CHAPTER 14.

gravity Concentration and

heavy Medium Separation
Nimal Subasinghe

Gravity concentration is one of the oldest processes of sepa-
rating minerals and is aimed at separating heavy minerals
from lighter gangue. Gravity concentrators have wide applica-
tions in the heavy minerals industry for the recovery of heavy
minerals, such as ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene, and zircon, from
the lighter gangue. They are used to separate metal sulfides
from ores where the sulfides are coarse grained. They have
been used to exploit placer gold deposits over many centuries,
and as an adjunct in modern mills to recover coarse gold early
in the process. When the feed material is comprised of par-
ticles with a wider size distribution, gravity concentrators do
not produce a clean concentrate and have been used mainly for
preconcentration or as a rougher stage. Gravity concentrators
are simple devices that are inexpensive to operate and cause
comparatively much less environmental pollution than using
harmful chemical reagents for the same purpose. Gravity sep-
aration may be achieved in either of two ways: relative gravity
separation and absolute gravity separation.
In relative gravity separation, all particles settle in the
same direction within the device, and large differences in
specific gravity (density) between the minerals are needed for
effective separation. As settling velocity of particles depends
not only on density but also on size, it is important to prepare
narrowly sized feeds to these devices. However, as particles of
finer sizes settle under gravity at much slower rates, the effec-
tiveness of these devices decreases considerably below about
50 mm. The heavy and light minerals that settle at different
rates are made to report to different exit streams by applying a
transverse force. There are many devices of this nature, such
as jigs, spiral concentrators, Wilfley tables (shaking tables), air
tables, Gemini tables, pinched sluices, riffled sluices, Reichert
cones, and so on. To improve the efficiency of separation of
finer material, centrifugal concentrating devices have been
introduced within the past two decades, including Knelson
concentrators, Falcon concentrators, Kelsey jigs, and water-
only cyclones. These devices use centrifugal acceleration to
enhance the movement of finer particles and have been exten-
sively used in the gold processing plants to recover fine gold.
In absolute gravity separation, a fluid or a nonsettling
slurry comprised of fine solid particles with a specific gravity
(SG) intermediate to those of the two minerals to be separated
is used as the medium of separation. Particles of higher and
lower specific gravities than the medium move in opposite
directions. This technique requires only a small difference
in specific gravities of the minerals for effective separation.
Heavy or dense medium separation methods are absolute sep-
aration methods. Devices of this sort include dense medium
vessels and dense medium cyclones.
The amenability to gravity concentration is indicated by
the concentration criterion, C, defined (Taggart 1951) as
ρh − ρ f
C =f p (14.4-1)
ρ, − ρ f
which has been deduced from Newton’s law of settling, where
ρh, ρℓ, and ρf are the densities of heavy mineral, light gangue,
and water, respectively. If C is greater than 2.5, the separation
may be achieved with relative ease; separation is not commer-
cially feasible for values below 1.25. Table 14.4-1 shows the
effectiveness of gravity separation at various feed sizes.
gRAviTy ConCenTRAToRS
Gravity concentrators may be classified according to the way
particles are made to move relative to each other so that the
denser particles will segregate from the lighter ones under the
influence of the gravitational force. A gravity concentrator uses
essentially one of three mechanisms to provide movement of
particles within it: jigging, shaking, and flowing film devices.
Table 14.4-1 values of concentration criterion required for
effective separation
value of Concentration
Criterion, C Significance for Separation
>2.50 Separation effective down to ~75 mm
2.50–1.75 Separation effective down to ~150 mm
1.75–1.50 Separation possible to 2 mm, but difficult
1.50–1.25 Separation possible to 6 mm, but difficult
<1.25 Relative separations impractical. Absolute
separation may be possible down to C of 0.2.
Source: Aplan 1985.

Nimal Subasinghe, Assoc. Professor of Minerals Engrg., Curtin University (Western Australian School of Mines), Kalgoorlie, Western Australia

1507
1508 SMe Mining engineering handbook

These gravity separation devices rely on a fluid medium,

such as water, to transport the material through the device Gravity Separation Devices

and also bring about a separation based on settling character-

istics of heavy and light particles. The process requires the Relative Separation Processes Absolute Separation Processes
feed material to be uniformly sized and fed as a slurry. If the
feed has a wide size distribution, the smaller heavy mineral
particles will report to the same exit as larger light particles 1-G Devices Many-G Devices 1-G Devices Many-G Devices
because their settling velocities are similar. As the particle
size decreases, the differences in gravitational forces act- Spirals Kelsey Jigs Elutriators Dense Medium
ing on heavy and light particles, which bring about differ- Cones Falcon Dense Medium Baths Cyclones
Tables Knelson
ences in their movement, also diminish. Recent advances in Sluices Mozley Multi-G
the design of gravity separation devices have addressed this Jigs
problem by introducing “multi-G” devices that impart higher
accelerations on smaller particles through centrifugal forces figure 14.4-1 gravity separation equipment
than those due to gravity. These devices are known as cen-
trifugal concentrators. Thus, each gravity concentrator has
an optimal feed particle size range for effective separation. Table 14.4-2 effective feed size ranges for typical gravity
The magnitude of the applied acceleration is usually quoted concentration devices
in terms of multiples of the gravitational acceleration, G.
Coarse particle concentration [+6.4 mm]
Figure 14.4-1 shows the classification of gravity separation
devices. Table 14.4-2 shows the range of feed sizes suitable Jigs Heavy media hydrocyclone
for various gravity separators. Heavy media separators
intermediate concentration [–6.4 mm + 0.150 µm]
Jigging Devices Jigs Shaking tables
Jigging is one of the oldest methods of gravity concentra- Heavy media hydrocyclone Spirals
tion. It is commonly used in coal, cassiterite, gold, and iron Water-only cyclone Pinched sluices
ore industries. Generally jigs are used for separating coarser
Kelsey jig Reichert cone
material from about 2 to 10 mm in diameter, although efficient
Pneumatic jigs and tables Bartles–Mozley concentrator
separation of particles down to about 75 mm is possible with
Sluices
modified devices. They can handle large tonnages and operate
on a continuous basis. fines concentration [–0.150 µm]
Jigging essentially uses alternating expansion and con- Shaking table Falcon concentrator
traction of a bed of particles. The bed is generally formed Spirals Knelson concentrator
over a screen through which the fluid is allowed to flow. Pinched sluices Bartles–Mozley concentrator
Ragging comprised of heavy particles is generally placed Reichert cone Mozley multigravity separator
over the screen to retain the bed and release the segregated
Source: Adapted from Aplan 2003.
heavies to the hutch during the suction stroke. The bed
movement is activated by a pulsating current of fluid, usu-
ally water, or by the movement of the screen that holds the the result of particle–particle interactions as opposed to free
bed. The pulsation of the bed may be achieved by means of settling. The differences in hindered settling rates of larger
a plunger or by admitting compressed air at regular short particles are more pronounced than those of smaller particles.
intervals into a limb of a U-shaped tank. Light material is Hence, jigs perform better on coarser particles.
generally discarded through a gate positioned opposite to the When the dilated bed collapses during the suction stroke,
feed end. larger particles tend to interlock, leaving voids through which
Gaudin (1939) suggested that three segregation mecha- the finer particles may segregate. This process is known as
nisms may take place within a jig: differential initial accelera- interstitial or consolidation trickling.
tion, hindered settling, and consolidation trickling. The extent
of prevalence of these mechanisms depends on the properties Coal Jig
of the material being processed, such as size and density and Baum jigs are commonly used for processing coarse coal
the manner in which the force is applied to dilate and contract whereas Batac jigs are used mainly for fine coal. Both these
the bed. units use compressed air to pulsate the bed. In these units, water
The differential initial acceleration between particles in a is typically pulsed at 60 to 80 pulses per minute and the units
pulsating bed is a function of their density and is independent handle feed sizes up to 130 mm at capacities of up to 40 t/m2/h.
of size. That is, the initial acceleration conveyed to heavy min-
eral particles by the pulsating current of fluid is larger than that Mineral Jig
for lighter mineral particles. By applying a higher frequency Jigs that treat placer deposits generally have a diaphragm in
of pulsation, this effect may be accentuated. This mechanism the hutch area, which is placed underneath the screen that
will segregate heavy minerals beneath the lighter gangue. holds the bed. Typical jigs of this type are Cleveland and Pan-
Also, during the pulsation stroke, heavy particles within American placer jigs, which have a smaller footprint. Harz and
the expanded bed will settle faster than the lighter ones. Denver jigs have a wall that separates the hutch area and use an
However, because of the presence of a large number of par- eccentrically driven plunger in one section to pulsate the bed.
ticles within the bed, hindered settling of particles takes place, Schematic diagrams of a few jigs are shown in Figure 14.4-2.
 gravity Concentration and heavy Medium Separation 1509

A
Kelsey Centrifugal Jig
B The Kelsey centrifugal jig (KCJ) imparts a centrifugal accel-
C C
D A
D E D E eration on the feed and ragging particles while a jigging action
B
E
C
is being applied. It enables the effective separation of particles
F F
H
below about 500 mm down to fine sizes, and has found appli-
G G cations in tin, tantalum, gold, nickel, tungsten, chromite, base
F I
metals, iron ore, and mineral sands industries.
The centrifugal acceleration is conveyed by a spinning
J
rotor, the speed of which may be varied and controlled. Inside
A. Compressed Air Source A. Feed End G. Diaphragm the rotor, a screen of cylindrical shape is spun coaxially with
B. Jig Screen B. Discharge End H. Central Pivot the rotor. The ragging material is spread evenly on the inside
C. Hutch Compartment C. Screen I. Rocker Arm of the screen because of the centrifugal acceleration. The feed
D. Pulsion Phase D. Pulsion Phase J. Eccentric Motion
E. Suction Phase E. Suction Phase K. Hutch Product
enters through a fixed central pipe, then accelerates toward
F. Screw Conveyor F. Hutch Water Inlet Discharge Port and continually rises up the ragging bed. Pressurized water is
introduced into a series of hutches behind the screen, which
Source: Aplan 2003. is pulsed through the ragging to fluidize the bed. The puls-
figure 14.4-2 (left) Baum jig, and (right) Pan-American ing of the bed is achieved via pulse arms connected to pulse
placer jig pads, which push against flexible diaphragms at the back of
each hutch, thereby pushing the water in the hutch through the
screen and ragging bed.
Feed
KCJs can handle capacities up to 50 t/h solids and typi-
cally use about 30 to 50 m3/h of hutch water. The rotor spins
Deceleration at speeds up to 200 rpm, generating accelerations of 40 G. The
Chamber pulse rate is between 1,800 and 2,200 pulses per minute at a
Ragging Wedgewire stroke length of 2 to 3 mm. A schematic diagram is shown in
Screen Figure 14.4-4.
Diaphragm The size of ragging used depends on the size distribu-
tion of the valuable mineral particles in the feed and should
be chosen to avoid excessive blinding of the internal screen.
Other operating variables include pulsation frequency, hutch
water addition rate, ragging type, ragging SG, depth of bed,
Tails Discharge and so on. These units also have a number of design features,
Hutch Water
such as automatic screen cleaners and vibration detection.
Programmable logic controller–based interlocks and sacri-
Concentrate Outlet ficial shear pins are provided to avoid major damage in the
Hydraulic Ram event of a malfunction.

Courtesy of Gekko Systems Pty. Ltd., Australia.
figure 14.4-3 in-line pressure jig
In-Line Pressure Jig
The in-line pressure jig (IPJ) combines a circular bed with a
moveable sieve action. The screen is pulsed vertically by a
hydraulically driven shaft. The length and speed of the up-
and-down stroke can be varied to suit the application. Screen
aperture, ragging dimension, and ragging material can also be
altered for the application, which varies the recovery of solids
to the concentrate stream. It uses less hutch water, compared
to traditional jigs. The engineered ceramic ragging may be
selected from a range of specific gravities from 1.6 to 5.0. IPJs
have been used across many mineral types including gold,
sulfides, tin, coal, and diamonds. Figure 14.4-3 shows a sche-
matic diagram of an IPJ.
IPJs are available in a range of sizes handling 2 to 100 t/h
of feed material. The solids recovery to concentrate may be
varied from about 5% to about 50% by selecting the appropri-
ate ragging density, ragging size, and screen aperture for a
given feed size. Lower yields require tighter ragging sizing.
The units are supplied with automatic controllers to control
the feed rate, pulse frequency, stroke length, and air bleed rate
for optimal performance.
Air Jig
Air jigs have been used in both coal and gold industries. In
these devices, a low-pressure, high-volume air source is used
to fluidize the particulate bed while a high-pressure, low-
volume air source is used to impose the pulsation stroke for
stratification. Recently, the air jig has found wider application
in the coal industry as this method does not use process water,
with the advantage of eliminating the need to dewater fines or
manage slurry confinement. Particulate emissions have been
minimized by the inclusion of fabric dust collectors. The new
units use a punch plate instead of a fine wire mesh cloth to
support a deeper particle bed. However, their application has
limitations due to particle size, particle shape, moisture, and
near-gravity content (Alderman 2002).
flowing film Separators
Flowing film separators have been used for centuries to accu-
mulate heavy minerals such as gold and tin. These devices are
cheap to make and operate. In flowing film concentrators, the
feed slurry is made to flow over an inclined surface, and segre-
gation of the heavy minerals beneath the lighter minerals takes
place during the passage. At low flow rates, the thickness of
the film is small and the particles generally settle out and roll
over the surface. Heavier particles tend to accumulate in the
lower regions closer to the surface and travel at lower veloci-
ties while the lighter materials travel closer to the surface and
1510 SMe Mining engineering handbook

faster. At high flow rates the particles will be suspended in the

Feed
flow due to turbulent suspension, resulting in a density gradi-
ent across the depth of the flow. The particles also experience
Ragging
shearing because of Bagnold forces that give rise to a disper-
sive pressure on the particles. Commonly used flowing film H2O
Hutch Water
separators are pinched sluices, Reichert cones, riffled sluices,
and spiral concentrators.

Pinched Sluice
A pinched sluice is a device comprised of an inclined plane
bottom surface and tapering sides. The feed slurry is fed at
the higher end and is made to flow down the inclined surface.
The segregated heavy minerals flowing closer to the bottom
of the surface are removed through slots placed across the
bottom of the channel at the discharge end while the lighter
minerals flow over the slot and report to tailings. The depth of Tailing
flow increases toward the lower end because of the lowering Concentrate
of the area of cross section. These sluices are used by small-
scale operators treating alluvial gold deposits and in tin and
heavy minerals industries. Figure 14.4-5 shows a schematic
diagram of a pinched sluice.
These units are operated at inclinations of between 15°
and 20° to the horizontal. Subasinghe and Kelly (1984) dem- Courtesy of DownerEDi–Mineral Technologies.
onstrated that at higher inclinations the recovery of coarser figure 14.4-4 kelsey centrifugal jig
particles decreases because of the presence of Bagnold forces
acting on the particles. At lower slopes, coarse and dense par-
ticles settle out on the deck resulting in poor segregation of
heavies in the bed. Feed

Reichert Cone
Reichert cones operate in a similar way to that of pinched
sluices. The cone is designed as a series of pinched sluices
joined in a circular pattern with their sides removed. An
inverted cone is placed above the concentrating cone to dis-
tribute the feed slurry evenly. Heavy and light materials are Concentrate
removed through annular slots placed near the center column.
Several cone pairs may be stacked on top of each other to
increase the quality of the separation. Cones are operated Courtesy of DownerEDi–Mineral Technologies.
continuously. Figure 14.4-6 shows a schematic diagram of a figure 14.4-5 Pinched sluice
Reichert cone.

Riffled Sluice
Riffled sluices are commonly used by artisan miners to Distributor Box
recover gold. The segregated gold or heavy minerals are
Distributor Cone: Annular
recovered behind the riffles placed across the sluice. The feed splitter feeds periphery of
flow rate, height, and spacing of the riffles determine the size concentrating cone.
of the recovered particles. If the feed contains fine gold, then a
lower flow rate and smaller riffles are used. Sometimes instead
of the riffles, corduroy cloth or coir mats are used to trap the
fine gold particles. Sluices have been used to process fine cas-
siterite ores.
Cone Inserts: Slots allow removal
Spiral Concentrator of heavy material concentrate from
Spiral concentrators have found wide applications in the bottom of stream.
beach sand industry. In a spiral concentrator, the feed slurry is Tailings: Fed to further cone
made to flow down a helical conduit of semicircular cross sec- stage(s) for scavenging of
tion. The slurry experiences a centrifugal force and has a ten- remaining heavy material.
dency to move particles toward the outer rim. Because of the
Sluice Trays: For upgrading of cone concentrates.
shape of the trough’s cross section, these particles then travel Adjustable splitter directs discharge from selected
inward, closer to the bottom of the trough. The heavy particles tray slot(s) to collector box compartments.
settle out of suspension and flow down the spiral closer to
the trough’s inner edge. There they are subjected to a smaller Courtesy of DownerEDi–Mineral Technologies.
centrifugal acceleration and take up a trajectory closer to the figure 14.4-6 Reichert cone
 gravity Concentration and heavy Medium Separation
axis of the spiral. The lighter particles move closer to the free
surface and are carried toward the outer rim as a result of the
centrifugal acceleration. When the slurry reaches the bottom
of the spiral, separation of the heavies has occurred, and the
heavies may be collected through the inner ports while the
lighter material is collected from the outer port. To save floor
space, two or more spirals may be incorporated into one unit
known as a twin, triple, or quad start, thereby increasing the
throughput rate.
The shape of the trough varies with the type of mineral
being separated. Coal spirals generally have a flatter profile
than mineral spirals. The pulp density may vary between 20%
and 40% solids. The feed sizes range from about 2 mm to
about 75 mm. The capacity of a single-start spiral may be up
to 7.0 t/h, depending on the material being processed. The cut
specific gravity depends on the pulp density, feed rate, and
size distribution of the feed. In the beach sand industry, spirals
are commonly used as a preconcentration stage. Figure 14.4-7
shows a schematic diagram of a concentrating spiral.
Shaking Devices
The most common shaking device is the concentrating table
or the Wilfley table. Concentrating tables are very efficient
gravity separators generally used in cleaning concentrates
obtained from other devices. Concentrating tables or shak-
ing tables are comprised of a rectangular flat table inclined
horizontally by about 15° to 20°. Riffles are placed along the
length of the table and the table is made to vibrate in the long-
itudinal direction in a reciprocating manner, with a slow for-
ward stroke and a rapid return. The feed slurry enters through
a port at the top corner and is distributed over the flat surface
because of the vibratory motion. Wash water is introduced
along the top edge of the table surface, washing the particles
down the slope. Heavy mineral particles get trapped between
the riffles and travel across the table in a longitudinal direc-
tion. The lighter minerals flow over the riffles and are carried
down the slope and report to the tailings stream, nearer to the
feed end of the table. The heavy mineral concentrate is col-
lected at the opposite end of the table with middling particles
collected in between. The feed to tables may vary from about
1 mm down to about 50 mm. The feed pulp density is between
25% and 35% solids. Figure 14.4-8 shows a schematic dia-
gram of a Wilfley table.
Many designs and riffle geometries exist, depending on
the type of material being processed. Tables have been in use
for processing of minerals such as coal, barites, beach sands,
chromite, garnet, iron, manganese, tantalum, tin, tungsten,
and zircon. Generally the variables that may be manipulated
to increase the efficiency of separation are deck slope, wash
water flow rate, and the frequency and amplitude of the vibra-
tory motion. With larger particles, longer strokes and lower
shaking frequencies are used. The separation is judged mainly
by visual inspection, and modifications to operating variables
may be made accordingly. These are low-capacity devices
with about 2 and 0.5 t/h/m2 for 1.5-mm and 100-mm particles,
respectively. As they take up much floor space, multiple decks
may be stacked up one above the other to save space.
Gemini tables have found wide application in the gold
industry as a device for cleaning concentrates of centrifugal
devices such as Knelson and Falcon concentrators. For finer
feeds, Bartles–Mozley tables are generally used, in which
the shaking mechanism is replaced by a smoother oscillator
movement to avoid mixing of the bed due to turbulence. Air
1511
Secondary
Flow
Primary
Flow
Lights
Middlings
High-Density
Band Band
Courtesy of DownerEDi–Mineral Technologies.
figure 14.4-7 Spiral concentrator
Feed
Dressing
Water
Low-Gravity Minerals
Middling
High-Gravity Minerals
Source: Aplan 1985.
figure 14.4-8 Wilfley table and distribution of table products
tables have also been used in the mineral industry to recover
fine particles in which the bed is fluidized using air.
As an aside, air tables were originally developed for use
in arid regions but have also been used in the separation of
flat, fibrous materials of lower bulk densities such as asbestos
and vermiculite. However, these devices demand that the feed
be very narrowly sized for their efficient operation. As they
also have only limited capacities, their use is limited only to
special applications.
Centrifugal or enhanced gravity Concentrators
The movement of fine particles that settle under gravitational
force within a fluid medium is slow. Even if there is a signifi-
cant density difference between heavy and light minerals, the
separations achieved are inadequate. However, by allowing
the particles to traverse a circulatory motion at high speed, a
centrifugal acceleration may be transmitted to them that may
be several hundred times that of gravity. Devices that use this
technique are called centrifugal concentrators. Two devices
that have found wide applications in recovering fine gold and
other minerals are the Knelson and Falcon concentrators.
Knelson Concentrator
Knelson concentrators, as shown in Figure 14.4-9, are com-
prised of a slightly conical-shaped rotating bowl with a
series of grooves on the outer wall to capture the segregated
heavy mineral particles. The feed material enters through a
central feed inlet as a slurry. The slurry descends onto the
base plate at the bottom of the rotating bowl and is thrown
outward because of centrifugal acceleration. As a result,
1512 SMe Mining engineering handbook

some of the particles get trapped within the grooves of the

bowl forming a bed while the excess get carried upward into
the tailings stream by the rising current of water. Injection
of water through fluidization ports located in the grooves of
the bowl prevents compaction of the concentrate bed. This
creates a fluidized bed that acts as a concentrating chamber
for heavy mineral particles, under an enhanced separating
force. Upon conclusion of the concentration cycle, concen-
trates are collected manually in batch units or flushed from
the bowl into a concentrate launder through a multiport hub
in continuous units.
As heavy particles experience a higher centrifugal
acceleration, they tend to move through the fluidized bed to
displace the light materials and produce a heavy mineral con-
centrate within the grooves of the bowl. The lighter particles
are displaced into the tailings stream by the fluidizing water.
Fluidizing water flow rate, bowl rotational speed, and particle
characteristics of the feed, such as the size and size distribu-
tion, determine the optimal conditions for separation and the
cycle time.

Courtesy of Knelson Gravity Solutions.

Falcon Concentrator
figure 14.4-9 knelson concentrator Falcon concentrators rely on a rotating bowl to generate high
centrifugal accelerations similar to Knelson concentrators.
The feed slurry rises upward over a slightly inclined smooth
wall. Stratification of higher-density particles occurs toward
the bowl wall, and lower-density particles move toward the
center of the bowl. Different models vary in the way they col-
Feed lect and produce the concentrate.
In the semibatch unit, the upgraded product that has been
forced against the bowl wall is made to move into a vertical,
Rinse
Water fluidized collection zone in the upper portion of the bowl. The
collection zone consists of a number of rings that have pres-
surized water injected from the back, effectively elutriating
and cleaning the concentrate that sits in these collection rings
until a rinse cycle begins. These machines are known as semi-
Heavies Heavies batch devices because they continually accept feed during the
Dilution
Water
Dilution
Water
run cycle but only produce concentrate during periodic rinse
cycles. Run times range from 30 minutes to several hours
depending on the application, while the rinse times are gener-
ally less than a minute. The throughput rates range from 1 to
400 t/h. The centrifugal accelerations range from 50 to 200 G.
Lights
Outlet These units are mainly used in precious metal recovery plants.
In continuous devices, at the top of the bowl is a ring
of specially designed concentrate flow hoppers, followed
by pneumatically controlled variable orifice valves. These
valves allow for a constant stream of concentrate to be pro-
duced. The continuous concentrator is able to vary mass pull
Heavies Heavies to concentrate by adjusting valve orifice size through changes
Outlet Outlet in air pressure. Because of their high mass pull rates of 5% to
Rotor Bowl
Cleanout
40%, these units are used in the recovery and upgrade of tin,
Outlet tantalum, tungsten, chrome, cobalt, iron, fine oxidized coal,
and uranium ores. The ultrafine units are designed to con-
centrate material below 50 mm at less than 20% solids and
may be typically used in deslime cyclone overflow streams.
Figure 14.4-10 shows a schematic diagram of a Falcon con-
Compressed tinuous concentrator.
Air Supply
(introduced through
rotating union)
heAvy MeDiuM SePARATion
Heavy medium separation (HMS) is a very effective gravity
Courtesy of Falcon Concentrators Inc. separation technique in which a nonsettling heavy medium
figure 14.4-10 falcon continuous concentrator is used in place of a fluid. The heavy medium is generally
 gravity Concentration and heavy Medium Separation
Medium Feed
Medium
Sink
Float
Source: Aplan 1985.
figure 14.4-11 heavy medium separator
comprised of a nonsettling suspension of fine heavy parti-
cles, the density of which is much higher than that of water.
Thus, the concentration criterion described in Equation 14.4-1
increases considerably in this case, which indicates a more
efficient separation. Also, since the medium density is between
those of the heavy and light minerals to be separated, it gives
rise to an absolute separation where the two products are sepa-
rated into a sinks product and a floats product. This technique
requires a much lower density difference between the miner-
als to be separated, compared to the relative separation tech-
niques described previously.
With HMS it is possible to (a) produce a finished concen-
trate and a final waste product in one operation, (b) reject a
waste product at a coarser size, thereby saving grinding costs,
(c) achieve separation at a low operating cost with low main-
tenance costs, (d) make relatively sharp separations, (e) oper-
ate continuously, (f) tolerate feed with wide size distributions,
and (g) produce a consistent product for further processing.
The main industrial applications of HMS with coarse material
feeds are in coal and iron ore industries. HMS has also been
used in base metal industries such as copper, lead, and zinc.
The most commonly used medium in coal separation is mag-
netite. Although silica, barite, and galena had been used in the
past as the medium solid for ore separations, in recent times
ferrosilicon (FeSi) has been used extensively. With finer feed
materials, the viscosity of the slurry increases, and the sepa-
ration efficiency decreases as a result. This situation has been
rectified by the use of centrifugal separators such as heavy
medium cyclones (HMCs). The water-only cyclones work simi-
larly to an HMC that uses a loess medium instead of an external
medium. See Figure 14.4-11 for a schematic diagram of a heavy
medium separator.
heavy Medium Solids
The solids used to make up the heavy medium depend on
the type of material to be separated. The heavy medium
suspension should be nonsettling, which requires the solid
particles to be sufficiently small. For coal, the most com-
monly used are magnetite and barite, as the medium density
should be less than the ash density. For ore separations, more
dense solid materials such as ferrosilicon and galena have
been used (Aplan 2003). Ferrosilicon contains about 15% Si.
Ground ferrosilicon is used for separations at SGs up to 3.2;
for higher SGs up to 3.8, atomized FeSi may be used. The
main requirement in selecting a medium for a given opera-
tion is its ability to be separated from the products. Generally
the products are washed and screened to remove the medium.
Wet magnetic separators are also used extensively to recover
magnetite and ferrosilicon. The medium recovered from the
1513
product streams needs to be thickened to the required con-
sistency prior to recycling it back to the separating vessel.
feed Preparation
It is important to prepare the feed prior to HMS, usually by
wet screening. The main purpose is to size the ore into frac-
tions that may be treated in various separating units. More
importantly, screening is used to remove the slimes that would
otherwise increase the viscosity of the medium, giving rise to
inefficiencies.
Medium Recovery
Medium is generally removed from the products in drain and
wash screens. Sieve bends are the preferred screen type for
medium recovery. Prior to reusing, the medium needs to be
cleaned using wet magnetic separators. Magnetic separators
are fed at about 30% to 35% solids, and the rate is determined
by the type of separator and magnetic susceptibility of the
medium.
heavy Medium Separators
HMS equipment must ensure the feed particles have sufficient
time to report to the relevant discharge streams. They gen-
erally differ in the way the float and sink products are dis-
charged. The float products will often discharge over a weir
with or without the need for paddles or scrapers. The Wemco
drum discharges the heavy mineral using lifters while rotat-
ing. The Drewboy washer uses paddles to elevate the heavies,
while the Norwalt bath uses a bucket elevator. The Dutch State
Mines bath uses a drag conveyor with a paddle to deliver the
heavies and lights to different discharge ports.
The separations of finer sizes are carried out effectively in
units that use centrifugal acceleration to aid in the separation
and discharge of particles. HMCs and Dyna Whirlpool separa-
tors (DWPs) are the widely used equipment of this type.
Heavy Medium Cyclones
The HMCs are essentially a modified version of hydrocy-
clones used with a heavy medium as the separating fluid
instead of water. In an HMC, the heavy mineral migrates to
the outside wall and is discharged through the vortex finder.
The shape of the HMC, however, differs from that of a clas-
sifying cyclone in that the height of the cyclone is compara-
tively shorter. HMCs treating coal operate at inlet pressures
with a minimum head of about nine times the diameter of
the cyclone. The diameters of these HMCs range from about
0.5 m to 1.4 m and have capacities up to 500 t/h. The relative
density of the overflow stream should be between 3% and
12% lower than that of the feed stream.
Dyna Whirlpool Separator
The DWP also imparts a centrifugal acceleration to the feed
particles. A DWP is essentially a sloping cylinder with cover
plates and central openings to which the raw feed is fed
centrally at the top end. There are also tangential orifices at
either end. The medium enters tangentially at the lower end
and migrates toward the top end, leaving the cylinder tan-
gentially along with the heavy mineral. The lights gravitate
to the bottom end and leave through a central discharge port.
Generally, centrifugal devices such as the HMC and DWP
experience higher media losses than static-type devices. A
schematic diagram of a Dyna Whirlpool separator is shown in
Figure 14.4-12.
1514 SMe Mining engineering handbook

PeRfoRMAnCe evAluATion of gRAviTy
SePARAToRS
Gravity separators aim to separate minerals at a desired sepa-
ration density. However, because of the presence of middling
particles, which have densities between those of heavy and
light minerals, a sharp separation is not possible. Also, since
these devices rely on differences between settling rates of the
two minerals, fine feed material inherently gives rise to inef-
ficiencies. The efficiency of a gravity concentrator is deter-
mined by two factors: material characteristics and machine
characteristics. The degree of liberation of the feed material
that affects the separation efficiency is represented by sepa-
rability curves, whereas machine characteristics are evalu-
ated in terms of performance curves (Kelly and Spottiswood
1982). The performance curve of an operating machine
is represented by a plot of the fractional mass of particles
Ore Feed
reporting to the concentrate stream against the extent of the
property being exploited for the separation. For gravity con-
centration, traditionally density (or SG) of the particles has
been taken as the property being exploited. Such a plot is
commonly known as the performance curve, partition curve,
or the Tromp curve, which may be construed as a probability
plot that indicates the probability of a particle of given SG
reporting to the concentrate stream. A typical performance
curve is shown in Figure 14.4-13.
A flatter curve represents a poor separation, whereas a
steeper slope represents a sharp separation. The specific grav-
ity of particles that have equal chances of reporting to either
exit is known as the cut specific gravity (SG50) or separation
density. For static heavy medium separators the separation
density is close to the medium density whereas for centrifugal
separators, it is slightly higher.
To compare different operations with different separa-
tion SGs, several efficiency measures have been proposed.
Measures of efficiency based on performance curves gener-
ally used for gravity concentrators are probable error (Ecart
probable, Ep), imperfection (I ), and the sharpness index (SI ).
These are defined as follows:

Ep = ½ (SG75 – SG25)
Sinks

I = Ep /(SG50 – 1)

SG 75
and SI = (14.4-2)
SG 25

where SG25, SG50, and SG75 are the specific gravities at which
Medium
25%, 50%, and 75% of the material would report to the con-
centrate stream, respectively. The percentage of misplaced
material measured as an area between curves has also been
used as a measure of efficiency.
Ep represents the inverse of the slope in the middle part
Floats of the curve but does not take into account the shape of the
two ends of the performance curve that represent most of
Source: Aplan 1985. the misplaced material. Generally, the cut specific gravity of
figure 14.4-12 Dyna Whirlpool separator

(A) (B) (C)

100 100 100
Specific Gravity of Separation

2
1

75 75 75
Percent to the Concentrate
Fractional Recovery,

50 50 50

25 25 25

1
2
0 0 0
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

Specific Gravity

Source: Aplan 2003.

figure 14.4-13 Performance curves of a gravity separator. Partition curves: (A) perfect separation, (B) actual separation (curve 1),
and (C) same Ep as for graph B but with superior recovery of misplaced particles (shaded area between curves 1 and 2).
 gravity Concentration and heavy Medium Separation 1515

Table 14.4-3 Approximate Ep values for coal cleaning devices at 1.5 specific gravity
Ep at Stated Size
Broad Size Range of feed
Coal Size and +½ in. ½ × ¼ in. 14 × 28 M* 20 × 200 M
Appropriate Cleaning Device (+12.7 mm) (12.7 × 6.4 mm) (1.7 × 0.6 mm) (830 × 74 mm) Range Ep
Course coal
Baum jig 0.06 0.16 0.30 — 6 in. × 48 M 0.12
HMS, static bath 0.03 — — — 6 in. × ¼ in. 0.03
Intermediate to fine coal
HMS, cyclone 0.02 0.03 0.05 — ¾ in. × 28 M 0.03
Shaking tables — 0.07† 0.10 0.20 ⁄8 in. × 200 M
3
0.09
Water-only cyclone — 0.15† 0.20 — ¼ in. × 200 M 0.28
Source: Aplan 2003.
*All mesh sizes (inches) are in Tyler Standard mesh.
†¼ in. × 14 M.

Table 14.4-4 influence of near-gravity material on the difficulty of separation, process selection, and suggested equipment
Wt % ± 0.1 Sg Degree of Difficulty Suggested gravity Process Suggested Devices
0–7 Simple Almost any Jigs, HMS, tables, spirals, sluices
7–14 Moderately difficult Efficient process
10–15 Difficult Efficient process, good operation
15–20 Very difficult Very efficient process, expert operation Heavy media separation
20–25 Exceedingly difficult
>25 Formidable Exceptionally efficient process, expert operation Heavy media separation, close control
Source: Aplan 2003.

separations involving fine particles is higher. Thus, imper- gravity concentration. For the purpose of determining optimal
fection that takes into account this variation may be used to operating conditions of a Knelson concentrator, a model based
compare various equipment that process different-sized feeds. on a mechanistic approach has been proposed (Subasinghe
Table 14.4-3 shows typical Ep values for coal cleaning devices. 2007).

SeleCTion of gRAviTy SePARATion eQuiPMenT RefeRenCeS

The selection of gravity separation equipment is based on the
response of the ore to sink-and-float tests using heavy liquids.
The commonly used heavy liquids are methylene iodide, tet-
rabromoethane, methylene bromide, and lithium sodium—
tungstates whose densities are 3.3, 2.96, 2.48, and 2.85,
respectively. For higher-density separations, Clerici solution
is used. Generally an organic solvent may be used to dilute
the reagents to a required specific gravity. Caution should be
exercised in handling these reagents as most of them are toxic.
The data from these tests are presented as washabil-
ity curves that essentially indicate the grade and recovery
of the concentrate that can be achieved at various separa-
tion densities. The selection of gravity equipment is based
on the amount of material present in the ore that is near the
separation density. The amount of ore within ±0.1 SG units
of the separation density is known as the tolerance value,
which is a reflection of the degree of difficulty of separation.
Table 14.4-4 shows the recommended equipment at various
tolerance values.
The selection also depends on the feed size of the ore as
each equipment type can handle material only within a speci-
fied size range.
For the selection of centrifugal separators for fine gold
recovery, a gravity recoverable gold test has been proposed
(Laplante et al. 2000). This test is a material characterization
test that indicates the amenability of the ore to centrifugal
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medium separators and flowsheets. In Mineral Processing
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Aplan, F.F. 1985. Gravity concentration, In SME Mineral
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Subasinghe, G.K.N.S. 2007. Evaluating an alternative to the
gravity recoverable gold (GRG) test. In Proceedings of
Ninth Mill Operators’ Conference, Perth, March 19–21.
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