INDRI NGESTI RAHAYU, dr.

MKes
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 VISION

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 How we see!

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Some organisms have better designs and uses for
hearing!!!

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The Sense of Vision
 Visual receptors (photoreceptors) in the eyes to
detect light, color, and movement.
 Accessory structures of the eye.
 provide a superficial covering over its anterior
exposed surface (conjunctiva)
 prevent foreign objects from coming into contact
with the eye (eyebrows, eyelashes, and eyelids)
 keep the exposed surface moist, clean, and
lubricated (lacrimal glands)

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 PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
1. Refraction of the light rays entering the eye
2. Focusing of images on the retina by accommodation
of the lens and convergence of the images
3. Conversion of light waves by photochemical activity
into neural impulses
4. Processing of neural activity in the retina and
transmission of coded impulses through the optic
nerve
5. Processing in the brain, culminating in perception –
the object is “seen”
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1. REFRACTION OF LIGHT RAYS

1st Medium

2nd MEDIUM

There is a different density between 1st medium and 2nd medium 

the light is bended
The bending is called refraction
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 Image formation
 Cornea and lens focus
image on retina (nervous
tunic)
 Cilliary muscle changes
lens shape

 Image upside down and

back to front
 Reinterpreted in visual
cortex

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REFRACTION IN NORMAL
EYE

Refraction

In normal eye (emmetropia), light rays come to focal exactly on the

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retina 13
 REFRACTION IN MYOPIA

In myopia (nearsighted eye), the focal point falls in front of the retina. It
is corrected
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by concave lens 14
 REFRACTION IN
HYPERMETROPIA

In hypermetropia (farsighted eye), the focal point falls behind the retina. It
is corrected
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2. ACCOMMODATION

The role of the adjustable lens

A reflex process
Bring images into perfect focus on the
retina

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 ACCOMODATION
 Mechanism that focuses
the lens system of the eye.
 Result from contraction or
relaxation of the eye
ciliary muscle.
 Contraction causes
increased refractive power
of the lens.
 Relaxation causes
decreased refractive power
of the lens.
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 Nearby Object

Distant Object

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 TO FOCUS ON NEARBY OBJECT

1. Ciliary muscle 2. Ciliary body pull forward

contract and inward

3. Tension on
MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO 4. Lens becomes suspensory
FOCUS A NEARBY OBJECT thicker (rounder) ligaments of
due to its elasticity lens reduced

TO FOCUS ON A DISTANT OBJECT

1. Ciliary muscle 2. Ciliary body returns to
relax resting state

3. Tension on
MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO suspensory
4. Lens becomes thinner ligaments of
FOCUS ON A DISTANT
(flatter) the lens
OBJECT
increased

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 CONVERGENCE

•Binocular vision
Perceive on image
Distance
Depth
Three –
dimensionality
Near Object
•Stereoscopic vision
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THE EYE AS A CAMERA

The internal index of air is 1; the cornea, 1.38; the aqueous humor,
1.33; the crystalline lens (on average), 1.40; and the vitreous humor,
1.34.
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THE EYE AS A CAMERA
 The eye has lens system, variable aperture system (the pupil),
and a retina that correspond as a film.
 The lens system of the eye is composed of four refractive
interfaces :
1. The interface between air and the anterior surface of the
cornea
2. The interface between the posterior surface of the cornea
and the aqueous humor
3. The interface between the aqueous humor and the
anterior surface of the lens of the eye
4. The interface between the posterior surface of the lens of
the eye and the vitreous humor
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 3. CONVERSION OF LIGHT WAVES BY
PHOTOCHEMICAL ACTIVITY INTO
NEURAL IMPULSES

1. Photochemical activity in rods

2. Photochemical activity in cones

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 PHOTOCHEMICAL ACTIVITY IN RODS

Photon Rhodopsin molecule

(11-cis retinal +
scotopsin

11-cis retinal 11-cis retinal converted into

in rhodopsin all-trans retinal, which Transducin is produced,
absorb a activates scotopsin to act as and activate
photon an enzyme phosphodiesterase

11-cis retinal and Plasma membrane channel

scotopsin combine to close, Na+ are prevented from Phosphodiestarease
synthesis rhodopsin entering rod, and hydrolysis cGMP
hyperpolarization occurs

Neural signals are processed by Action potentials of ganglion Light is

bipolar, amacrine, horizontal, cells are conveyed to brain via perceived as
and ganglion cells optic nerve visual images
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 PHOTOCHEMICAL ACTIVITY IN CONE
The Events of Visual Excitation is Similar as in Rod

Rods contain : Scotopsin

Cones contain : Photopsin
3 types of cones: Red, Green, and Blue Cones
Color perception depend on which cones are stimulated and
their combinations
The same retinal absorbs a different frequency of light
•Red cones: the long wave
•Green cones: the middle wave
•Blue cones: the short wave

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 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ROD AND CONE
 RODS  CONES
 more numerous  operate in bright
 dim light and light
peripheral vision  provide high acuity
receptors color vision
 more sensitive to light
 do not provide sharp
images or color vision
 in dim light colors are
indistinct
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Retina: More Detail

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Figure 10-38: Photoreceptors: rods and29
cones
Phototransduction

 Photons "bleach" opsin, retinal released, cascade, Na+

channel closes, K+ opens , hyperpolarization
 Reduces NT release

30
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Phototransduction

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Figure 10-40: Phototransduction in
 VISUAL ADAPTATION

Light adaptation occurs when eyes adjust to bright light

Dark adaptation occurs as eyes adapt slowly to darkness

Bright light The light-sensitive Rods are no more

“bleaches” rhodopsin rods become sensitive
overloaded

(5 minutes)
Enter darkened room
Light adaptation

Resynthesize Rods become

rhodopsin more senstive Dark adaptation
(20 – 30 minutes)

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CONSTRICTION OF THE EYE PUPIL
 In the dark :
stimulation of the sympathethic
nerves  excite the radial fibers of
the iris pupillary dilatation, called
midriasis
 In the light :
stimulation of the parasympathethic
nerves  excite the pupillary
sphinter musle / the circular fibers
of the iris  decreasing pupillary
apperture, called myosis

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 LIGHT REFLEX
(PUPIL REFLEX)

LIGHT RETINA IMPULS N. OPTICUS CHIASMA

OPTICUS

CORPUS
COLLICULUS TRACTUS
GENICULATUM
N. III SUPERIOR OPTICUS
LATERALE

GANGLION M. CIRCULARIS PUPIL

N. CILIARIS CONSTRICT
CILIARIS IRIDIS

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 NEURAL PATHWAYS FOR VISION

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Visual Pathways
 Each optic nerve conducts visual stimulus information.
 At the optic chiasm, some axons from the optic nerve
decussate.
 The optic tract on each side then contains axons from
both eyes.
 Visual stimulus information is processed by the thalamus
and then interpreted by visual association areas in the
cerebrum.

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Taste: Chemoreceptors

 5 Tastes
 Taste buds
 Taste cells
 Mechanism
 Transduction
 Integration
 Thalamus
 Gustatory cortex
 "Specific hunger"

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 The Special Senses -- Taste
 Structure and function
 location of taste buds
 taste bud cells
 taste sensations
 dissolved substances
 sweet, salty, sour, bitter
 most of taste is olfaction

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Gustation – Sense of Taste
 Gustatory receptors are housed in specialized
taste buds on the surface of the tongue.
 Dorsal surface of the tongue
 4 types of papillae:
 filiform
 fungiform
 vallate
 foliate

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 4 Types of Papillae - 1
 Filiform
 distributed on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue
surface
 do not house taste buds and have no sensory role in
gustation
 Fungiform papillae
 primarily located on the tip and sides of the tongue
 contain only a few taste buds each

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 4 Types of Papillae - 2
 Vallate (circumvallate) papillae
 are the least numerous yet the largest
 arranged in an inverted V shape on the posterior
dorsal surface of the tongue
 each is surrounded by a deep, narrow depression
 most of our taste buds are housed within the walls
of these
 Foliate
 not well developed on the human tongue
 extend as ridges on the posterior lateral sides
 house only a few taste buds during infancy and
early childhood
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 Taste Sensations
 There are five basic taste sensations
 Sweet – sugars, saccharin, alcohol, and
some amino acids
 Salt – metal ions
 Sour – hydrogen ions
 Bitter – alkaloids such as quinine and
nicotine
 Umami – elicited by the amino acid
glutamate
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Physiology of Taste
 In order to be tasted, a chemical:
 Must be dissolved in saliva
 Must contact gustatory hairs
 Binding of the food chemical:
 Depolarizes the taste cell membrane,
releasing neurotransmitter
 Initiates a generator potential that elicits
an action potential
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 The Special Senses -- Taste
 Age-related changes
 general decrease in taste with age, thought to
be due to decreased central sensation, not loss of
cells
 decreased salivary volume
 formation of fissures and furrows on the
tongue

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 References
1. Guyton AC and Hall JE, 2006. Textbook of Medical
Physiology. 11th ed. Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Co
2. Ganong WF, 2005. Review of Medical Physiology. 22nd
ed. New York: Lange Medical Books / McGraw-Hill
Medical Publishing Division
3. Widmaier EP, Raff H and Strang KT, 2004. Vander, Sherman
and Luciano’s Human Physiology : The Mechanism of Body
Function. 9th ed. McGraw-Hill Publishing
4. Silbernagl S and Lang F. 2000. Color Atlas of
Patophysiology. 2nd ed. GeorgThiemeVerlag,
Stuttgart,Germany.pp.328-329
5. Matter F. 2003. Saladin: Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of
Form and Function, 3rded. The McGraw−Hill Companies
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