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(Invited Paper)
I. INTRODUCTION
ERTICAL and horizontal grounding electrodes are tradi-
V tionally used in lightning protection systems “to direct the
lightning current from the down conductors to the earth with a
Fig. 2. Typical first and subsequent return stroke current waveforms [3].
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560 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY, VOL. 51, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009
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GRCEV: MODELING OF GROUNDING ELECTRODES UNDER LIGHTNING CURRENTS 561
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562 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY, VOL. 51, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009
Therefore, for horizontal “wires at ordinary depths, the induc- The details of the MOM are available elsewhere [35]. Here,
tances are substantially the same as for wires at the surface” the method will only be briefly described. It is assumed that
[30, p. 114] given as electrodes are thin, and that current and charge densities along
electrodes are approximated by filaments of current and charge
µ 2
L (in henries) = ln −1 (9) on the electrode axis. Each electrode is thought of as divided in
2π a
segments, as illustrated in Fig. 4(c). An impedance matrix [Z]
where µ is permeability of the soil (in henries per meter), which is then obtained using the MOM to describe the electromag-
is usually assumed to be equal to the permeability of a vacuum. netic interactions between segments. [Z] is an N × N matrix,
The same formula is used also for vertical electrodes [31]. Use where N is the number of segments. In this process, the elec-
of alternative approximation formulas for L is discussed in [28]. tromagnetic field equations are reduced to a matrix form [25]
The additional underlying assumptions in the aforementioned as
formulas are a uniform charge distribution along the electrodes
in (7) and (8), and a uniform longitudinal current distribution in [Z] [I] = Is [Z ] (12)
(9) [30]. where [I] is a column matrix whose elements are unknown pha-
The electrode is often divided into N fictitious segments to sors that approximate the current distribution along electrodes,
take into account the nonuniform distributions of the charge and Is is the phasor of the injected current, and [Z ] is a column
current, and each segment of the electrode is represented by an matrix whose elements are impedances between the segment,
RLC section [32], as illustrated in Fig. 4(c) and (d). where the current is injected, and all the other segments [25].
2) Transmission-Line Approach: The most popular The grounding harmonic impedance Z(jω) is
transmission-line approach model is an extension of the
circuit model [see (7)–(9)]. Per-unit-length parameters are Vs [I]T [Z ] + Is Zs
approximately determined, according to [30], as Z(jω) = = (13)
Is Is
1
R (in ohms meter) == R where Vs is the phasor of the potential at the injection segment
G in reference to remote ground and Zs is the self-impedance of
C the injection segment.
C (in farads per meter) =
The key step is the evaluation of the elements of the [Z] matrix
L in (12), which can be written in the following general form [36]:
L (in henries per meter) = (10)
where R, C, and L are determined by (7), (8), and (9),
respectively. zm n = Fm Fn Gm n dm dn (14)
m n
Both circuit and transmission-line models can be used for
computations in the time and frequency domains. In the fre- where Fm and Fn are the functions related to the approximation
quency domain, the transmission line may be considered as of the current and the boundary conditions along the mth and
open, and the harmonic grounding impedance is [33] nth segments, respectively. Gm n is the Green’s function, which
Z(jω) = Z0 coth γ (11a) is equivalent to the electromagnetic field at the nth segment due
to a current element in the mth segment. For evaluation of Gm n ,
jωL the exact Sommerfeld’s solution [34] is used. Gm n can be cast
Z0 = γ = jωL (G + jωC ) (11b) in the following form [37]:
G + jωC
√
Gm n = gm n + Kgm
where j = −1, ω = 2πf , and f is the frequency (in hertz). n + Sm n (15)
In (11) and Section III-A3, the time variation exp(jωt) is where gm n is the Green’s function for the current element below
suppressed. the ground in an unbounded homogeneous lossy medium with
Since both circuit and transmission-line models are based
earth’s characteristics and gm n for its image above the earth’s
on quasi-static approximation, their validity is limited at high surface. Applying only gm n and gm
n in (15) would be equal to
frequencies. the method of static images. K in (15) is coefficient that modifies
3) Electromagnetic Approach: The most popular electro- the images [25] and Sm n involves Sommerfeld-type integrals
magnetic approach is based on antenna theory and the method [34]. The latter term converges to zero for low frequencies, but
of moments (MOMs) [22]. This method is based on an exact becomes significant at high frequencies. The first term of (15),
solution of the electromagnetic fields of a Hertzian dipole in or gm n , can be expressed as [35]
near a lossy half-space [34], and therefore, is based on fewer
neglected quantities in comparison to the previous models. This
exp(−jkr) j
is a full-wave frequency-domain approach; however, its basic gm n = , k=ω ε− µ (16)
r ωρ
requirement is that the system is linear. Therefore, this method
is not suited for the modeling of nonlinear phenomena. On the where r is the distance between the source (at the mth segment)
other side, it is well suited for modeling frequency-dependent and the observation point (at the nth segment). One approxima-
characteristics [22]. tion of gm n in (16) can be obtained by expanding the exponential
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GRCEV: MODELING OF GROUNDING ELECTRODES UNDER LIGHTNING CURRENTS 563
in a Maclaurin series [35] as Ri(t). Therefore, x(t) in (19) reflects the difference between
1 k 2 the surge and low-frequency performance. Consequently, the
gm n =− jk − r + · · · . (17) first component on the right side of (19) might be considered
r 2
as an approximation of the resistive voltage drop in the ground,
The first term is identical to the static case. Therefore, if we while the second component x(t) is related to the frequency-
would like to reduce the electromagnetic to the circuit approach, dependent phenomena, and is mostly an approximation of the
we could only use the first term in (17), static image theory in combination of the inductive and capacitive voltage drop in the
(15), and unit pulse functions for Fm and Fn in (14). earth.
Solution of (12) gives the current and charge distribution The second step is to determine the total potential vi (t) that
along electrodes at a given frequency, which can be used for accounts for the soil ionization as
further computations of quantities of interest, such as potentials,
voltages, fields, impedances, etc. In the frequency domain, these vi (t) = R(t)i(t) + x(t) (20)
quantities may be considered as the system functions, and time
responses can be obtained by (6) [22]. i.e., by replacing R in (19) with nonlinear R(t) in (20). Here,
R(t) is computed by (18) and x(t) is derived from (19). As-
B. Nonlinear Soil Ionization Effects suming that the ionization has the largest effect on the resistive
voltage drop in the ground, these effects are ignored in x(t). This
1) Nonlinear Grounding Resistance: Bellaschi et al. [6] simplified approach is validated by comparison to experiments
have determined the nonlinear relationship between the ground- in Section VII and [43]. However, its application is limited to
ing electrode injected current and resistance, and proposed that the ranges of parameters given in Table II.
it is a result of soil ionization at high-current values. They
have concluded that soil ionization effectively increases the
IV. COMPARISON BETWEEN MODELS
dimensions of the electrode; thus, decreasing the resistance.
IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
Based on the further work of Korsuntcev [38], and Eriksson and
Weck [54], the following formula for a nonlinear resistance R(t) In this section previously described models are compared
(in ohms) as a function of the injected current i (in kiloamperes) in the frequency domain. Concerning the circuit model, it was
is recommended in [40], [41], and [56]: demonstrated recently in [44] that the lumped circuit model,
R E0 ρ illustrated in Fig. 4(b), largely overestimates the harmonic
R(t) = Ig = (18) impedance at high frequencies, and this model is not consid-
1 + i(t)/Ig 2πR2
ered here anymore. In this paper, the following three models are
where E0 is the earth’s critical electric field intensity (in kilo- compared.
volts per meter), ρ is the resistivity of the earth (in ohms·meter), 1) A segmented RLC model, illustrated in Fig. 4(c) and (d),
and R is the low-frequency low-current grounding resistivity (in where the total number of segments N depends on the
ohms) [see (1)]. Different values are recommended for E0 , e.g., total electrode length where all segments are with equal
300 kV/m in [40] and 400 kV/m in [41], although “values from length of 1 m [see (7)–(9)], denoted “RLC” in Figs. 5–
300 to 1500 kV/m have been used by various investigators” [56]. 11 (the length of the segment of 1 m is chosen just as
It should be emphasized that (18) has been recommended for an example—smaller or larger lengths would lead to bet-
electrodes with lengths of up to about 30 m [40]. ter or worse agreement with the transmission-line model,
The nonlinear resistance [see (18)] has also been used in the respectively).
sequenced RLC model [see Fig. 4(d)], where linear R has been 2) A transmission line model [see (10)–(11)] denoted “TL”
replaced by nonlinear R(t) to include both high-frequency and in Figs. 5–11.
soil ionization effects [32]. 3) An electromagnetic model [see (12)–(16)] denoted “EMF”
2) Approximate Procedure for Simultaneous Time- and in Figs. 5–11.
Frequency-Dependent Analysis: Recently, a simplified proce- The computation results by the three models for vertical
dure that takes into account both the time-dependent nonlinear grounding electrodes are presented in Figs. 5–7 for different
effects of soil ionization and the frequency-dependent effects lengths of the electrode and different resistivities of the earth.
has been proposed [42], [43]. This procedure comprises two Fig. 5 shows the computation results for an electrode length
steps. The first step is to compute the potential at the injection of 1 m, Fig. 6 shows the computation results for an electrode
point v(t) as a response to an injected current i(t), with ioniza- length of 10 m, and Fig. 7 shows the computation results for
tion effects ignored, by any frequency-domain method, such as an electrode length of 30 m. In all the cases, the electrode is
described in Section III-A. In this paper, i(t) has a waveform constructed of copper with a diameter of 2.5 cm. In Figs. 5–7,
illustrated in Fig. 2 and characteristics described in Section V-B. results for four values of the earth’s resistivity are presented:
Then, two components of v(t) are considered 10, 100, 1000, and 10 000 Ω·m. In all the cases, the relative
permittivity of the earth is 10.
v(t) = Ri(t) + x(t) (19)
The presented results in Figs. 5–7 are normalized modulus of
where R is the low-frequency grounding resistance [see (1)]. the harmonic impedance to the value of the low-frequency resis-
If the grounding electrode performs in surge conditions exactly tance in a frequency range from 100 Hz to 10 MHz. Presented
as it performs at low frequencies, then (19) becomes: v(t) = frequency characteristics exhibit well-known behavior.
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564 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY, VOL. 51, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009
Fig. 5. Normalized modulus of the harmonic impedance to low-frequency Fig. 8. Normalized modulus of the harmonic impedance to low-frequency
resistance for a vertical electrode with length 1 m. resistance for a horizontal electrode with length 1 m.
Fig. 6. Normalized modulus of the harmonic impedance to low-frequency Fig. 9. Normalized modulus of the harmonic impedance to low-frequency
resistance for a vertical electrode with length 10 m. resistance for a horizontal electrode with length 10 m.
Fig. 7. Normalized modulus of the harmonic impedance to low-frequency Fig. 10. Normalized modulus of the harmonic impedance to low-frequency
resistance for a vertical electrode with length 30 m. resistance for a horizontal electrode with length 30 m.
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GRCEV: MODELING OF GROUNDING ELECTRODES UNDER LIGHTNING CURRENTS 565
Fig. 11. Computed components of the potential at the injection point for first Fig. 12. Computed components of the potential at the injection point for
stroke current injected in a 10-m-long electrode in earth with ρ = 100 Ω·m. subsequent stroke current injected in a 10-m-long electrode in earth with ρ =
100 Ω·m.
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566 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY, VOL. 51, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009
TABLE I
SURGE CHARACTERISTICS OF 10-m VERTICAL GROUNDING
ELECTRODE IN EARTH WITH RESISTIVITY 100 Ω·m
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GRCEV: MODELING OF GROUNDING ELECTRODES UNDER LIGHTNING CURRENTS 567
Fig. 15. First stroke current in a 10-m-long electrode. Fig. 17. Subsequent stroke current in a 10-m-long electrode.
Fig. 16. First stroke current in a 30-m-long electrode. Fig. 18. Subsequent stroke current in a 30-m-long electrode.
D. Comparison Between Models in the Time Domain Next, the results when these electrodes are subjected to the
Since the vertical and horizontal electrodes have very similar subsequent stroke current pulse are shown in Fig. 17 (for elec-
high-frequency behavior, only vertical electrode cases are used trode length = 10 m) and Fig. 18 (for = 30 m).
for comparison in the time domain. Note that computations The conclusions here are similar to the cases of the first
in the time domain for the compared models were performed stroke current pulse, only the inductive effects occur in most of
following the same procedure; first, Z(jω) is computed by (11a) the analyzed cases. The differences are larger as the inductive
or (13), and then, v(t) is determined by (6), and finally, (19) and effects are larger, but similarly, like in the first stroke case, after
(20) are applied. the surge period, the results by the different models mutually
Also, it is obvious that in the case of capacitive behavior, all converge.
models lead to similar results, and cases for electrode length
= 1 m and for other lengths in soil with ρ = 10 000 Ω·m are VI. SIMPLE FORMULA FOR THE IMPULSE COEFFICIENT
not used for further comparisons. The cases that are used for Recently, a new empirical formula for the impulse coefficient
comparison of the three models are from Fig. 6 for electrode A [see (3)] has been proposed [42], [43]. First step is to compute
length = 10 m and Fig. 7 for = 30 m. the coefficients α and β [5], [26], [27]
These electrodes are first subjected to the first stroke current
pulse, and the results are shown in Fig. 15 (for electrode length α = 0.025 + exp −0.82(ρT1 )0.257 (22a)
= 10 m) and Fig. 16 (for = 30 m).
β = 0.17 + exp −0.22(ρT1 ) 0.555
(22b)
In all cases, circuit and transmission-line model overestimate
the resulting potential in comparison to the electromagnetic where, soil resistivity ρ is in ohms·meter and current pulse zero-
model. Such overestimation is larger for inductive effects in the to-peak time T1 is in microseconds. Coefficients α and β do
surge period; however, during the stationary period, the results not have physical meaning; they are deduced from computer
from the different models mutually converge. simulation results by the electromagnetic model.
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568 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY, VOL. 51, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009
TABLE II
INPUT PARAMETERS (25)
TABLE III
ELECTRODE AND SOIL PARAMETERS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL CASES
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GRCEV: MODELING OF GROUNDING ELECTRODES UNDER LIGHTNING CURRENTS 569
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GRCEV: MODELING OF GROUNDING ELECTRODES UNDER LIGHTNING CURRENTS 571
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[32] C. T. Mata, M. I. Fernandez, V. A. Rakov, and M. A. Uman, “EMTP
modeling of a triggered-lightning strike to the phase conductor of an Leonid Grcev (M’84–SM’98) was born in Skopje,
overhead distribution line,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 4, Macedonia, in 1951. He received the Dipl.Ing. in
pp. 1175–1181, Oct. 2000. electrical engineering from Ss. Cyril and Method-
[33] F. Menter and L. Grcev, “EMTP-based model for grounding system anal- ius University, Skopje, in 1978 and the M.Sc. and
ysis,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1838–1849, Oct. 1994. Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Uni-
[34] A. Banos, Dipole Radiation in the Presence of a Conducting Half-Space. versity of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, in 1982 and 1986,
New York: Pergamon, 1966. respectively.
[35] R. F. Harrington, Field Computation by Moment Methods. New York: From 1978 to 1988, he was with the Telecommu-
Wiley–IEEE, 1993. nications Department, Electric Power Company of
[36] W. C. Gibson, The Method of Moments in Electromagnetics. Boca Macedonia, Skopje. He is currently a Full Professor
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2007. with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Ss. Cyril
[37] G. Burke and E. K. Miller, “Modeling antennas near to and penetrating a and Methodius University, where since 1988, he has also been an Assistant
lossy interface,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 32, no. 10, pp. 1040– Professor, an Associate Professor, and the Vice Dean. He has been a Visiting
1049, Oct. 1984. Professor at the Technical University of Aachen, Aachen, Germany, the Eind-
[38] A. V. Korsuntcev, “Application of the theory of similitude to the calcula- hoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, and the Swiss
tion of concentrated earth electrodes,” Electrichestvo, no. 5, pp. 31–35, Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland. He was engaged in sev-
May 1958. eral international projects related to electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). He
[39] E. E. Oettle, “A new general estimation curve for predicting the impulse has authored or coauthored many scientific papers published in reviewed jour-
impedance of concentrated earth electrodes,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., nals and presented at international conferences. His current research interests
vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 2020–2029, Oct. 1988. include high-frequency and transient grounding, lightning, EMC, high-power
[40] A. F. Imece, D. W. Durbak, H. Elahi, S. Kolluri, A. Lux, D. Mader, electromagnetics, bioelectromagnetics, and electromagnetic field health effects.
T. E. McDermott, A. Morched, A. M. Mousa, R. Natarajan, L. Rugeles, Prof. Grcev is a member of the International Council on Large Electric Sys-
and E. Tarasiewicz, “Modeling guidelines for fast front transients,” IEEE tems (CIGRE) Working Groups related to EMC and lightning protection.
Trans. Power Del., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 493–506, Jan. 1996.
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