5° to +7° XL
no*
E
Requiring engineering preparation
Frozen water (ice) content of rocks:
c (a) Low (b) Medium (c) High Requiring very complicated engineering preparation
EL
B b
1. Note that the symbols in the legend have been reduced more than the equivalent map
symbols. 59
Engineering geological maps
I^Ul
Cross-section A-A". Engineering-geological cross-section (with indices of saturation, consistency, loess collapsibility, strength and
deformability).
101
60
Examples of engineering geological maps
Legend Comment
Boreholes, 5-10 m in depth The map is accompanied by an axonometric three-dimen¬
sional model, and tables of characteristics of map rock units
Boreholes, 10-20 m in depth
and characteristics of delimited engineering-geological dis¬
® Boreholes, 20-50 m in depth tricts.
In the table of rock characteristics each distinctive en¬
Boreholes deeper than 50 m
gineering-geological type, shown in the map and cross-sec¬
Borehole with long-term observations of the
tion, is described in detail as far as the lithological character
Ó groundwater table
and engineering classification properties are concerned (ac¬
ó Borehole for pumping tests cording to building standards), physical properties (grain
size, specific gravity, bulk density, porosity, natural moisture
Old karst sinkhole
content, degree of saturation, plasticity limits, consistency,
Index of consistency (after Makeev) collapsibility), and mechanical properties (angle of internal
Degree of saturation
friction, cohesion, modulus of compressibility at 2 and
\1.0\ 4 kg.cm-2 loading).
'K' coefficient of macroporosity (in loess
The table of characteristics of individual engineering-
materials)
geological districts contains the following data: description
Internal friction angle
of the lithological profile of foundation soils, hydrogeological
Cohesion, kg. cm'1 conditions, geodynamic phenomena, collapsibility of materials,
Modulus of compressibility in mm.m"'(loading other special local characteristics, as well as engineering
at 2 kg.cm-2) recommendations.
Surface isolines of the zone, where clayey This is one of the first published engineering-geological
materials have a plastic consistency maps, a pioneering effort which is very close in basic prin¬
ciples of mapping and presentation of data to the proposals
Groundwater table
in this guidebook. Made for the practical purpose of the
Borehole profile, where samples were taken for engineering design of an industrial plant, the map was publish¬
laboratory tests ed as an example of mapping by I.V. Popov, R.S. Kats,
Southern boundary of Neogene A. K. Korikovskaya, and V. P. Lazareva in 1950 in their book
Hydroisolines on 25 September 19-, at 1 m The Techniques of Compiling Engineering Geological Maps.
intervals Their map of engineering geological conditions, reproduc¬
Geological cross-section lines ed here in black-and-white, had, in the original, a territorial
division into engineering-geological districts distinguished by
Depth of shallow groundwater (in metres) from colours.
_fM_n the surface
102.65^ Elevation of groundwater table (a.s.l.)
Borehole number
01M32 Elevation (a.s.l.)
28 Shaft number
13
1108.04 Elevation (a.s.l.)
Surface contours (gradation of 0.5 m)
Top soil
IQtn
eQ3 Peaty clayey silt, greenish-grey
«lQn.
'i'i1
Clayey silt, loess-like, grey
¡!¡i¡
Sandy clay, greenish-grey
61
Engineering geological maps
Comment
A typical example of an urban engineering geological map
built up from extensive borehole observations and other near
surface observations. Particular attention is paid to areas of
artificial fill and the natural surficial deposits of importance
in foundation engineering. Solid geology and hydrogeologi¬
cal conditions, both natural and man-made, are also shown.
Parts of the engineering-geological (1:10,000) and
groundwater (1 : 20,000) sheets of the new engineering geo¬
logical map of Hannover, 1970, here combined in a simpli¬
fied single sheet at a scale of 1 : 6,350.
62
Examples of engineering geological maps
Legend
Infilling of the old town-moat (about 1550-80) Marly hmestone, compact, widely jointed, joints
KMest in part water-bearing; locally flaggy, Kca 1-1-2
(Campanian, Upper Chalk) on the geological
map
Abandoned meander of the Leine, ponds and for¬ Mudstone, compact (in even beds more than
tification moats, silted up, in part infilled Tst 100 m thick) with a covering of unconsolidated
soil, the uppermost 1-2 m mainly stiff plastic
clay, softened, generally widely jointed
Embankment, tipped and poorly compacted soil K45 Sampling point for grain size (K), mineral (M)
XMI7 and soil mechanics (B) analysis
B47
General thin fill within the old town Highest known groundwater level contour, with
height in metres above datum, based on many
years of observation in good water-bearing beds,
generally in sands and gravels in part interstrafi-
fied with loam and clays
Alluvial loam, fine sand with clay (up to 5.5 m Observation well (1943-M)
fstSu thick) uppermost metre generally clayey with de¬
Ki
posits of peat (up to about 1 m) and sapropelic
mud (up to 1 .2 m thick) over gravel
ifi'-'i-'-i '': ''' ;! Direction of groimd water flow
63
Engineering geological maps
Legend The map has been redrawn and slightly simplified from map
GQ-769, Areal and Engineering Geology of the Oakland East Quad¬
Qu Undivided Quaternary deposits rangle, California, by Dorothy H. Radbruch 1969, United States
Qu
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. An explanatory pamphlet
Pleistocene accompanies the map.
The map is reproduced here at a scale of 1 : 20,000.
Qsu San Antonio formation. Upper
Qmi
member; clay, silt, sand, and
gravel
^t^f /
%.\/j'
i.^/^-/"ii''
'M'3« ^i^/ ji'^^ \sN\ jVv^
¿f 1 «Nfc:^¡^'«Ä. -X.'^^sJU^
J^afiiilv'^ ^ ^tKTvj"^o^
Vjt /^ .^\j# "'s -^^ivC^?*^ /Il \ ^^i^rV ^=%áá||gl
*^Xy^/'x»?^\w^^^A"l^AA^-^*âHK i Y^^^^^l
'*^^^y^
'^j^^Sr^ J'^jaWÇ ol^f>d«Sw!^^îlk3C >
^'vo^^^'^v^^ «aw^i/^^^
O^ fiftï arft^'^jit V ^^'^ ^<
ry im [M) 4 n#^8â^ ^'^'^^ 1 :
^.''^
<rl Lv s¿ifîd
Mj\ !.l 1 fi
Uv '^1
rk 'ra(^;'2?6Jp^rtÔ^7jKi^^.,^
tt t(v ^<}V '!' -^St^j^^
tl ci: 85 fi Wl^lfVJSçf^^Î^
1s
^X^ ^^
(
' IH
lÎ- ^ í'cU't^á^ idy <jf^ ^^^^i:Mr Jç ,J^A^\ ,^%í¡^
\^ ^
/^^^\ vS^n^^ 1
^^.íi^^-^ is f1 sdy d
A
64
Examples of engineering geological maps
Legend
83
® Site of boring
Abbreviations Logs of borings are shown on the map where possible; where
space does not permit showing the log on the map, it is given
Elevations given below are to nearest foot. Thickness figures in logs below. Abbreviations used in logs are explained below.
are to the nearest 0.5 ft. Only the type of material encountered is Number of item below refers to site number on map.
given; descriptive details are omitted to conserve space. The 85. Elev. 383 ft. 9 ft sdy cl ande to f s (fill); 9 ft gr-s-cl mix; 6 ft cl;
11 ft sdy cl w tr f gr and si; 21 ft cl w s; 7 ft slty cl w f gr;
following abbreviations are used in logs: ct, chert; cl, clay; cly,
clayey; c, coarse; decomp, decomposed; f, fine; frag, fragment(s); 14 ft gr-s-cl mix.
gr, gravel; gry, gravelly; Ige, large; lm, loam; mtl, material; mat,
matter; med, medium; mise, miscellaneous; org, organic; pt, peat;
peb, pebble(s); r, red; rk, rock(s); s, sand; ss, sandstone; sdy,
sandy; sp, serpentine; sh, shale; shl, shell(s); si, silt; slty, silty; sm,
small; tr, trace; ve, vegetable; w, with; weath, weathered. Location of consolidation test
65
Engineering geological maps
Undivided Quaternary Composition and physical properties vary. Consist predominantly of Primarily in valleys and on gentle
deposits (Qu) Temescal formation. Probably include covered or unrecognized San slopes between San Francisco Bay
Antonio formation and gravel, sand and clay (Qg), as well as recent and the Berkeley Hills
alluvium and colluvium, and artificial fill. Symbols for Qtc, Qts, and
Qtb shown in parentheses where these units can be positively identified
(see Temescal formation)
San Antonio formation. Clay, silt, sand, and gravel. Some pebbles soft; most firm. Most beds con¬ Primarily in rather steep dissected
Upper member (Qsu) tain flakes and pebbles of white Claremont chert, some gravel almost hilly areas between San Francisco
entirely chert. Contains montmorillonite clay. Pale-yellowish-brown Bay and steep front of Berkeley
to greyish-orange. Consolidation varies, some layers loose, uncon¬ Hills
solidated. Three consolidation tests on clay layers showed compression
of 4 to 6 per cent. Maximum thickness unknown. May include
some Temescal formation and lower member where exposures too
poor to differentiate units
Leona rhyolite (TT) Rhyolite. Fresh rock light-grey to greenish- or hght-bluish-grey, Forms steep knobby dissected
weathers to white or dark-yellowish-orange, may be iron-stained hills
reddish-orange. Fresh rock contains abundant pyrite in many places.
Contains a small amount of glass. Sheared and fractured. May include
small amounts of Franciscan and Knoxville sandstone and shale too
small to show on the map. Much of rhyolite apparently intrusive
(Case, 1963); in places intruded overlying Knoxville shale, now baked
and contorted at contact
Knoxville formation (Jk) Shale, olive-grey, fissile; sandstone, fine- to medium-grained, olive- Generally forms valleys, because
grey; also includes pebble conglomerate in dark shale or sandstone soft shales of formation are easily
matrix, minor concretionary limestone, and lignite. Some shale massive, eroded
some interbedded with sandstone. Shale contains abundant Buchta
piochii. Includes younger ¿Ji/cA/a-bearing marine sedimentary rocks
described by Case (1968). Thickness and stratigraphie relations un¬
known
Faulting : The rocks of most of the above units have been compressed into northwest-trending folds and cut by numerous faults.
The fractured rocks along any of the faults mentioned above may form passages for ground water, and cuts made across them may require
draining; the soft sheared rocks are also subject to landsliding.
Severe earthquakes were caused by movement along faults within the Hayward fault zone in 1836 and 1868. Therefore, the entire length of the
Hayward fault zone in this quadrangle can be assumed to be active.
Slow tectonic movement, or creep, is at present taking place at several locations along the Hayward fault zone, with resultant damage to
manmade structures which cross the line of creep. Both the Claremont water tunnel and the drainage culvert under the University of
California stadium have been damaged by this slow movement along a fault plane or band of shearing within the Hayward fault zone.
It is not known whether creep is occurring along the fault zone elsewhere in this quadrangle, although discrepancies recently noted in
rechecks of survey lines crossing the zone at 98th Avenue and at Lincoln Avenue may indicate right-lateral movement within the fault zone
of approximately 0.1 to 0.15 ft in 10 years.
Structures which lie within or cross the Hayward fault zone may not only be damaged by sudden movement, offset, and rupture along a fault
at the time of an earthquake originating in the fault zone, but may also be subject to constant strain and damage due to the opposite sides of
faults within the zone continuously moving very slowly in opposite directions.
66
Examples of engineering geological maps
Weathering and soil development Workability Slope stability and foundation conditions Dry density2 moisture Remarks (includes use and
content and Unified earthquake stability)
Soil Classification3
Soil may be as much as 3ft thick. Can be moved with Depend on composition; gen¬ Varies Mapped with Temes
In places soil clayey, shrinks and hand or power tools erally good. Slides have formed cal formation in Oak¬
swells; may cause damage to where colluvium apparently deriv¬ land West quadrangle
buildings ed from gabbro (Radbruch, 1957)
Soil as much as 3 ft thick in Can be moved with Large slides have formed in this 1.68; 18 per
places. Soil swells and shrinks with hand tools unit. Factors contributing to slide cent (77: 1.45-
seasonal moisture changes and probably include presence of 1.97; 8-30 per
may cause damage to buildings; montmorillonite clay and alter¬ cent) GM-CH
may creep on slopes nating poorly consolidated sand
and clay; steep slopes; and
groundwater. Generally suitable
foundation material for light
structures where slopes are not
steep
Weathering as much as 30 ft deep; Can generally be mov¬ Slope stability and foundation 2.59 (s); 0.1 per Crushed Leona rhyo¬
highly weathered rock consists of ed with power equip¬ conditions good. Rare debris cent; 99 lite is a major source
loose fragments in clay matrix. ment; in some places slides observed where rock exces¬ (weathered); of fill and base rock;
Soil generally lacking or less than requires blasting sively fractured and weathered 20 per cent pyrite formerly mined
18 in thick; in ravines may be (3:1.57-1.63; for sulfur ; runoff from
more than 12 ft thick 9-27 per cent) rhyolite hills very acid
and corrodes concrete
sewer pipe. Some slo¬
pes so steep that de¬
velopment may be dif¬
ficult
Depth of weathering irregular; Can be moved with Slope stability and foundation 2 56 (s)(ss); May squeeze in tunnels
may be 20 ft or more in places. power equipment conditions generally fair; minor 1.4 per cent; where sheared
Some weathered rock firm, most sloughing in cuts 1.86 (weather¬
soft, clayey. Soil commonly 1-3 ft ed sh); 15 per
thick cent (3: 1.81-
1.92; 13-19 per
cent)
Text printed in italics indicates geologic conditions that may be critical to planning, design, and construction of engineering works
Dry density (italic) expressed in tonnes per cu m, based on one sample of fresh rock unless otherwise noted Number of samples and range of dry density and moisture content
given in parentheses (12 169-1 74, 17-20 per cent) (s) indicates sample collected at the surface Moisture content (per cent) generally higher for subsurface samples of rocks
than for those collected at the surface
Unified Soil Classification (letter symbol) given where applicable (United States Army, Corps of Engineers, 1953, The Unified Soil Classification System, United States Army, Corps
of Engineers, Tech Memo 3-357, Vol 1-3).
67
Engineering geological maps
si*' ^ %'
Spoil tip
Inclined strata, dip in degrees,
" Fault, approximate position
normal succession
o Quarry ^
Inclined strata, dip in degrees,
inverted succession
Trial trench
68
Examples of engineering geological maps
Comment
The map, reproduced at a scale of 1 : 10,000, is an example of
a geological map and legend supplemented with additional
descriptive information in engineering geological terms. It is
based on a part of a typical Institute of Geological Sciences
map produced on a scale of 1 : 10,560; such geological maps
are available for over 85 per cent of the land area of the
United Kingdom and are useful at the preliminary planning
stage of an engineering undertaking; mechanically enlarged,
they could form the basis of pre-construction or site investi¬
gation maps. Supplementation was not undertaken officially.
This example has been slightly modified from 2.9.1. Part
of a 1 : 10,560 map supplemented as proposed. Dearman et
al. 'Working Party Report on the Preparation of Maps and
Plans in Terms of Engineering Geology', Q.Jl Engng Geol,
vol.5, 1972, p. 293-381.
Legend
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS (DRIFT). RECENT AND PLEISTOCENE
Alluvium. On the granite, alluvium is a Thickness rocks; it may be layered with an upper Thickness
brownish-yellow, loose, sub-angular, (in m) grey horizon separated by a black (in m)
coarse gravelly sand with some peat and cemented layer typically 8 cm thick from
rounded boulders of moderately weath- Up to 3 reddish-brown head down to bedrock.
ered granite up to 1 m, and pebbles of
quartz. Downstream, alluvium is a silty SOLID FORMATIONS. CARBONIFEROUS
gravelly sand with rounded granite Upper Carboniferous (Namurian)
boulders up to 1 m and sub-angular cob¬
bles and boulders of the solid rocks. The Crackington formation. Dark to very
CkF dark grey, very fine grained, thinly
deposits are moderately to highly perme¬
able. Locally much disturbed by stream¬ bedded to thinly laminated, very closely
ing for tin. jointed, slightly to moderately weath¬
ered, poorly cleaved shale, weak, imper¬
River terraces (undifferentiated). Dark Up to 12
meable except along open joints. Inter¬
yellowish-brown, loose but locally weak¬ bedded with very subordinate grey to
ly to strongly cemented in horizontal dark greenish grey fine-grained, very
layers by manganiferous or ferruginous thinly bedded, thinly laminated and
material, sub-angular to rounded, sandy cross-laminated, closely, jointed, slightly
gravel with rounded to sub-angular cob¬ to moderately weathered siltstone, mod¬
bles and boulders of local rocks. Bould¬
erately strong and dark greenish grey
ers occasionally up to 1 m. The deposits
medium grained, very thinly ti> medium
are highly permeable except where
bedded, with closely to widely spaced
cemented. Locally much disturbed by joints slightly to moderately weathered,
streaming for tin. sandstone, strong.
Head. Almost everywhere present and 2-3, The shale slakes on exposure and is
largely obscures the solid formations, locally >12 suitable for brick making.
Represents solifluxion debris and grades Sandstone. It has been possible to map
downslope into alluvium and terrace de¬ groups of beds m which sandstone pre¬
posits. dominates. Beds are usually less than
Within the outcrop of the granite, 30 cm thick and are separated by very
head comprises yellowish-brown, loose, thin beds of siltstone and shale.
layered, sandy gravel with some clay, Sandstones are suitable for aggre¬
and gravelly silty sand with cobbles and gate production.
boulders of moderately weathered gra¬ Within the contact metamorphic
nite; grades down into moderately to aureole of the granite, dark grey, very
highly weathered granite in situ. On the pale orange to dusky yellowish-brown,
Upper Carboniferous outcrop next to fine to medium grained, thinly bedded,
the granite, head is typically reddish- closely jointed, slightly to moderately
brown, loose to compact, homogeneous, weathered, hornfelsed shale and sand¬
clayey gravelly sand with many sub-
stone, strong, impervious except along
angular cobbles; on steep slopes fines open joints. Locally with fine grained
may be absent and head is then loose, black tourmaline developed as selvedges
clean cobbles of the local rocks beneath up to 2.5 cm wide along discontinuities
15-30 cm of humic soil. and with irregular quartz veins up to
On the Lower Carboniferous rocks, 5 cm wide.
head is reddish-brown, loose to com¬
pact, homogeneous silty clayey sand Lower Carboniferous ( Dinantian)
with some cobbles and boulders of local I I Meldon chert formation 75
69
Engineering geological maps
70
Examples of engineering geological maps
Legend Comment
Opencast prospecting boreholes A typical documentation map recording the location and
nature of archival information from which engineering-geo¬
Diamond, drill rock cores taken
logical and other maps of the area have been produced. The
c Water flush chip samples complete map, with National Grid co-ordinates, is linked to
o Hand auger in soil a punched-card data retrieval system ; some of the data has
Engineering site investigation boreholes been experimentally coded for computer storage and
© Shell and auger
retrieval.
Part of the documentation map at a scale of 1 : 10,000
Shell and auger with rotary core in rock being prepared for the engineering-geological survey of the
e Tyne and Wear Metropohtan County, northern England.
Shell and auger with rotary in rock
The example presented here is from Dearman et al. 'Techni¬
o Rotary rock roller
ques of Engineering-Geological Mapping with Examples
Research boreholes from Tyneside'. The Engineering Geology of Reclamation and
o Power auger disturbed samples Redevelopment Regional Meeting, Durham, Engineering
^w Well, backfilled or inaccessible Group, Geological Society, p. 31-4, 1973.
^ Mine shaft, abandoned
a Trial pit
Sewer trench
Geophysics constant separation resistivity
1
-^
traverse
Area of site investigation, with reference
12
1 number
Opencast prospecting area, with reference
Í6oc j J
number
71
Layout of descriptive memoir 6
Ideally, a comprehensive engineering geological map should Geological characteristics of rocks and soils and their en¬
be accompanied by a descriptive memoir containing the fol¬ gineering geological properties
lowing information: Rocks
Soils
Contents
Hydrogeological conditions
Characteristics of individual aquifers
Introduction Groundwater chemistry
Purpose of the engineering geological map
Geographical location of mapped area Engineering-geological zoning
Topographical data Principles applied to the map area
Road, rail and other transportation routes Characteristics of individual zoning units
Economic evaluation, and development prospects Construction and other materials
Previous investigations
Conclusions
Methods used in the engineering-geological survey of the
area Recommendations
Extent of the investigations Appendixes
Organizations which carried out the survey References
Sources of archival and other material
Physical geography
Tables of engineering geological properties
Climatic factors influencing the evaluation of engineering
geological conditions Index
Physiographic description
Hydrography The memoir would be illustrated by diagrams, graphs, tables
and photographs.
Geological structure and development The content of the memoir would, of course, be related
Pre-Quaternary to the purpose, content and scale of the map, and the layout
Quaternary of chapters given above is suggested as a basic guide from
Present geodynamic processes which suitable chapter headings may be selected.
72
Glossary 7
73
Engineering geological maps
leaping, bounding or rolling, with little or no interaction legend A brief discription of the symbols and patterns
between one moving unit and another. shown on a map or diagram.
flow Applied to mass movement (q.v.); downward and out¬ lithogenetic See lithogenesis.
ward movement of slope-forming materials, in which the lithogenesis The origin and formation of rocks.
movement within the displaced mass is such that the form lithological complex A mapping unit comprising a set of
taken by the moving material, or the apparent distribution genetically related lithological types.
of velocities and displacements, resembles those of viscous lithological suite A mapping unit comprising many litho¬
fluids. logical complexes which are paragenetically related.
formation The fundamental formal unit of lithostratigraph¬ hthological type A mapping unit which is homogeneous
ical (q.v.) classification; it is the only formal unit which is throughout in composition, texture and structure, but
used for completely dividing the whole stratigraphical usually not uniform in physical state.
column all over the world into named units on the basis of lithostratigraphy Stratigraphy based only on the physical
lithostratigraphical character. and pétrographie features of rocks (adj. : lithostratigraphi¬
frost heave The lifting of a surface by the internal action of cal).
frost. map A representation on a plane surface, at a specified
geodynamic Referring to those geological features of the scale, of the physical features of a part of the earth's sur¬
environment resulting from geological processes active at face or of any selected surface or subsurface data, by
the present time. means of signs and symbols.
geohydrology See hydrogeology. map, engineering geological A type of geological map pro¬
geomorphology That branch of both physiography and viding a generalized representation of all the components
geology which deals with the form of the earth, the general of a geological environment of significance in land-use
configuration of its surface, and the changes that take planning, and in design, construction and maintenance as
place in the evolution of land forms. applied to civil engineering.
geophysics Geophysical method ; geological exploration us¬ map, engineering geological, analytical A map evaluating
ing the instruments and applying the methods of physics an individual component of the geological environment.
and engineering; exploration by observation of seismic or map, engineering geological, auxiliary A map presenting
electrical phenomena or of the earth's gravitational or factual data, for example a documentation map.
magnetic fields or thermal distribution. map, engineering geological, complementary A map of
groundwater Subsurface water in the zone of saturation in basic geological and other non-engineering geological
the lithosphère. data.
group A stratigraphical sequence of two or more contig¬ map, engineering geological, comprehensive A map of en¬
uous formations having significant unifying lithological gineering geological conditions depicting all the principal
features in common. components of the engineering geological environment; or
homogeneity Having the same property throughout. a map of engineering geological zoning.
hydrochemical Referring to the chemical composition of map, engineering geological, multi-purpose A map provid¬
natural waters. ing information on many aspects of engineering geology
hydrogeology That part of hydrology which relates to the for a variety of planning and engineering purposes.
water in the lithosphère. map, engineering geological, special purpose A map pro¬
infiltration The flow or movement of water through the soil viding information on one specific aspect of engineering
surface into the ground. geology, or for one specific purpose.
in situ In its natural position or place. map, interpretative A general geological map interpreted in
in situ test See test, in situ. engineering geological terms.
iso- Equal; a prefix, extensively used in conjunction with map, large-scale A map drawn at a scale of 1 : 10,000 or
another word, to denote lines drawn on a map through greater.
points of equal value of the element displayed. map, medium-scale A map drawn at a scale less than
isobath A line joining points of equal depth ; for example, a 1 : 10,000 and greater than 1 : 100,000.
line on a land surface all points of which are the same map, small-scale A map drawn at a scale of 1 : 100,000 or
vertical distance above the upper or lower surface of an less.
aquifer may be called an isobath of the specified surface. mass movement (syn.: mass wasting) A general term for
isohypse Contour of groundwater level or watertable. the dislodgement and downslope transport of rock and
isoline Equal line ; on an isoline map some variable feature soil material under the direct application of gravitational
is contoured. body stresses.
isopachyte Isopach; isopachous line; a line, on a map, mechanical property See physical property.
drawn through points of equal thickness of a designated modulus, deformation The ratio of stress to corresponding
unit. strain during loading of a rock mass including elastic and
isopiestic Isopiestic line; a contour of the piezometric sur¬ inelastic behaviour.
face of an aquifer. permeability The capacity of a rock or soil to conduct
isoseism Isoseismic line; an imaginary line connecting all (transmit) liquid or gas. It is measured as the proportion¬
points on the surface of the earth where an earthquake ality constant K between flow velocity v and hydraulic
shock is of the same intensity. gradient /; v = kl. The unit of permeability is the darcy.
isotropic Having the same properties in all directions. pH The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity.
landslide Landslip; a portion of a hillside or sloping mass photogrammetry The science of obtaining reliable measure¬
which has become loosened or detached and has slipped ments from photographs.
down. physical property A characteristic of rock or soil ; a distinc¬
land-use Use of land by man. tion may be made between a mechanical property which
74
Glossary
can be determined by a machine, e.g. uniaxial compressive storage coefficient See coefficient, storage.
strength, and a physical property which can be determined strength Maximum stress which a material can resist
by the senses. without failing for any given type of loading.
piezometric Piezometric surface; an imaginary surface that strength, compressive Maximum stress which a material
everywhere coincides with the static level of the water in can resist without failing in compression.
an aquifer; the surface to which the water from a given strength, shear Maximum stress which a material can resist
aquifer will rise under its full head. without failing by shear.
point symbol See symbol, point. strength, tensile Maximum stress which a material can
pressure Force per unit area applied to the outside of a resist without failing in tension.
body. structure (petrology) The larger-scale interrelationships of
pressure, uplift The hydrostatic force of water exerted on textural features, generally seen or studied best in the out¬
or underneath a structure tending to cause a displacement crop rather than in hand specimen or thin section. Struc¬
of the structure. ture represents a discontinuity or major inhomogeneity,
region A taxonomic unit in engineering geological zoning one of the larger morphological features of a rock mass
based on the uniformity of individual geotectonic struc¬ (q.v.) such as jointing, bedding, cleavage, foliation. Not
tural elements. synonymous with texture (q.v.).
resistivity method A geophysical method of investigation in structure (structural geology) The general disposition, atti¬
which the mean resistivity of the ground is measured and tude, arrangement or relative positions of rock masses of a
analysed. region or area; the sum total of the structural features of an
rock Strictly, any naturally formed aggregate or mass of area, consequent upon such deformational processes as
mineral matter, whether or not coherent, constituting an faulting, folding and igneous intrusion.
essential and appreciable part of the earth's crust. In the subsidence Movement in which surface material is dis¬
engineering sense, hard, solid, and rigid deposits forming placed vertically downwards with little or no horizontal
parts of the earth's crust. There are some naturally occur¬ component.
ring materials which have properties intermediate between suffosion misnomer for suffusion (q.v.).
those of rocks and soils as defined here; they may be suffusion The washing out of fine particles from unconsoli¬
referred to as semi-solid rocks or soft rocks. See also: soil. dated materials, in particular sands and gravels.
rock mass Rock as it occurs in situ, including structural suffusion spring See spring, suffusion.
discontinuities and the effects of weathering. surficial, superficial Characteristic of, pertaining to, formed
rock material Rock in the hand-specimen, generally exclud¬ on, situated at, or occurring on the earth's surface; espe¬
ing the structural discontinuities of the rock mass; rock cially, consisting of unconsolidated residual, alluvial, or
material may be weathered and may contain micro-discon¬ glacial deposits lying on the bedrock.
tinuities, for instance incipient joints. symbol, point A generalized indication of the nature and
salinity A measure of the quantity of total dissolved solids location of a natural phenomenon.
in water. water table The plane which forms the upper surface of the
sample A representative unit of a rock or soil material or zone of groundwater saturation.
mass. taxonomy The laws and principles of orderly classification
sample, disturbed A rock or soil sample which does not (adj.: taxonomic).
retain the characteristics of the in situ material. terrain, terrane The tract or region of ground immediately
sample, undisturbed A rock or sou sample which retains, under observation.
to a high degree, the characteristics of the in situ material. test, in situ A geotechnical test carried out in an excavation
seepage The infiltration or percolation of water through or borehole in which the rock or soil under test is in its
rock or soil to or from the surface. The term seepage is natural position and state.
usually restricted to the very slow movement of ground¬ texture The general physical appearance or character of a
water. rock including the geometrical aspects of, and the mutual
seepage force The frictional drag of water flowing through relations among, the component particles or crystals; e.g.
voids or interstices in rock or soil causing an increase in the size, shape and arrangement of the constituent ele¬
the intergranular pressure, i.e. the hydraulic force per unit ments of a sedimentary rock, or the crystallinity, granular¬
volume of rock or soil which results from the flow of ity and fabric of the constituent elements in an igneous
water and which acts in the direction of flow. rock.
seismic method A geophysical method of investigation in uplift pressure See pressure, uplift.
which the travel times of refracted and reflected elastic urbanization A conversion of land to a city and its asso¬
waves through the ground are measured and analysed. ciated industrial and recreational facilities.
slide The descent of a mass of soil or rock down a hill or value, attrition A value, obtained under standardized test
mountain side. conditions, of the resistance to wear of an aggregate stone
slope movement Mass movement on an inclined topo¬ sample.
graphic surface. water, confined Groundwater that is under sufficient pres¬
soil An aggregate of mineral grains that can be separated sure to rise above the level at which it is encountered by a
by such gentle means as agitation in water. The mineral well or borehole.
grains may be uncemented or very weakly cemented as in water content Moisture content ; the percentage by weight of
sands and gravels, or may be bound together by weak water contained in the pore space of a rock or soil with
forces, such as Van de Vaal's forces, as in silts and clays. respect to the weight of the solid material.
spring, suffusion A natural upwelling of water carrying water table Groundwater surface, groundwater level; the
with it fine particles from unconsolidated materials. See level below which the rock and subsoil, to unknown
also: suffosion. depths, are saturated.
75
Engineering geological maps
weathering That process of alteration of rocks and soils Challinor, J. 1967. A dictionary of geology. 3rd ed. Cardiff,
occurring under the direct influence of the hydrosphere University of Wales Press.
and atmosphere. Comecon. 1968. (Terminological glossary on engineering geology.)
zone A taxonomic unit in engineering geological zoning; Moscow. 2 vols. 400 and 226 p. (In Russian with glossary terms
in eight languages including English.)
based on lithological homogeneity and the structural ar¬
Gary, M.; McAfee Jr. R.; Wolf, C. L. (eds). 1972. Glossary of
rangement of lithofacial complexes of rocks and soils. geology. Washington, D.C., American Geological Institute.
MaUaveev, A. A. 1971. (Glossary on hydrogeology and engineer¬
ing geology.) Moskva, Nedra. (In Russian.)
Plaisance, G.; Cailleux, A. 1958. Dictionnaire des sols. Paris, La
7.3 References Maison Rustique.
Schieferdecker, A. A. G. 1959. Geological nomenclature. Royal
Anon. 1962. Dictionary of geological terms. 2nd ed. New York, Geological and Mining Society of the Netherlands.
Dolphin Books. Visser, A. D. 1965. Dictionary of soil mechanics in four languages:
Anon. 1970. Terminology, symbols and graphic representation. English! American, French, Dutch and German. Amsterdam, Else¬
Commission of International Society of Rock Mechanics. 32 p. vier; Paris, Dunod.
(Mimeo.) Whitten, D. G. A. ; Brooks, J. R. V. 1972. The Penguin dictionary
Baulig H. 1956. Vocabulaire franco-anglo-allemand de géomorpho¬ of geology. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books Ltd. (Penguin ref¬
logie. Paris, Les Belles Lettres. erence books.)
76
Select bibliography 8
8.1 Introduction mapping with examples from Tyneside. The engineering geology
of reclamation and redevelopment Regional Meeting, Durham,
The bibliography sets out a selection of papers on engineering- Engineering Group, Geological Society, p. 31-4.
geological maps and mapping and some examples of published Fookes, P. G. 1969. Geotechnical mapping of soils and sedimen¬
engineering geological maps. Some of the papers contain examples tary rocks for engineering purposes with examples of practice
of engineering-geological maps, but neither these nor the pub¬ from the Mangla Dam project. Géotechnique, vol. 19, p. 52-74.
lished maps follow the recommendations set out in this guidebook Gazel, J.; Peter, A. 1969. Essais de cartographie géotechnique.
in their entirety. Annales des Mines, Dec., p. 41-60.
Golodovskaya, G. A.; Demidyuk; L. M. 1970. The problem of
the engineering and geological mapping of deposits of mineral
resources in the area of eternal frost. International Association of
8.2 Engineering geological Engineering Geology. First International Congress, vol. 2,
mapping p. 1049-68.
Grabau, W. E. 1968. An integrated system for exploiting quanti¬
Arnould, M.; Vantroys, M. 1970. Essai de cartographie géo¬ tative terrain data for engineering purposes. In: G. A. Stewart
technique automatique sur la ville nouvelle d'Evry (Région pari¬ (ed.), Land evaluation. CSIRO Symposium, p. 211-20. Canberra,
sienne). International Association of Engineering Geology. First Australia, Macmillan.
International Congress, vol. 2, p. 1069-80. Grant, K. 1968a. A terrain evaluation system for engineering.
Bachmann, G.; Grô'we, H.; Helmerich, K.; Reuter, F.; Commonwealth Sei. Indus. Research Organization Australia, Div.
Thomas, A. 1967. Instruktion für die Anfertigung einheitlicher Soil Mech., Tech. Paper 2, p. 27.
ingenieurgeologischer Grundkarten. Zentr. Geol. Inst. Abb., . 1968ft. Terrain classification for engineering purposes of the
77
Engineering geological maps
NiLSEN, T.H. 1971. Preliminary photointerpretation map of land¬ Christiansen, E. A. (ed.) 1970. Physical environment of Saskatoon,
slide and other surficial deposits of the Mount Diablo Area, Contra Canada, p. 68. (Saskatchewan Research Council, Nat. Research
Costa and Alamenda Counties, California. (United States Geol. Council Canada Pub. 1 1378.)
Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-310.) Debaille, G.; Ghiste, S. 1969. Carte géotechnique de la région de
Popov, I. V.; Kats, R. S.; Korikovskaia, A. K.; Lazareva, V. P. Mons. Mons, Institut Reine Astrid. 44 p., 4 maps.
1950. Metodika sostavlenia inzhenerno-geologischesikh kart [The Fisher, W. L.; McGowen, J. H.; Brown Jr. L. F.; Groat, C. G.
techniques of compiling engineering geological maps]. Moskva, 1972. Environmental geologic atlas of the Texas Coastal Zone-
Gosgeohzdat. Galveston- Houston Area. Bureau of Economic Geology, The
Sanejouand, R. 1972. La cartographie géotechnique en France. University of Texas at Austin. 91 p.
Ministère de l'Equipement et du Logement, p. 96. FÜLÓP, J. (ed.). 1969. Engineering-geological map series (scale 1:
10,000) of the environs of Lake Balaton. Tihany, Budapest, Hun¬
garian Geological Institute.
8.3 Published engineering Radbruch, D. H. 1969. Areal and engineering geology of the Oak¬
geological maps land East Quadrangle. (United States Geol. Survey Geol. Quad,
Map GQ-769.)
Brabb, E. E.; Pampeyan, E. H.; Bonilla, M. G. 1972. Landslide Ronai, A. 1969. The geological atlas of the Great Hungarian Plain.
susceptibility in San Mateo County, California. (United States Scale 1: 100,000. Budapest, Hungarian Geological Institute.
Geol. Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-310.) United States Geological Survey. 1967. Engineering geology of
Brown Jr., R. D. 1972. Active faults, probable active faults and the North-east Corridor, Washington D.C., to Boston, Massa¬
associated fracture zones, San Mateo County, California (United chusetts. (United States Geol. Survey Miscellaneous Geologic
States Geol. Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-355.) Investigations Map I-514-A through C (scale 1 : 250,000).
Bryant, B. 1972. Folio of the Aspen Quadrangle, Colorado. Williams, P. L. et al. 1971-73. Folio of the Salina Quadrangle,
(United States Geol. Survey Miscellaneous Geologic Investiga¬ Utah. (United States Geol. Survey Miscellaneous Geologic In¬
tions Map I-785-A through G.) vestigations Map I-591-A through N.)
78
Acknowledgements 9
Members of the commission would wish to record their in¬ maps were undertaken by Eric Lawson, Department of
debtedness to those who have freely made available the origi¬ Geology, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (England).
nal maps on which the illustrations for Chapter 5 have been Miss A. Thwaites and Mrs S. Gaynor of the same depart¬
based. A great number of original drawings had to be made ment typed the many early versions of the text and the final
in order to produce the map examples in colour. Drawings manuscript. Without this very considerable help, which is
for maps 5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.3 were made in the gratefully acknowledged, this first major achievement of the
Department of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, IAEG Commission on Engineering Geological Maps could
Comenius University, Bratislava (Czechoslovakia); the not have been brought to fruition.
legends for these maps and the drawings for all the other
79
ISBN 92-3-101243-6