because of its high speed.
FDDI always uses
OSI Model
The International Standard Organization has a
well-defined model for Communication Systems
known as Open System Interconnection, or the
OSI Model. This layered model is a
conceptualized view of how one system should
communicate with the other, using various
protocols defined in each layer.
The OSI Model has the following seven layers:
Application Layer (Layer-7): This is where the
user application sits that needs to transfer data
between or among hosts.
Presentation Layer (Layer-6): This layer helps to
understand data representation in one form on a
host to other host in their native representation.
Session Layer (Layer-5): This layer provides
session management capabilities between hosts.
Transport Layer (Layer-4): This layer provides
end to end data delivery among hosts. This layer
takes data from the above layer and breaks it into
smaller units called Segments and then gives it to
the Network layer for transmission.
Network Layer (Layer-3): This layer helps to
uniquely identify hosts beyond the subnets and
defines the path which the packets will follow or be
routed to reach the destination.
Data Link Layer (Layer-2): This layer takes the
raw transmission data from the Physical Layer and
makes Data Frames, and sends that to the upper
layer and vice versa.
Physical Layer (Layer-1): This layer deals with
hardware technology and actual communication
mechanism such as signaling, voltage, cable type
and length, etc.
TCP/IP Model
A majority of the internet uses a protocol suite
called the Internet Protocol Suite also known as
the TCP/IP protocol suite. This suite is a
combination of protocols which encompasses a
number of different protocols for different purpose
and need. Because the two major protocols in this
suites are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and IP (Internet Protocol), this is commonly termed
as TCP/IP Protocol suite. This protocol suite has its
own reference model which it follows over the
internet. In contrast with the OSI model, this model
of protocols contains less layers.
This model is indifferent to the actual hardware
implementation, i.e. the physical layer of OSI
Model. This is why this model can be implemented
on almost all underlying technologies. Transport
and Internet layers correspond to the same peer
layers. All three top layers of OSI Model are
compressed together in single Application layer of
TCP/IP Model.
differences between IPv4 and IPv6
 IPv4 addresses are 32 bit length.
 IPv4 addresses are binary numbers represented
in decimals.
 IPSec support is only optional.
 Fragmentation is done by sender and forwarding
routers.
 No packet flow identification.
 Checksum field is available in IPv4 header
 Options fields are available in IPv4 header.
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is available
to map IPv4 addresses to MAC addresses.
 Broadcast messages are available.
 Manual configuration (Static) of IPv4 addresses
IPv6 addresses are 128 bit length.
 IPv6 addresses are binary numbers represented
in hexadecimals.
 Inbuilt IPSec support.
 Fragmentation is done only by sender.
 Packet flow identification is available within
the IPv6 header using the Flow Label field.
 No checksum field in IPv6 header.
 No option fields, but IPv6 Extension headers are
available
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is replaced
with a function of Neighbor Discovery Protocol .
 Broadcast messages are not available. Instead
a link-local scope "All nodes" multicast IPv6
address is used for broadcast.
 Auto-configuration of addresses is available.
the topology of a ring and a MAC protocol similar to
WiMAX & Wi-Fi Comparison
token ring.
WiMAX is similar to the wireless standard known A typical FDDI implementation may look like this:
as Wi-Fi, but on a much larger scale and at faster
speeds. A nomadic version would keep WiMAX-
enabled devices connected over large areas,
much like today’s cell phones.
A wireless local area network (WLAN) is
a wirelessdistribution method for two or more
devices that use high-frequency radio waves and
often include an access point to the Internet.
A WLAN allows users to move around the coverage
area, often a home or small office, while
maintaining a network connection.
Wireless LANs Advantages
• Availability of low-cost portable equipments:
Due to the technology enhancements, the
equipment cost that are required for WLAN set-up
Internet Protocol version 6 is a new addressing
have reduced a lot.
protocol designed to incorporate all the possible
• Mobility: An increasing number of LAN users are
requirements of future Internet known to us as
becoming mobile. Wireless LAN can provide
Internet version . This protocol as its predecessor
users mobility, which is likely to increase
IPv4, works on the Network Layer . Along with its
productivity, user convenience and various
offering of an enormous amount of logical address
service opportunities
space, this protocol has ample features to which
• Installation speed and simplicity: Wireless
address the shortcoming of IPv4.
LANs are very easy to install. There is no
It offers the following features:
requirement for wiring every workstation and
Larger Address Space In contrast to IPv4, IPv6
every room.
uses 4 times more bits to address a device on the
• Installation flexibility: If a company moves to a
Internet. This much of extra bits can provide
new location, the wireless system is much easier
approximately 3.4×1038 different combinations of
to move. This also provides portability. Wireless
addresses.
technology allows network to go anywhere wire
Simplified Header IPv6’s header has been
cannot reach.
simplified by moving all unnecessary information
• Scalability: Wireless LAN can be configured in a
and options to the end of the IPv6 header.
variety of topologies to meet the users need and
End-to-end Connectivity Every system now has
can be easily scaled to cover a large area.
unique IP address and can traverse through the
• Reduced cost of ownership: While the initial
Internet without using NAT or other translating
cost of wireless LAN can be higher than the cost
components. After IPv6 is fully implemented, every
of wired LAN hardware, it is envisaged that the
host can directly reach other hosts on the Internet,
overall installation expenses and life cycle costs
with some limitations involved like Firewall,
can be significantly lower.
organization policies, etc.
Auto-configuration IPv6 supports both stateful
Fast Access Technologies
and stateless auto configuration mode of its host
• Point-to-Point WANs.
devices
• connects two remote devices using a line
Faster Forwarding/Routing Simplified header
available from a public network such as a
puts all unnecessary information at the end of the
telephone network
header.
1.56 K Modems 2.DSL Technology
IPSec Initially it was decided that IPv6 must have
3. Cable Modem 4.T Lines
IPSec security, making it more secure than IPv4.
5. SONET 6. PPP
No Broadcast IPv6 uses multicast to communicate
with multiple hosts.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Anycast Support IPv6 has introduced Anycast
• After traditional modems reached their peak
mode of packet routing. In this mode, multiple
data rate, DSL technology was developed to
interfaces over the Internet are assigned same
provide higher speed access to the internet.
Anycast IP address.
• DSL is a wireline transmission technology that
Mobility This feature enables hosts (such as
transmits data faster over traditional copper
mobile phone) to roam around in different
telephone lines already installed to homes and
geographical area and remain connected with the
businesses.
same IP address.
Smooth Transition Large IP address scheme in
Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
IPv6 enables to allocate devices with globally
– Used primarily by residential customers, such
unique IP addresses. So devices can send/receive
as Internet surfers, who receive a lot of data but
data among each other.
do not send much.
– ADSL typically provides faster speed in the
LAN protocols according to IEEE standard 802 are
downstream direction than the upstream
all based on copper transmission media which
direction. ADSL allows faster downstream data
allows data rates of up to 15Mbps.
transmission over the same line used to provide
To get higher transmission rates (up to 100 Mbps
voice service, without disrupting regular
and more) it is often necessary to switch to optical
telephone calls on that line.
fibre media. This is often done in addition to copper
– ADSL is not suitable for businesses that send
media: according to the needed performance,
and receive data in large volumes.
devices are connected to different tiers of LANs, not
to a single local network.
Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) –
There are a few network standards based upon this
Used typically by businesses for services such as
optical fiber technology, for example:
video conferencing, which need significant
Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI ): can be
bandwidth both upstream and downstream.
used in the same way as the common LANs but is
often used as a backbone to connect copper LANs