4 WEEK INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON
66 KV SUB STATION

TRANING OF PSPCL

SUBMITTED TO- SUBMITTED BY-

DR.VED PARKASH ARORA MANPREET SINGH
UNI. R.N-99150340014
ELECTRICAL ENGG.

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 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
ON
66 KV SUB STATION

AT
66 KV SUBSTATION M.E.S.(BATHINDA)
NAME:- MANPREET SINGH
BRANCH:- ELECTRICAL ENGG.
UNI. R.NO:- 99150340014
BATCH:- 2015-2019
TRAINING AT:- P & M OFFICE(BTI)
TRAINING ON:- 66 KV SUBSTATION(MES,BTI)
DATE:- FROM 05/06/2017 TO 02/07/2017

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 CONTENTS
TOPIC`S PAGE NO.
1.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2.SUBSTATION 1-5
3.TRANSFORMER 5-12
4.PARTS OF TRANSFORMER 12-23
5.CURRENT TRANSFORMER 23-31
6.POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER 31-32
7.ELECTRICAL ISOLATOR 32-36
8.BUS BARS 36-46
9.BUS COUPLER 46-47
10.CIRCUIT BRAEKER 47-50
11.CONTROL PANEL 50-51
12.OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAY 51-53
13.CAPACITOR BANK 53-57
14.EARTHING 58-60
15.INSULATOR 60-66
16.BATTERY ROOM 66

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
NOTHING CAN BE ACHIEVED WITHOUT AN OPYIMUM
COMBINATION OF INSTECTION AND PERSPIRATION.I OWE A LOT
TO MANY OF INSTIRATION PATH.BUT THINKING PEOPLE WHO
HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE TRAINING IS LITTLE LIKE SAYING
THANKS AT THE ACADEMY AWARDS.

I WISH MY SINCERE SENSE OF GRATITUDE TO TO DR.VED

PRAKASH ARORA FOR PERMITTING ME TP CONDUCT INDUSTRIAL
TRAINING IN AN ESTEEMED ORGANISTION.I WISH TO EXPRESS OF
GRATITUDE TO MY TRAINING INCHARGE JE BALDEV SINGH FOR HIS
UNDAUNTED GUIDANCE AND CONSTANT ENCOURAGEMENT AT ALL
THE STAGES OF MY TRAINING I CARRIED OUT UNDER HIM.LAST BUT
NOT THE LEAST,I EXPRESS MY SINCERE GRATITUDE TO MY FACULTY
MEMBERS,MY FAMILY MEMBERS WHO HAVE TAKEN GREAT PAINS
TO ENEBLE ME TO REACH UP THIS STATUS OF LIFE.

THANK YOU

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 SUBSTATION
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission,
and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to
low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important
functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric
power may flow through several substations at different voltage
levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage
levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution
voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission
voltages.
Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or
may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer.
Generally substations are unattended, relying on scada for remote
supervision and control.
The word substation comes from the days before the distribution
system became a grid. As central generation stations became larger,
smaller generating plants were converted to distribution stations,
receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using
their own generators. The first substations were connected to only
one power station, where the generators were housed, and were
subsidiaries of that power station.

TYPES:-
Substations may be described by their voltage class, their
applications within the power system, the method used to insulate
most connections, and by the style and materials of the structures
used. These categories are not disjointed; for example, to solve a
particular problem, a transmission substation may include significant
distribution functions.

Transmission substation :-

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 A transmission substation connects two or more transmission
lines The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the
same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage
switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault
clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may
have transformers to convert between two transmission
voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices such as
capacitors, reactors or static VAR compensators and equipment
such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between
two adjacent power systems.

Transmission substations can range from simple

to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than
a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission
substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with
multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers, and a large amount of
protection and control equipment. Modern substations may be
implemented using international standards such as IEC Standard
61850.

Distribution substation:-
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission
system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to
directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission
network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution
station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two
transmission or sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for
example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a
number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium
voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area
served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along
streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and power the
distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.

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In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also
isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems.
Distribution substations are typically the points of voltage regulation,
although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometers),
voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution
substations, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup
systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution
substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on
the low-voltage side.

Collector substation
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector
substation may be required. It resembles a distribution substation
although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind
turbines up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of
construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the
collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for
the grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor
correction if it is needed, metering, and control of the wind farm. In
some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC
converter station.
Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or
hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in
proximity. Examples for such substations are Brauweiler in Germany
and Hradec in the Czech Republic, where power is collected from
nearby lignite-fired power plants. If no transformers are required for
increasing the voltage to transmission level, the substation is a
switching station.
Converter substations
Converter substations may be associated with HVDC converter
plants, traction current, or interconnected non-synchronous
networks. These stations contain power electronic devices to change

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the frequency of current, or else convert from alternating to direct
current or the reverse. Formerly rotary converters changed
frequency to interconnect two systems; nowadays such substations
are rare.

Switching station
A switching station is a substation without transformers and
operating only at a single voltage level. Switching stations are
sometimes used as collector and distribution stations. Sometimes
they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for
parallelizing circuits in case of failure. An example is the switching
stations for the HVDC Inga–Shaba transmission line.
A switching station may also be known as a switchyard, and these
are commonly located directly adjacent to or nearby a power station.
In this case the generators from the power station supply their
power into the yard onto the Generator Bus on one side of the yard,
and the transmission lines take their power from a Feeder Bus on the
other side of the yard.
An important function performed by a substation is switching, which
is the connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other
components to and from the system. Switching events may be
planned or unplanned. A transmission line or other component may
need to be de-energized for maintenance or for new construction,
for example, adding or removing a transmission line or a
transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, companies aim at
keeping the system up and running while performing maintenance.
All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely
new substations, should be done while keeping the whole system
running.
Unplanned switching events are caused by a fault in a transmission
line or any other component, for example:

 a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc,

 a tower is blown down by high wind.

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The function of the switching station is to isolate the faulty portion of
the system in the shortest possible time. De-energizing faulty
equipment protects it from further damage, and isolating a fault
helps keep the rest of the electrical grid operating with stability.

PART OF 66KV SUBSTATION:--

 TRANSFORMER
 CURRENT TRANSFRMER
 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
 ELECTRIC ISOLATOR
 LIGHTING ARRESTOR
 BUS BAR
 BUS COUPLER
 CIRCUIT BRAEKER
 CONTROL PANEL
 EARTH FAULT RELAY
 OVER CURRENT RELAY
 ON LOAD TAP CHANGER
 CAPACITOR BANK
 EARTHING
 INSULATOR
 BATTERY

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy

between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A
varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying
magnetic field, which in turn induces a voltage in a second coil.

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Power can be transferred between the two coils through the
magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two
circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this
effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating
voltages in electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in
1885, transformers have become essential for
the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current
electrical energy. A wide range of transformer designs is
encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic
centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid
weighing hundreds of tons.

Working Principle of Transformer

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends

upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual
induction between two or more winding is responsible for
transformation action in an electrical transformer.

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Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:-
According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage
with respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in
a conductor or coil".

Basic Theory of Transformer:-

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating
electrical source. The alternating current through the winding
produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux that
surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the
previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the
second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and
direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second
winding or coil. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the circuit
of the later winding is closed, there must be an current flowing
through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer .
For better understanding, we are trying to repeat the above
explanation in a more brief way here. Whenever we apply
alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating flux
surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first one,
there will be an alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the
flux is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change in flux
linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally emf will be
induced in it as per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
The winding which takes electrical power from the source,
is generally known as primary winding of transformer. Here in our
above example it is first winding.

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 The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to
mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly known as
secondary winding of transformer. Here in our example it is second
winding.

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 The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically
possible but not practically, because in open air very tiny portion of
the flux of the first winding will link with second; so the current that
flows through the closed circuit of later, will be so small in amount
that it will be difficult to measure.
The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of
linked flux with the second winding. So, it is desired to be linked to
almost all flux of primary winding to the secondary winding. This is
effectively and efficiently done by placing one low reluctance path
common to both of the winding. This low reluctance path is core of
transformer, through which maximum number of flux produced by
the primary is passed through and linked with the secondary
winding. This is the most basic theory of transformer.

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Construction of Transformer:-

Cores
Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell
form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core
form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is
shell form.

Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for
distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in
stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as
a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent,
than shell form design for high voltage power transformer
applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating
ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At
higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be
more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-
high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more
labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are
characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better
short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit
damage.

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Laminated steel cores:-
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have
cores made of high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a
permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves
to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a
path which closely couples the windings.

Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed

from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their
designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of
insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by stacking
layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use.
Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-
conducting layer of insulation. The transformer universal EMF
equation implies an acceptably large core cross-sectional area in
order to avoid saturation.

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy

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currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so
reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are
more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are
generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very
thin steel laminations able to operate upto10 kHz.
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved
stacks of E-shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading
to its name of 'E-I transformer'. Such a design tends to exhibit more
losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core
type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and
then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C
shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together
with a steel strap.[55] They have the advantage that the flux is
always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic
field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the
residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the
remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the
applied AC waveform. Over current protection devices such
as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On
transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines,
induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar
storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of
transformer protection devices.
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using
cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel
or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of
the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its
lower losses at light load.

PARTS OF TRANSFORMER

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Conservator Tank :-
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof
the transformer main tank. The main function of conservator tank of
transformers to provide adequate space for expansion of oil inside
the transformer.

Function of Conservator Tank of a Transformer:-

When transformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises,
the volume of oil inside transformer increases. A conservator tank of
transformer provides adequate space to this expanded transformer
oil. It also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.

Construction of Conservator Tank:-

This is a cylindrical shaped oil container closed from both ends. One
large inspection cover is provided on either side of the container to
facilitate maintenance and cleaning inside of the conservator.

Conservator pipe, i.e. pipe comes from main transformer tank,

is projected inside the conservator from bottom portion. Head of the
conservator pipe inside the conservator is provided with a cap. This
pipe is projected as well as provided with a cap because this design
prevent oil sludge and sediment to enter into main tank from
conservator.

Generally silica gel breather fixing pipe enters into the conservator
from top. If it enters from bottom, it should be projected well above
the level of oil inside the conservator. This arrangement ensure that
oil does not enter the silica gel breather even at highest operating
level.

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Working of Conservator Tank:-
When volume of transformer insulating oil increases due to load and
ambient temperature, the vacant space above the oil level inside the
conservator is partially occupied by the expanded oil. Consequently,
corresponding quantity of air of that space is pushed away through
breather. On other hand, when load of transformer decreases, the
transformer is switched off and when the ambient temperature
decreases, the oil inside the transformer contracts. This causes
outside air to enter in the conservator tank of transformer through
silica gel breather.

Atmoseal Type Conservator:-

In this type conservator of transformer, an air cell made of NBR
material is fitted inside the conservator reservoir. The silica gel
breather is connected at the top of this air cell. The oil level in
the power transformer rises and falls according to this air cell
deflated and inflated. When the air cell gets deflated the air inside
the air cell comes out via breather and on the other hand if the cell is
inflated the outside air comes in through breather.This arrangement

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prevents direct contact of oil with air, thereby reduces ageing affect
of oil.

The space available outside the cell in conservator tank is totally

filled by oil. Air vents are provided on the top of the conservator for
venting accumulated air outside the air cell.The pressure inside the
air cell must be maintained 1.0 PSI.

Diaphragm Sealed Conservator:-

Here diaphragm is used as a barrier between transformer oil and
atmospheric air. In this case the conservator of transformer is made
of tow semicircular halves as shown below.

The diphram is held between the the two halves and bolted.
As oil expands it pushes up the diaphragm. The position of the
diaphragm is indicated by the oil level indicator i.e. magnetic oil

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gauge (Here MOG is not shown in the figure above) as the rod of this
MOG is connected to the diaphragm. When the oil level falls down in
the conservator, the diaphragm deflects and the atmospheric air fills
the vacant place. This air is sucked through silica gel breather which
is connected to the top middle of conservator tank of transformer.
(Here silica gel breather is not shown in the figure above)
This type of conservator has one advantage over air cell conservator.
If gas is pressurized to a high level, it gets dissolved in oil. Over a
period of time the amount of gas in oil reaches the saturation point.
If at this stage, the load of transformer is suddenly dropped or the
ambient temperature falls severely, the pressure falls, oil becomes
supersaturated and the gas bubbles will be evolved. If there is a pimp
connected in the cooling circuit, it will help generating bubbles.
These bubbles may cause insulation failure in the region of strong
fields. (Here silica gel breather, MOG, Drain Valves, Air Pockets,
Conservator to main tank connections is not shown in the figure
above.)

Breather :-
Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the
temperature of the transformer insulating oil increases,
consequently the volume of the oil is increased. As the volume of the
oil is increased, the air above the oil level in conservator will come
out. Again at low oil temperature; the volume of the oil is decreased,
which causes the volume of the oil to be decreased which again
causes air to enter into conservator tank.
The natural air always consists of more or less moisture in it and this
moisture can be mixed up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the
transformer. The air moisture should be resisted during entering of
the air into the transformer, because moisture is very harmful for

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transformer insulation. A silica gel breather is the most commonly
used way of filtering air from moisture.

Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with conservator

tank
By means of breathing pipe.

Construction of Silica Gel Breather:-

The silica gel breather of transformer is very
simple in the aspect of design. It is nothing but a pot of silica gel
through which, air passes during breathing of transformer. The silica
gel is a very good absorber of moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is
very efficient, it may dry down air to a dew point of below -40oC. A
well maintained silica gel breather will generally operate with a dew
point of -35oC as long as a large enough quantity of gel has been
used. The picture shows a silica gel breather of transformer.

Working Principle of Silica Gel Breather:-

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of
absorbing moisture. When air passes through these crystals in the

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breather; the moisture of the air is absorbed by them. Therefore, the
air reaches to the conservator is quite dry, the dust particles in the
air get trapped by the oil in the oil seal cup. The oil in the oil sealing
cup acts as barrier between silica gel crystal and air when there is no
flow of air through silica gel breather. The color of silica gel crystal is
dark blue but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes pink.
When there is sufficient difference between the air inside the
conservator and the outside air, the oil level in two components of
the oil seal changes until the lower oil level just reaches the rim of
the inverted cup, the air then moves from high pressure
compartment to the low pressure compartment of the oil seal. Both
of these happen when the oil acts as core filter and removes the dust
from the outside air.

Buchholz Relay:-
Buchholz relay in transformer is an oil container housed
the connecting pipe from main tank to conservator tank. It has
mainly two elements. The upper element consists of a float. The
float is attached to a hinge in such a way that it can move up and
down depending upon the oil level in the Buchholz
relay Container. One mercury switch is fixed on the float. The
alignment of mercury switch hence depends upon the position of the
float.
The lower element consists of a baffle plate and mercury
switch. This plate is fitted on a hinge just in front of the inlet (main
tank side) of Buchholz relay in transformer in such a way that when
oil enters in the relay from that inlet in high pressure the alignment
of the baffle plate along with the mercury switch attached to it, will
change.

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In addition to these main elements a Buchholz relay has gas release
pockets on top. The electrical leads from both mercury switches are
taken out through a molded terminal block.

Buchholz Relay Principle:-

The Buchholz relay working principle of is very
simple. Buchholz relay function is based on very simple mechanical
phenomenon. It is mechanically actuated. Whenever there will be a
minor internal fault in the transformer such as an insulation faults
between turns, break down of core of transformer, core heating,
the transformer insulating oil will be decomposed in different
hydrocarbon gases, CO2 and CO. The gases produced due to
decomposition of transformer insulating oil will accumulate in the
upper part the Buchholz container which causes fall of oil level in it.

Fall of oil level means lowering the position of float and thereby
tilting the mercury switch. The contacts of this mercury switch are
closed and an alarm circuit energized. Sometime due to oil leakage
on the main tank air bubbles may be accumulated in the upper part
the Buchholz container which may also cause fall of oil level in it and
alarm circuit will be energized. By collecting the accumulated gases

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from the gas release pockets on the top of the relay and by analyzing
them one can predict the type of fault in the transformer.
More severe types of faults, such as short circuit between phases or
to earth and faults in the tap changing equipment, are accompanied
by a surge of oil which strikes the baffle plate and causes the
mercury switch of the lower element to close. This switch energized
the trip circuit of the circuit breakers associated with the transformer
and immediately isolate the faulty transformer from the rest of
the electrical power system by inter tripping the circuit breakers
associated with both LV and HV sides of the transformer. This is
how Buchholz relay functions.
Buchholz Relay Operation Certain Precaution:-
The Buchholz relay operation may be actuated without any fault in
the transformer. For instance, when oil is added to a transformer, air
may get in together with oil, accumulated under the relay cover and
thus cause a false Buchholz relay operation.

That is why mechanical lock is provided in that relay so that one can
lock the movement of mercury switches when oil is topping up in the
transformer. This mechanical locking also helps to prevent
unnecessary movement of breakable glass bulb of mercury switches
during transportation of the Buchholz relays.

The lower float may also falsely operate if the oil velocity in the
connection pipe through, not due to internal fault, is sufficient to trip
over the float. This can occurs in the event of external short circuit

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when over currents flowing through the winding cause overheated
the copper and the oil and cause the oil to expand.

Bushing:-
They are made for highly insulating material to insulate end to
bring out the terminals of the transformer from the container.

ON LOAD TAP CHANGER

A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for
variable turn ratios to be selected in discrete steps. Transformers
with this mechanism obtain this variable turn ratio by connecting to
a number of access points known as taps along either the primary or
secondary winding. These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at
centre "Rated" tap and sixteen to increase and decrease the turn
ratio) and allow for ±10% variation[1] (each step providing 0.625%
variation) from the nominal transformer rating which, in turn, allows
for stepped voltage regulation of the output.

Tap changers exist in two primary types,[2] no load tap changers

(NLTC) which must be de-energized before the turn ratio is adjusted
and on load tap changers (OLTC) which may adjust their turn ratio
during operation. The tap selection on any tap changer may be made
via an automatic system, as is often the case for OLTC, or a manual
tap changer, which is more common for NLTC. Additionally, tap
changers are often placed on the high voltage (low current)
transformer winding for easy access and to minimize the current
load during operation.

No Load Tap Changers:-

It is also called 'Off-Circuit Tap Changer, Off-Load Tap Changer, or De-
Energized Tap Changer (DETC).No load tap changers are often

25
utilized in situations in which a transformer's turn ratio does not
require frequent changing and it is permissible to de-energize the
transformer system. This type of transformer is frequently employed
in low power, low voltage transformers in which the tap point often
may take the form of a transformer connection terminal, requiring
the input line to be disconnected by hand and connected to the new
terminal. Alternatively, in some systems, the process of tap changing
may be assisted by means of a rotary or slider switch.
No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage transformers
in which the system includes a no load tap changer on the primary
winding to accommodate system variations within a narrow band
around the nominal rating. In such systems, the tap changer will
often be set just once, at the time of installation, although it may be
changed later during a scheduled outage to accommodate a long-
term change in the system voltage profile.
On Load Tap Changers:-
It is also called On Circuit Tap Changer.For many power transformer
applications, a supply interruption during a tap change is
unacceptable, and the transformer is often fitted with a more
expensive and complex on load tap changing (OLTC, sometimes Load
Tap Changer, LTC) mechanism. On load tap changers may be
generally classified as either mechanical, electronically assisted, or
fully electronic.

26
Tap changers typically use numerous tap selector switches which
may not be switched under load, broken into even and odd banks,
and switch between the banks with a heavy-duty diverter
switch which can switch between them under load. The result
operates like a dual-clutch transmission, with the tap selector
switches taking the place of the gearbox and the diverter switch
taking the place of the clutch.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument
transformer” that is designed to produce an alternating current in its
secondary winding which is proportional to the current being
measured in its primary.
Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much
lower value and provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the

27
actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a
standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a basic current
transformer is slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage
transformer.

Typical Current Transformer

Unlike the voltage or power transformer looked at previously, the

current transformer consists of only one or very few turns as its
primary winding. This primary winding can be of either a single flat
turn, a coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the core or just a
conductor or bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.
Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is often
referred too as a “series transformer” as the primary winding, which
never has more than a very few turns, is in series with the current
carrying conductor supplying a load.
The secondary winding however, may have a large number of coil
turns wound on a laminated core of low-loss magnetic material. This
core has a large cross-sectional area so that the magnetic flux density
created is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire,
depending upon how much the current must be stepped down as it
tries to output a constant current, independent of the connected
load.
The secondary winding will supply a current into either a short
circuit, in the form of an ammeter, or into a resistive load until the

28
voltage induced in the secondary is big enough to saturate the core
or cause failure from excessive voltage breakdown.
Unlike a voltage transformer, the primary current of a current
transformer is not dependent of the secondary load current but
instead is controlled by an external load. The secondary current is
usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5 Amperes for larger primary
current ratings.
There are three basic types of current
transformers: wound, toroidal and bar.
 Wound Current Transformer – The transformers primary
winding is physically connected in series with the conductor that
carries the measured current flowing in the circuit. The
magnitude of the secondary current is dependent on the turns
ratio of the transformer.
 Toroidal Current Transformer – These do not contain a primary
winding. Instead, the line that carries the current flowing in the
network is threaded through a window or hole in the toroidal
transformer. Some current transformers have a “split core”
which allows it to be opened, installed, and closed, without
disconnecting the circuit to which they are attached.
 Bar-type Current Transformer – This type of current transformer
uses the actual cable or bus-bar of the main circuit as the
primary winding, which is equivalent to a single turn. They are
fully insulated from the high operating voltage of the system
and are usually bolted to the current carrying device.

Current transformers can reduce or “step-down” current levels

from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a known
ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation. Thus, small
and accurate instruments and control devices can be used with CT’s
because they are insulated away from any high-voltage power lines.
There are a variety of metering applications and uses for current
transformers such as with Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-

29
hour meters, protective relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit
breakers, or MCB’s.

Generally current transformers and ammeters are used together

as a matched pair in which the design of the current transformer is
such as to provide a maximum secondary current corresponding to a
full-scale deflection on the ammeter. In most current transformers
an approximate inverse turns ratio exists between the two currents
in the primary and secondary windings. This is why calibration of the
CT is generally for a specific type of ammeter.
Most current transformers have a the standard secondary rating of 5
amps with the primary and secondary currents being expressed as a
ratio such as 100/5. This means that the primary current is 20 times
greater than the secondary current so when 100 amps is flowing in
the primary conductor it will result in 5 amps flowing in the
secondary winding. A current transformer of say 500/5, will produce
5 amps in the secondary for 500 amps in the primary conductor, 100
times greater.
By increasing the number of secondary windings, N2, the secondary
current can be made much smaller than the current in the primary
circuit being measured because as N2 increases, I2 goes down by a
proportional amount. In other words, the number of turns and the

30
current in the primary and secondary windings are related by an
inverse proportion.
A current transformer, like any other transformer, must satisfy the
amp-turn equation and we know from our tutorial on double wound
voltage transformers that this turns ratio is equal to:

from which we get:

The current ratio will sets the turns ratio and as the primary usually
consists of one or two turns whilst the secondary can have several
hundred turns, the ratio between the primary and secondary can be
quite large. For example, assume that the current rating of the
primary winding is 100A. The secondary winding has the standard
rating of 5A. Then the ratio between the primary and the secondary
currents is 100A-to-5A, or 20:1. In other words, the primary current
is 20 times greater than the secondary current.
It should be noted however, that a current transformer rated as
100/5 is not the same as one rated as 20/1 or subdivisions of 100/5.
This is because the ratio of 100/5 expresses the “input/output
current rating” and not the actual ratio of the primary to the
secondary currents. Also note that the number of turns and the
current in the primary and secondary windings are related by an
inverse proportion.
But relatively large changes in a current transformers turns ratio can
be achieved by modifying the primary turns through the CT’s window
where one primary turn is equal to one pass and more than one pass
through the window results in the electrical ratio being modified.

31
So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of say,
300/5A can be converted to another of 150/5A or even 100/5A by
passing the main primary conductor through its interior window two
or three times as shown. This allows a higher value current
transformer to provide the maximum output current for the
ammeter when used on smaller primary current lines.

Current Transformer Primary Turns Ratio

Current Transformer Example No.1:-

A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary and
160 turns on its secondary is to be used with a standard range of
ammeters that have an internal resistance of 0.2Ω’s. The ammeter is
required to give a full scale deflection when the primary current is
800 Amps. Calculate the maximum secondary current and secondary
voltage across the ammeter.
Secondary Current:

Voltage across Ammeter:

We can see above that since the secondary of the current

transformer is connected across the ammeter, which has a very small
resistance, the voltage drop across the secondary winding is only 1.0
volts at full primary current. If the ammeter was removed, the

32
secondary winding becomes open-circuited and the transformer acts
as a step-up transformer due to the very large increase in
magnetising flux in the secondary core as there is no opposing
current in the secondary winding to prevent this.
The results is a very high voltage induced in the secondary winding
equal to the ratio of: Vp(Ns/Np) being developed across the
secondary winding. So for example, assume our current transformer
from above is used on a 480 volt three-phase power line. Therefore:

For this reason a current transformer should never be left open-

circuited or operated with no-load attached when the main primary
current is flowing through it just as a voltage transformer should
never operate into a short circuit. If the ammeter (or load) is to be
removed, a short-circuit should be placed across the secondary
terminals first to eliminate the risk of shock.
This high voltage is because when the secondary is open-circuited
the iron core of the autotransformer operates at a high degree of
saturation and with nothing to stop it, it produces an abnormally
large secondary voltage, and in our simple example above, this was
calculated at 76.8kV!. This high secondary voltage could damage the
insulation or cause electric shock if the CT’s terminals are
accidentally touched.

Handheld Current Transformers:-

33
There are many specialized types of current transformers now
available. A popular and portable type which can be used to measure
circuit loading are called “clamp meters” as shown.
Clamp meters open and close around a current carrying conductor
and measure its current by determining the magnetic field around it,
providing a quick measurement reading usually on a digital display
without disconnecting or opening the circuit.
As well as the handheld clamp type CT, split core current
transformers are available which has one end removable so that the
load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected to install
it. These are available for measuring currents from 100 up to 5000
amps, with square window sizes from 1″ to over 12″ (25-to-300mm).
Then to summarise, the Current Transformer, (CT) is a type of
instrument transformer used to convert a primary current into a
secondary current through a magnetic medium. Its secondary
winding then provides a much reduced current which can be used for
detecting overcurrent, undercurrent, peak current, or average
current conditions.
A current transformers primary coil is always connected in series
with the main conductor giving rise to it also being referred to as a
series transformer. The nominal secondary current is rated at 1A or
5A for ease of measurement. Construction can be one single primary
turn as in Toroidal, Doughnut, or Bar types, or a few wound primary
turns, usually for low current ratios.

34
Current transformers are intended to be used as proportional
current devices. Therefore a current transformers secondary winding
should never be operated into an open circuit, just as a voltage
transformer should never be operated into a short circuit.
Very high voltages will result from open circuiting the secondary
circuit of an energized CT so their terminals must be short-circuited if
the ammeter is to be removed or when a CT is not in use before
powering up the system.
In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at what happens
when we connect together three individual transformers in a star or
delta configuration to produce a larger power transformer called
a three phase transforme used to supply 3-phase

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical

power system for stepping down the system voltage to a safe value
which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays. Commercially
available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are
designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form of potential
transformer definition.

Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer Theory:-

A voltage transformer theory or potential transformer theory is just
like a theory of general purpose step down transformer. Primary of
this transformer is connected across the phase and ground. Just like
the transformer used for stepping down purpose, potential
transformer i.e. PT has lower turns winding at its secondary.

The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary

winding of that transformer, and then proportionate secondary
voltage appears across the secondary terminals of the PT.

35
The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an
ideal potential transformer or voltage transformer, when rated
burden gets connected across the secondary; the ratio of primary
and secondary voltages of transformer is equal to the turns ratio and
furthermore, the two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposite
to each other. But in actual transformer, there must be an error in
the voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and
secondary voltages.
The errors in potential transformer or voltage transformer can be
best explained by phasor diagram, and this is the main part
of potential transformer theory.

ELECTRIC ISOLATOR

Circuit breaker always trip the circuit but open contacts of

breaker cannot be visible physically from outside of the breaker and
that is why it is recommended not to touch any electrical circuit just
by switching off the circuit breaker. So for better safety there must
be some arrangement so that one can see open condition of the
section of the circuit before touching it. Isolator is a mechanical
switch which isolates a part of circuit from system as when

36
required. Electrical isolators separate a part of the system from rest
for safe maintenance works.
So definition of isolator can be rewritten as Isolator is a manually
operated mechanical switch which separates a part of the electrical
power. Isolators are used to open a circuit under no load. Its main
purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is
not intended to be opened while current is flowing in the line.
Isolators are generally used on both ends of the breaker in order that
repair or replacement of circuit breaker can be done without and
danger.

Types of Electrical Isolators:-

There are different types of isolators available depending upon
system requirement such as

1. Double Break Isolator

2. Single Break Isolator
3. Pantograph type Isolator.
Depending upon the position in power system, the isolators can be
categorized as

1. Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with main bus
2. Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder
3. Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with
transfer bus.

Constructional Features of Double Break Isolators:-

Lets have a discussion on constructional features of Double

Break Isolators. These have three stacks of post insulators as shown
in the figure. The central post insulator carries a tubular or flat male

37
contact which can be rotated horizontally with rotation of central
post insulator. This rod type contact is also called moving contact.

The female type contacts are fixed on the top of the other post
insulators which fitted at both sides of the central post insulator. The
female contacts are generally in the form of spring loaded figure
contacts.

The rotational movement of male contact causes to come itself

into female contacts and isolators becomes closed. The rotation of
male contact in opposite direction make to it out from female
contacts and isolators becomes open.

Rotation of the central post insulator is done by a driving lever

mechanism at the base of the post insulator and it connected to
operating handle (in case of hand operation) or motor (in case of
motorized operation) of the isolator through a mechanical tie rod.

38
Constructional features of Single Break Isolators:-
The contact arm is divided into two parts one carries male contact
and other female contact. The contact arm moves due to rotation of
the post insulator upon which the contact arms are fitted. Rotation
of both post insulators stacks in opposite to each other causes to
close the isolator by closing the contact arm. Counter rotation of
both post insulators stacks open the contact arm and isolator
becomes in off condition. This motorized form of this type of
isolators is generally used but emergency hand driven mechanism is
also provided.

Earthing Switches:-
Earthing switches are mounted on the base of mainly line side
isolator. Earthing switches are normally vertically break switches.
Earthing arms (contact arm of earthing switch) are normally aligned
horizontally at off condition during switching on operation, these
earthing arms rotate and move to vertical position and make contact
with earth female contacts fitted at the top of the post insulator
stack of isolator at its outgoing side. The erarthing arms are so
interlocked with main isolator moving contacts that it can be closed

39
only when the main contacts of isolator are in open position.
Similarly the main isolator contacts can be closed only when the
earthing arms are in open position.

Operation of Electrical Isolator:-

As no arc quenching technique is provided in isolator
it must be operated when there is no chance current flowing through
the circuit. No live circuit should be closed or open by isolator
operation. A complete live closed circuit must not be opened by
isolator operation and also a live circuit must not be closed and
completed by isolator operation to avoid huge arcing in between
isolator contacts. That is why isolators must be open after circuit
breaker is open and these must be closed before circuit breaker is
closed. Isolator can be operated by hand locally as well as by
motorized mechanism from remote position. Motorized operation
arrangement costs more compared to hand operation; hence
decision must be taken before choosing an isolator for system
whether hand operated or motor operated economically optimum
for the system. For voltages up to 145 KV system hand
operated isolators are used whereas for higher voltage systems like
245 KV or 420 KV and above motorized isolators are used.

BUS BAR

There are many different electrical bus system schemes

available but selection of a particular scheme depends upon the
system voltage, position of substation in electrical power system,
flexibility needed in system and cost to be expensed.

40
The Main Criteria’s To be Considered During Selection of on
Particular Bus – Bar Arrangement Scheme Among Others
1. Simplicity of system.
2. Easy maintenance of different equipments.
3. Minimizing the outage during maintenance.
4. Future provision of extension with growth of demand.
5. Optimizing the selection of bus bar arrangement scheme so that it
gives maximum return from the system.
Some very commonly used bus bar arrangement are discussed
below-

Single Bus System-

Single Bus System is simplest and cheapest one. In this scheme all
the feeders and transformer bay are connected to only one single
bus as show.

Advantages of Single Bus System

1. This is very simple in design.
2. This is very cost effective scheme.
3. This is very convenient to operate.
Disadvantages of Single Bus System:-

41
1. One but major difficulty of these type of arrangement is that,
maintenance of equipment of any bay cannot be possible without
interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that bay.
2. The indoor 11 KV switch boards have quite often single bus bar
arrangement.
Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer:-
Some advantages are realized if a single bus bar is sectionalized with
circuit breaker. If there are more than one incoming and the
incoming sources and outgoing feeders are evenly distributed on the
sections as shown in the figure, interruption of system can be
reduced to a good extent.

Advantages of Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer:-

If any of the sources is out of system, still all loads can be fed by
switching on the sectional circuit breaker or bus coupler breaker. If
one section of the bus bar system is under maintenance, part load of
the substation can be fed by energizing the other section of bus bar.

Disadvantages of Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer-

42
1. As in the case of single bus system, maintenance of equipment of
any bay cannot be possible without interrupting the feeder or
transformer connected to that bay.
2. The use of isolator for bus sectionalizing does not fulfill the
purpose. The isolators have to be operated ‘off circuit’ and which
is not possible without total interruption of bus – bar. So
investment for bus-coupler breaker is required.

Double Bus System:-

1. In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a
way that any outgoing or incoming feeder can be taken from any
of the bus.
2. Actually every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel
through individual isolator as shown in the figure.

By closing any of the isolators one can put the feeder to associated
bus. Both of the buses are energized and total feeders are divided
into two groups, one group is fed from one bus and other from other
bus. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to

43
other. There is one bus coupler breaker which should be kept close
during bus transfer operation. For transfer operation, one should
first close the bus coupler circuit breaker then close the isolator
associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred
and then open the isolator associated with the bus from where
feeder is transferred. Lastly after this transfer operation he or she
should open the bus coupler breaker.

Advantages of Double Bus System:-

Double Bus Bar Arrangement increases the flexibility of system.

Disadvantages of Double Bus System:-

The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance with out
interruption.

Double Breaker Bus System:-

In double breaker bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in
such a way that any outgoing or incoming feeder can be taken from
any of the bus similar to double bus bar system. Only difference is
that here every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel
through individual breaker instead only isolator as shown in the
figure. By closing any of the breakers and its associated isolators one
can put the feeder to respective bus. Both of the buses are energized
and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from
one bus and other from other bus similar to previous case. But any
feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to other. There is
no need of bus coupler as because the operation is done by breakers
instead of isolator. For transfer operation, one should first close the
isolators and then the breaker associated with the bus to where the
feeder would be transferred and then he or she opens the breaker
and then isolators associated with the bus from where feeder is
transferred.

44
One and A Half Breaker Bus System:-
This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect
saving in the number of circuit breakers. For every two circuits only
one spare breaker is provided. The protection is however
complicated since it must associate the central breaker with the
feeder whose own breaker is taken out for maintenance. For the
reasons given under double breaker scheme and because of the
prohibitory costs of equipment even this scheme is not much
popular. As shown in the figure that it is a simple design, two feeders
are fed from two different buses through their associated breakers
and these two feeders are coupled by a third breaker which is called
tie breaker. Normally all the three breakers are closed and power is
fed to both the circuits from two buses which are operated in
parallel. The tie breaker acts as coupler for the two feeder circuits.

45
During failure of any feeder breaker, the power is fed through the
breaker of the second feeder and tie breaker, therefore each feeder
breaker has to be rated to feed both the feeders, coupled by tie
breaker.

Advantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System:-

During any fault on any one of the buses, that faulty bus will be
cleared instantly without interrupting any feeders in the system since
all feeders will continue to feed from other healthy bus.

Disadvantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System

This scheme is much expensive due to investment for third breaker.

Main and Transfer Bus System

46
This is an alternative of double bus system. The main conception of
Main and Transfer Bus System is, here every feeder line is directly
connected through an isolator to a second bus called transfer bus.
The said isolator in between transfer bus and feeder line is generally
called bypass isolator. The main bus is as usual connected to each
feeder through a bay consists of circuit breaker and associated
isolators at both side of the breaker. There is one bus coupler bay
which couples transfer bus and main bus through a circuit breaker
and associated isolators at both sides of the breaker. If necessary the
transfer bus can be energized by main bus power by closing the
transfer bus coupler isolators and then breaker. Then the power in
transfer bus can directly be fed to the feeder line by closing the
bypass isolator. If the main circuit breaker associated with feeder is
switched off or isolated from system, the feeder can still be fed in
this way by transferring it to transfer bus.

Switching Operation for Transferring a Feeder to Transfer Bus from

Main Bus without Interruption of Power:-
1. First close the isolators at both side of the bus coupler breaker.

47
2. Then close the bypass isolator of the feeder which is to be
transferred to transfer bus.
3. Now energized the transfer bus by closing the bus coupler circuit
breaker from remote.
4. After bus coupler breaker is closed, now the power from main bus
flows to the feeder line through its main
5. breaker as well as bus coupler breaker via transfer bus.
6. Now if main breaker of the feeder is switched off, total power flow
will instantaneously shift to the bus coupler breaker and hence this
breaker will serve the purpose of protection for the feeder.
7. At last the operating personnel open the isolators at both sides of
the
8. main circuit breaker to make it isolated from rest of the live
system.

So, it can be concluded that in Main and Transfer Bus System

the maintenance of circuit breaker is possible without any
interruption of power. Because of this advantage the scheme is very
popular for 33 KV and 13 KV system.

Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators:-

48
This is combination of the double bus system and main and transfer
bus system. In Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators either bus
can act as main bus and second bus as transfer bus. It permits
breaker maintenance without interruption of power which is not
possible in double bus system but it provides all the advantages of
double bus system. It however requires one additional isolator
(bypass isolator) for each feeder circuit and introduces slight
complication in system layout. Still this scheme is best for optimum
economy of system and it is best optimum choice for 220 KV system.

Ring Bus System:-

The schematic diagram of the system is given in the figure. It
provides a double feed to each feeder circuit, opening one breaker
under maintenance or otherwise does not affect supply to any
feeder. But this system has two major disadvantages. One as it is
closed circuit system it is next to impossible to extend in future and
hence it is unsuitable for developing system. Secondly, during
maintenance or any other reason if any one of the circuit breaker in

49
ring loop is switch of reliability of system becomes very poor as
because closed loop becomes opened. Since, at that moment for any
tripping of any breaker in the open loop causes interruption in all the
feeders between tripped breaker and open end of the loop.

BUS COUPLER
Bus coupler is a device which is used to couple onebus to the other
without any interruption in power supply and without creating
hazardous arcs. Bus coupler is a breaker used to couple two busbars
in order to perform maintenance on other circuit breakers associated
with that busbar.

50
 .

CIRCUIT BREAKER
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated
manually and automatically for controlling and protection
of electrical power system respectively. As the modern power system
deals with huge currents, the special attention should be given
during designing of circuit breaker for safe interruption of arc
produced during the operation of circuit breaker. This was the
basic definition of circuit breaker.

Introduction to Circuit Breaker:-

The modern power system deals with huge power network and huge
numbers of associated electrical equipments. During short circuit
fault or any other types of electrical fault these equipment as well as
the power network suffer a high stress of fault current in them which
may damage the equipment and networks permanently.

51
For saving these equipment and the power networks the fault
current should be cleared from the system as quickly as possible.
Again after the fault is cleared, the system must come to its normal
working condition as soon as possible for supplying reliable quality
power to the receiving ends. In addition to that for proper controlling
of power system, different switching operations are required to be
performed.
So for timely disconnecting and reconnecting different parts of
power system network for protection and control, there must be
some special type of switching devices which can be operated safely
under huge current carrying condition. During interruption of huge
current, there would be large arcing in between switching contacts,
so care should be taken to quench these arcs in circuit breaker in
safe manner. The circuit breaker is the special device which does all
the required switching operations during current carrying condition.
This was the basic introduction to circuit breaker.
Working Principle of Circuit Breaker:-
The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving
contacts. In normal "ON" condition of circuit breaker, these two
contacts are physically connected to each other due to applied
mechanical pressure on the moving contacts. There is an
arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism of
circuit breaker which is released if switching signal is given to the
breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by
different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or
by hydraulic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it
must be released during operation. Release of potential energy
makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely fast manner. All
circuit breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil),
whenever these coils are energized by switching pulse, and the
plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically
attached to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result

52
the mechanically stored potential energy in the breaker mechanism
is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving
contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically attached
through a gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism.
After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is
released and hence the potential energy again stored in the
operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring charging
motor or air compressor or by any other means. Till now we have
discussed about mechanical working principle of circuit breaker. But
there are electrical characteristics of a circuit breaker which also
should be considered in this discussion of operation of circuit
breaker.

Let's have a discussion on electrical principle of circuit breaker.

The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. Due to
this large power there is always dangerously high arcing between
moving contacts and fixed contact during operation of circuit
breaker. Again as we discussed earlier the arc in circuit breaker can
be quenching safely if the dielectric strength between the current
carrying contacts of circuit breaker increases rapidly during every
current zero crossing of the alternating current. The dielectric
strength of the media in between contacts can be increased in
numbers of ways, like by compressing the ionized arcing media since
compressing accelerates the deionization process of the media, by
cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the resistance of
arcing path or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses.
Hence a numbers of arc quenching processes should be involved in
operation of circuit breaker.
Types of Circuit Breaker:-
According different criteria there are different types of circuit
breaker. According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker
can be divided as-

53
 According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be
divided as-

1. Oil circuit breaker.

2. Air circuit breaker.
3. SF6 circuit breaker.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker.
According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as-

1. Outdoor circuit breaker

2. Indoor breaker.
According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can
be divided as-

1. Spring operated circuit breaker.

2. Pneumatic circuit breaker.
3. Hydraulic circuit breaker.
According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit
breaker are referred as-

1. High voltage circuit breaker.

2. Medium voltage circuit breaker.
3. Low voltage circuit breaker.

CONTROL PANEL
The substation control panel is designed to form automated control
systems (SCADA) of the traction substations, using digital protection
and programmable logic controllers.
Substation control panel provides:

 Telemechanical control of the substation (sending/receiving signals

of telecommands, telemetry and telesignaling)
 Remote control of the substation (using integrated controls and
indicating devices)

54
 Collection and transmission of the telemetry and diagnosing data via
digital channels of the data transmission network (DTN)

With the substation control panel any traction substation may be

reconstructed with gradual connection of the new smart controllers
and bay terminals, while the unmodified equipment is still controlled
with the existing telecommunications panel.
Substation control panel includes:-

 An operator station for remote equipment control.

 A controller of the overall substation signaling.
 A substation controller functioning as a concentrator of the
substation information-control network.
 A uninterruptible power system.

OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAY

Backup protection of electrical transformer is simple Over
Current and Earth Fault protection are applied against external short
circuit and excessive over loads. These over current and earth Fault
relays may be of Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) or Definite
Time type relays (DMT). Generally IDMT relays are connected to the
in-feed side of the transformer.
The over current relays can not distinguish between external short
circuit, over load and internal faults of the transformer. For any of
the above fault, backup protection i.e. over current and earth fault
protection connected to in-feed side of the transformer will operate.

Backup protection is although generally installed at in feed side of

the transformer, but it should trip both the primary and
secondary circuit breakers of the transformer.

55
Over Current and Earth Fault protection relays may be also provided
in load side of the transformer too, but it should not inter trip the
primary side circuit breaker like the case of backup protection at in-
feed side. The operation is governed primarily by current and time
settings and the characteristic curve of the relay.
To permit use of over load
capacity of the transformer and co-ordination with other similar
relays at about 125 to 150% of full load current of the transformer
but below the minimum short circuit current.
Backup protection of transformer has four elements; three
over current relays connected each in each phase and one earth fault
relay connected to the common point of three over current relays as
shown in the figure. The normal range of current settings available
on IDMT over current relays are 50% to 200% and on earth fault
relay 20 to 80%.

56
Another range of setting on earth fault relay is also available and
may be selected where the earth fault current is restricted due to
insertion of impedance in the neutral grounding. In the case of
transformer winding with neutral earthed, unrestricted earth fault
protection is obtained by connecting an ordinary earth fault relay
across a neutral current transformer.
The unrestricted over current and earth fault relays should have
proper time lag to co-ordinate with the protective relays of other
circuit to avoid indiscriminate tripping.

CAPACITOR BANK
The demand of active power is expressing Kilo Watt (kw) or mega
watt (mw). This power should be supplied from electrical generating
station. All the arrangements in electrical pomes system are done to
meet up this basic requirement. Although in alternating power
system, reactive power always comes in to picture. This reactive
power is expressed in Kilo VAR or Mega VAR. The demand of this
reactive power is mainly originated from inductive load connected to
the system. These inductive loads are generally electromagnetic
circuit of electric motors, electrical transformers, inductance of

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transmission and distribution networks, induction
furnaces, fluorescent lightings etc. This reactive power should be
properly compensated otherwise, the ratio of actual power
consumed by the load, to the total power i.e. vector sum of active
and reactive power, of the system becomes quite less.

This ratio is alternatively known as electrical power factor, and fewer

ratios indicates poor power factor of the system. If the power factor
of the system is poor, the ampere burden of the transmission,
distribution network, transformers, alternators and other
equipments connected to the system, becomes high for required
active power. And hence reactive power compensation becomes so
important. This is commonly done by capacitor bank.
Static capacitor can further be subdivided in to two categories,
(a) Shunt capacitors
(b) Series capacitor

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These categories are mainly based on the methods of
connecting capacitor bank with the system. Among these two
categories, shunt capacitors are more commonly used in the power
system of all voltage levels. There are some specific advantages of
using shunt capacitors such as,

1. It reduces line current of the system.

2. It improves voltage level of the load.
3. It also reduces system Losses.
4. It improves power factor of the source current.
5. It reduces load of the alternator.
6. It reduces capital investment per mega watt of the Load.
All the above mentioned benefits come from the fact, that the effect
of capacitor reduces reactive current flowing through the whole
system.
Shunt capacitor draws almost fixed amount of leading current which
is superimposed on the load current and consequently reduces
reactive components of the load and hence improves the power
factor of the system.
series capacitor:-

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On the other hand has no control over flow of current. As these are
connected in series with load, the load current always passes
through the series capacitor bank. Actually, the capacitive reactance
of series capacitor neutralizes the inductive reactance of the line
hence, reduces, effective reactance of the line. Thereby, voltage
regulation of the system is improved. But series capacitor bank has a
major disadvantage. During faulty condition, the voltage across the
capacitor maybe raised up to 15 times more than its rated value.
Thus series capacitor must have sophisticated and elaborate
protective equipments. Because of this, use of-series capacitor is
confined in the extra high voltage system only.
Shunt Capacitor
Construction of Shunt Capacitor:-
The active parts of capacitor unit are composed by two aluminum
foils separated by impregnated papers. The thickness of the papers
may vary from 8 microns to 24 microns depending upon the voltage
level of the system. The thickness of the aluminum foil is in the order
of 7 microns. For low voltage applications, there may be one layer of
impregnated paper of suitable thickness between the foils but for
higher voltage applications more than one layer of impregnated
papers are placed between the aluminum foil to avoid unwanted
circulation of short circuit current between the foil due to presence
of conducting matters in the papers.
The capacitor sections are wound into rolls thereafter
they are flattened out, compressed into packs, enclosed in multiple
layers of heavy paper insulations and inserted into the containers.
When the lid had been welded to the container, the capacitor unit is
dried and integrated in large autoclaves by a combination of heat
and vacuum. After the paper is completely dried and all gases
removed from the insulation the capacitor tank is filled with
impregnant degassed at the same vacuum.
In the early stages of development, it was generally mineral

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insulating oil which was used as impregnant. This has now been
replaced by most of the manufacturers with synthetic liquids of
chlorinated diphenyl group bearing different trade names. Mineral
insulating oil has very low electric conductivity and very high
dielectric strength. But it has however some drawbacks such as,

1.It has low dielectric constant.

2.The voltage distribution in the mineral oil is not uniform.
3.It is very inflammable.
4.It is subjected to oxidation.
With the synthetic impregnant it is quite possible to
manufacture smaller capacitor unit with higher voltage rating. The
voltage rating of the capacitor unit is restricted within certain limits
because on low voltage the cost per kilo VAR goes high. For high
voltage applications, numbers of capacitor units are connected in
series and parallel combination to form a capacitor bank for required
voltage and Kilo VAR ratings. For example when 5.1 Mega VAR
capacitor bank is to be commissioned in an 11 KV system, each unit
of the bank is made of 11 KV rated. In this installation, per phase
requirement of Mega VAR is 5.1/3=1.7. In this installation, there
should be only one capacitor unit connected in series and 17 of such
units are connected in parallel to meet up the mega VAR
requirement of one phase. For three phase system three such groups
of capacitor unit are connected together in star or delta form. Let’s
show another example for better understanding. When a bank of 5.4
Mega VAR is to be installed at 33 KV 3 phase system. There shall be
three capacitor units connected in series and six of such series
combinations are connected in parallel to meet up 1.8 Mega VAR
demand of per phase. The same capacitor units can be used for 132
KV systems too. For that Series and parallel combinations of the
basic capacitor units will be assembled as per mega VAR
requirement.

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 EARTHING

The grounding system in substation is very important. The functions

of grounding systems or earth mat in include:

 To ensure safety to personnel in substations against electrical

shocks.
 To provide the ground connection for connecting the neutrals of
stat connected transformer winding to earth ( neutral earthing ).
 To discharge the over voltages from overhead ground wires or
the lightning masts to earth. To provide ground path for surge
arresters.
 To provide a path for discharging the charge between phase and
ground by means of earthing switches.
carrying metallic objects in the sub-station (equipment
earthing).
In addition to such a grid below ground level, earthing spikes
(electrodes) are driven into the ground and are connected
electrically to the earth grid, equipment bodies, structures, neutrals
etc. are connected to the station earthing system by earthing strips.

If the switchyards have a soil of low resistivity, earth

resistance of the earthing system would be low. If the soil resistivity
is high, the mesh rods are laid at closer spacing. More electrodes are
inserted in the ground.

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 Earth Mat in substation

The fence, equipment body, tanks, support, structures, towers,

structural steel works, water pipes etc. should be earthed.

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Earth Resistance Value:-
The value of earth resistance of the ground system determines the
voltage rise of the various earthed points during the earth fault.
If earth fault current is I, earth resistance is R, the voltage rise under
short circuit condition would be V= IR. The permissible potential rise
and the maximum possible earth fault current set a limit on the
maximum value of earth resistance. To achieve earth resistance
within specified limits, enough number of earth spikes and sufficient
surface area of the earth grid and closer ground mesh rods are
necessary.The touch potential and earth potential in the switchyard
under any earth fault condition should be within safe limits.

INSULATOR
Electrical Insulator must be used in electrical system to prevent
unwanted flow of currentto the earth from its supporting points.
The insulator plays a vital role in electrical system. Electrical
Insulator is a very high resistive path through which practically no
current can flow. In transmission and distribution system,
the overhead conductors are generally supported by supporting
towers or poles.

The towers and poles both are properly grounded. So

there must be insulator between tower or pole body and current
carrying conductors to prevent the flow of current from conductor to
earth through the grounded supporting towers or poles.

Insulating Material:-
The main cause of failure of overhead line insulator, is flash over,
occurs in between line and earth during abnormal over voltage in the
system. During this flash over, the huge heat produced by arcing,
causes puncher in insulator body. Viewing this phenomenon the

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materials used for electrical insulator, has to posses some specific
properties.

Properties of Insulating Material:-

The materials generally used for insulating purpose is
called insulating material. For successful utilization, this material
should have some specific properties as listed below-

1. It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight

of conductors.
2. It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage
stresses in High Voltage system.
3. It must possesses high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage
current to the earth.
4. The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
5. It should not be porous.
6. There must not be any entrance on the surface of electrical
insulator so that the moisture or gases can enter in it.
7. There physical as well as electrical properties must be less effected
by changing temperature.
Porcelain Insulator:-
Porcelain in most commonly used material for over head insulator in
present days. The porcelain is aluminium silicate. The aluminium
silicate is mixed with plastic kaolin, feldspar and quartz to obtain
final hard and glazed porcelain insulator material

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. The surface of the insulator should be glazed enough so that water
should not be traced on it. Porcelain also should be free from
porosity since porosity is the main cause of deterioration of its
dielectric property. It must also be free from any impurity and air
bubble inside the material which may affect the insulator properties.

Glass Insulator:-
Now days glass insulator has become popular in transmission and
distribution system. Annealed tough glass is used for insulating
purpose. Glass insulator has numbers of advantages over
conventional porcelain insulator

Advantages of Glass Insulator:-

1. It has very high dielectric strength compared to porcelain.
2. Its resistivity is also very high.
3. It has low coefficient of thermal expansion.
4. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5. As it is transparent in nature the is not heated up in sunlight as
porcelain.
6. The impurities and air bubble can be easily detected inside the
glass insulator body because of its transparency.
7. Glass has very long service life as because mechanical and
electrical properties of glass do not be affected by ageing.

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8. After all, glass is cheaper than porcelain.
Disadvantages of Glass Insulator:-
1. Moisture can easily condensed on glass surface and hence air dust
will be deposited on the wed glass surface which will provide path
to the leakage current of the system.
2. For higher voltage glass can not be cast in irregular shapes since
due to irregular cooling internal cooling internal strains are caused.

Polymer Insulator:-
In a polymer insulator has two parts, one is glass fiber reinforced
epoxy resin rod shaped core and other is silicone rubber or EPDM
(Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) made weather sheds. Rod
shaped core is covered by weather sheds. Weather sheds protect the
insulator core from outside environment.

As it is made of two parts, core and weather

sheds, polymer insulator is also called composite insulator. The rod
shaped core is fixed with Hop dip galvanized cast steel made end
fittings in both sides.

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Advantages of Polymer Insulator:-
1. It is very light weight compared to porcelain and glass insulator.
2. As the composite insulator is flexible the chance of breakage
becomes minimum.
3. Because of lighter in weight and smaller in size, this insulator has
lower installation cost.
4. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5. Its performance is better particularly in polluted areas.
6. Due to lighter weight polymer insulator imposes less load to the
supporting structure.

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7. Less cleaning is required due to hydrophobic nature of the
insulator.
Disadvantages of Polymer Insulator
1. Moisture may enter in the core if there is any unwanted gap
between core and weather sheds. This may cause electrical failure
of the insulator.
2. Over crimping in end fittings may result to cracks in the core which
leads to mechanical failure of polymer insulator.
In addition to these, some other disadvantages might be
experienced. Let us give a practical example where many difficulties
are faced in maintaining a distribution network in Victoria Australia
due to polymeric insulator. There are many Cockatoos, Galahs and
Parrots in that area of Australia, which love to chew on polymeric
strain insulators. Here, the 22 KV network has many of polymeric
strain insulators installed and now after a few years of installing
polymeric strain insulators, the authority is now replacing many of
them back with Glass disc insulators. Another disadvantage is that
they have had post type polymeric insulators melt and bend in bush
fire areas. They have a concrete pole and a steel cross arm that
survives a bush fire, however the polymers in some cases fail. This
would not be the case with glass or porcelain insulators. They have
also had polymeric insulators fail in areas close to the ocean
coastline where there are high salt levels in the air.

1. Subject to bird attack by Parrots, Cockatoos and Galahs.

2. Not resilient to bushfire temperatures.
3. Not recommended for location near surf beaches due to salt spray.
The information is contributed by Robert Lancaster of Australian
Electricity Supply Industry

Types of Insulator:-
There are mainly three types of insulator likewise

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1. Pin Insulator
2. Suspension Insulator
3. Stray Insulator
In addition to that there are other two types of electrical insulator
available mainly for low voltage application, e.i. stay insulator and
shackle insulator.

BATTERY ROOM
A battery room is a room in a facility used to house batteries for
backup or uninterruptible power systems. Battery rooms are found
in telecommunication central offices, and to provide standby power
to computing equipment in datacenters. Batteries provide direct
current(DC) electricity, which may be used directly by some types of
equipment, or which may be converted to alternating current (AC)
by uninterruptible power supply (UPS) equipment. The batteries may
provide power for minutes, hours or days depending on the electrical
system design, although most commonly the batteries power the
UPS during brief electric utility outages lasting only seconds.

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