Ideal Shaft Power Cycles

The analysis of ideal gas turbine cycle provides upper limit of

performance which can be expected for real cycles. The assumptions for
ideal conditions are following:

(i) Compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and

reversible.
(ii) The pressure losses in different components and duct / pipes are
ignored.
(iii) The working fluid has same composition throughout the cycle and
is perfect gas with constant specific heats.
(iv) The change in Kinetic energy of working fluid between inlet and
outlet of any component is negligible
(v) Steady flow (mass flow rate is constant)

Conditions (iii) and (iv) mean that the combustion chamber in which fuel is
burnt is considered to be a heat exchanger (without any heat losses).

The ideal cycle is Joule or Brayton cycle. The steady flow energy
equation is:
Applying this equation to every component we get

The efficiency is:

Using isentropic relation:

Where γ is pressure ratio and is defined as:

The cycle efficiency becomes

The efficiency thus depends on pressure ratio and nature of gas.

The figure shows the effect of r and type of gas (γ = 1.4 for air and 1.66
for monoatomic gas e.g. argon)
The specific work not only depends on r but also on maximum cycle
temperature T3.

(A)

Where t = T3/T1

T1 is normally atmospheric temperature and not an important variable. It

is therefore convenient to plot specific work (W/cpT1) as a function of r
and t.

The value of T3 or t depends on the maximum temperature which the

highly stressed parts of turbine can stand for the required working life. A
typical value for t is about 5-6.
Equation (A) shows that work is zero if pressure ratio r = 1 (means no
pressure rise) and also when

This means T2 = T3 (means compression and expansion processes

coincide or no combustion / heat exchange process).

For any given temperature ratio t the optimum pressure ratio for
maximum work can be obtained by differentiating equation (A) with
respect to r(γ-1)/γ and equating to zero.

According to isentropic relations for processes 1-2 and 3-4

By combining previous two equations we can write

Since t = T3/T1 this results in T2 = T4.

This means that work will be maximum when pressure ratio is such that
compressor and turbine outlet temperatures are equal.

For all values of r between 1 and tγ/2(γ-1), T4 will be greater than T2 and a
heat exchanger can be used to reduce heat supplied and improve
efficiency.

Heat-exchange Cycle

The efficiency of gas turbine cycle with heat exchanger is calculated as:

For ideal heat exchange T4 = T5 and the efficiency can be shown as:
Thus efficiency of this cycle is not independent of maximum temperature
or t, and it increases with an increase in temperature ratio.

The continuous lines of constant ‘t’ (temperature ratio) begin from r = 1

In comparison to standard / simple cycle the efficiency reduces due to

increase in pressure ratio (at a fixed value of t).

The constant t curves fall until a value r2(γ-1)/γ = t is reached.

This is the value of pressure for which specific work was found maximum
and T4=T2 in standard cycle.

For further higher values the heat exchanger would cool the air leaving
the compressor instead to heating.

Therefore the constant t lines are not extended beyond the point where
they meet the efficiency curve of standard cycle.
The specific work output remains unchanged if heat exchanger is used.

Reheat cycle

A significant increase in specific work output can be obtained by splitting

the expansion process in two (or more) portions and reheating the gas
between high and low pressure turbines.

The split is needed due to limits related to turbine material. Reheating

reduces maximum temperature of the cycle.

The increase in turbine work is due to the fact that vertical distance
between constant pressure lines increases as entropy increases i.e.

Assuming that gas is reheated to same temperature T3, it can be shown

that optimum point in expansion to start reheat is when pressure ratio for
both turbines is same.

This implies that temperature drop and work output for both turbines are
equal. With these conditions the work and efficiency relations are:

Reheating increases specific work output but at the expense of efficiency

since temperature range or heat addition is increased (44’56 region is
relatively inefficient portion of the cycle).

The efficiency reduced due to reheating can be increased by adding a

heat exchanger.

Some improvement in specific work and decrease in efficiency is also

found when intercooling is done between compressors.

However the change in work and efficiency is not considerable.

Intercooling is not commonly used in gas turbines since they are bulky
and require large amounts of cooling water due to which the overall size
of plant is increased.

Component losses

Various types of losses in gas turbine plant are:

(i) fluid friction which results in pressure drop in combustion chamber,

heat exchanger, inlet and outlet ducts.

(ii) compression and expansion is not reversible and adiabatic.

(iii) when using heat exchanger the compressed air is not heated to
turbine outlet temperature

(iv) some turbine work is used to overcome friction during transmission

between compressor / turbine and ancillary components like fuel and oil
pumps.

In addition, specific heats change due to temperature and chemical

composition.

Mass flow rate is also increased due to addition of fuel. Sometimes air
from compressor is bled to cool the turbine blades.
The definition of efficiency becomes unclear for open cycle since process
4-1 is absent.

A more suitable performance parameter for actual cycle is specific fuel

consumption that is calculated from fuel air ratio and combustion
efficiency.

Compressor and Turbine Efficiency

Ideally the processes are isentropic. The performance of compressor and

turbine is determined in terms of isentropic efficiency.

The compressor (isentropic) efficiency is written in terms of stagnation

enthalpy since velocity can also change

For perfect gas Δh0 = cpΔT0:

The equations in terms of temperature and pressure are

When compressor is part of stationary gas turbine with short intake then
p01 = pa and T01 = Ta in above equation as the velocity of ambient is zero.

In case of long intake pressure loss should be accounted for determining

p01 i.e. p01 = pa - Δp.

In aircraft propulsion p01 ≠ pa even if pressure losses are ignored due to

variation of pressure in inlet section of aircraft. For turbine

Ideally it is supposed that kinetic energy of fluid in turbine exhaust is

utilized in subsequent nozzle or in propelling nozzle. In case of stationary
gas turbines this kinetic energy is wasted.

Therefore for accurate calculation of turbine efficiency p04 is replaced with

static pressure p4 where p4 = pa

Polytropic efficiency

Previously overall efficiencies of turbine and compressor were discussed.

The efficiency, however, depends on pressure ratio. Consider an axial

flow compressor with similar stages and same efficiencies.

The isentropic stage efficiency can be written (in terms of stagnation

temperature) as
ηs is stage efficiency and is constant. But using definition of ηc, we get

From Figure it is clear that

The difference increases with the increase in number of stages.

The increase in temperature / work input is due to heating effect in one

stage which results in more compressor work in next stage.

In case of turbine ηt > ηs

For small changes in temperature term ‘small-stage efficiency η∞c’ is

used.
 (1)

Considering the isentropic relation and differentiating we get

(2)

Solving (1) and (2) and then integrating

The relation between ηc and η∞c are now determined as:

we can write in terms of n to get a familiar relation of polytropic process.

Similar relations for turbine are

For a polytropic process efficiency of 85%, isentropic efficiency variation

with pressure ratio is given below:

The specific heat cp increases and γ decreases with the increase in

temperature or increase in fuel-air ratio.