CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Problem Statement

From the beginning of mankind, transportation, especially land

transportation has been a main aspect in human lives. Communication and trade
would not have been possible without it. For this purpose, thousands kilometers of
road have been built over the world. Indonesia, with total land area of 1.904.569
kms and population of 255.461.700 peoples, has 38.569,82 km length of national
road [1].

Started from the pavements built on Crete during the Minoian period
(2600 – 1150 B.C.) mankind continuously develop the construction of road. The
famous ancient road construction was built by the Romans. It should be noted that
these pavements were remarkably well designed. From those early days of the
Roman Empire to the interstate highway system in the United States, roadway
networks as well as roadway construction have been developed. The materials
used for roadway construction have progressed with time. In its development,
pavements can be broadly classified into two types, flexible and rigid pavement.
From 38.569,82 km length of national road in Indonesia, most are flexible
pavement construction. The basic flexible pavement structure is shown in Figure
1.1.

In most asphalt pavements, the stiffness in each layer or lift is greater than
that in the layer below and less than that in the layer above. This could be
understood from the load distribution (Figure 1.2) where the stress at the surface
layer is higher than that of the layer below.

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 Figure 1.1: Basic flexible pavement structure

Surface layer has to withstand the maximum stress and bear the
changing conditions of the environment. Therefore, this surface layer usually
consists of the ‘best’ and most costly materials. Also, this layer is always ‘bound’,
that is, mixed with a ‘binder’, in this case asphalt cement or bitumen binder, to
prevent raveling materials under traffic, as well as to provide a dense surface to
prevent ingress of water, unless it is an open graded friction course. Therefore, the
surface layer has two major components, bitumen binder and aggregates.

The performance of asphalt pavements is mainly governed by the

properties of the bitumen, because bitumen is the continuous matrix and only
deformable component [2]. At high temperatures (40 to 600C), bitumen exhibits a
viscoelastic behaviour. Pavement made of bitumen may show distress when
exposed to high temperatures. At elevated temperatures, permanent deformation
or rutting occurs and leads to channels in the direction of travel. This is attributed
to the viscous flow of the bitumen matrix in paving mixtures, which retains strains
induced by traffic. On the other hand, bitumen will brittle in low temperature and
pavement cracking will occur. Therefore, pavement performance is strongly
associated with the rheological properties of bitumen, which can be improved by
its modification.

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 Load from axle of the vehicle

Tyre transmitted load through

Contact stress σ1

Pavement layers

Top of subgrade layer

Figure 1.2: Load distributions on flexible pavement

Bitumen is exposed to a wide range of load and weather conditions;

however, it does not have good engineering properties, because it is soft in a hot
environment and brittle in a cold weather. To prevent the occurrence of pavement
distress, it is important to reinforced bitumen to improve its mechanical
properties. Modified bitumen with additives to strengthen the mechanical
properties of the bitumen has been practiced in many forms for over 150 years but
there is a renewed interest. This resurgence in interest can primarily be attributed
to the following factors [3, 4].

(1) The increase demand on HMA pavements. Traffic volume, and

traffic loads, as well as tyre pressures have increased significantly
in recent years causing premature rutting of HMA pavements.
(2) The new binder specifications recommended by Strategic Highway
Research Program (SHRP) in March 1993 requires the bitumen
binder to meet the stiffness requirements at high as well as low
pavement service temperatures. Most base bitumen does not meet
these requirements in the regions with extreme climatic conditions
and, therefore, modification is needed.

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 (3) The environmental and economic pressure to dispose of some
waste materials and industrial by products as additive in HMA.
(4) Public agencies willingness to pay a higher first cost for pavements
with a longer service life or which will reduce the risk of premature
distress (failure).

1.2 The Objective of the Research

From the above descriptions it is obvious that bitumen should be modified

in order to improve its rheological properties or in order to withstand to use in the
several of different temperatures. For that purpose, this research has the following
objective:

a. To investigate the feasibility of using Hydrated Lime (HL) as a

bitumen modifier,
b. To formulate the mix between Hydrated Lime (HL) and bitumen
that will result in a new binder with better physical and mechanical
properties.
c. To evaluate the use of HL-modified bitumen (HL-MB) as a binder
in hot mix asphalt (HMA).

1.3 Scope of the Study

To accomplish those objectives, this study started with a literature review

of the information pertaining to the relationship of bitumen characteristics on
some different temperatures conditions, and characteristics of the present
modified bitumen, and also tests which have to be conducted to the modified
bitumen. Based on the results of the literature review, a research design was
developed involving preliminary research to find the appropriate modifier, in this
study was Hydrated Lime (HL), as well as an extensive laboratory testing and

4
experiments. HL was then used as a binder of SMA. Various mix samples of
SMA-14, the type of HMA used in this research, using HL binder were prepared.
Some tests on SMA-14 mixture to evaluate its performance were conducted by
using Marshall Stability test. Data obtained from the test were analyzed and
conclusions and recommendations were made.

5
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Available literature that pertains to the relationship between modification

of bitumen and stone mastic asphalt (SMA) was reviewed. It is included apart of
this thesis. Literature review was conducted to specifically evaluate the issues
relating to the objectives of the research. These issues were: a) the behavior of the
bitumen at several different temperatures conditions, b) the reasons why bitumen
should be modified, c) the performance of the present modifier and the present of
modified bitumen, d) various tests which have been used to measure the
performance of the bitumen modification, and e) the tests should be done on
SMA.

In this chapter, Hydrated Lime, the material which was used in this
research to modify bitumen, was described, and several related literatures are
presented. However, before reviewing the above issues, first of all this thesis will
describe briefly what the binders are.

2.2 Binders

Lavin [5], describes the binder as the adhesive or glue that is used in
asphalt pavements. The liquid binders can be defined as tars and asphalt binders.
Asphalt binders are either petroleum derived or naturally occurring. The American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines bitumen as a class of black or
dark colored (solid, semisolid, or viscous) cementations substance, natural or
manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons of
which asphalt, tars, pitches and asphalted are typical. The asphalt binder is what

6
gives an asphalt pavement its flexibility, binds the aggregate together, and gives
waterproofing properties to the pavement. In North America, the binder is
generally known as asphalt cement while in Europe it is known as “bitumen”.
Binder or more specifically, asphalt binder has been developed in more recent
terminology under the auspices of the United States Strategic Highway Research
Programme (SHRP) to include modified asphalt cements, unmodified asphalt
cements, asphalt emulsion, and asphalt cutbacks.

Lavin also explains that the term “asphalt binder” has been selected to
more specifically describe the asphalt material and any other modifiers or
ingredients. The term “asphalt”, “asphalt cement”, “bitumen”, and “asphalt
binder” may be used interchangeably, with asphalt cement and bitumen referring
more specifically to their petroleum origins and asphalt binder referring to the
asphalt cement and any other added ingredient that provides the engineering
adhesive used in asphalt pavements. In this thesis, asphalt, asphalt cement,
bitumen, bitumen binder and asphalt binder may be used interchangeably
depending on the context of the sentence and all will be referring to the same
material.

2.3 Behaviour of bitumen binder

Bitumen behavior depends on temperature and time loading. Its most

important characteristic, which is both strength and sometimes a weakness, is its
temperature susceptibility. That is, its measured properties are very dependent on
its temperature. That is why almost every bitumen and mixture characterization
test must be accompanied by a specific test temperature. Without specifying a test
temperature, the test result cannot be effectively interpreted. Bitumen behaviour is
also dependent on time of loading. The same load applied for a different duration
will cause bitumen to exhibit different properties. As with temperature, bitumen
tests must specify a loading rate. Because bitumen behaviour is dependent on
temperature and duration of load, these two factors can be used interchangeably

7
(Figure 2.1). That is, a slow loading rate can be simulated by high temperatures
and fast loading rate can be simulated by low temperature.

Figure 2.1. Bitumen-time temperature dependency [6]

Bitumen is sometimes referred to as a viscoelastic material because it

simultaneously displays both viscous and elastic characteristics (Figure 2.2). At
high temperatures, bitumen acts almost entirely as a viscous fluid. In other words,
when heated to a high enough temperature e.g., over 100° C, it displays the
consistency of a lubricating fluid such as motor oil. At very low temperature for
example below ° C, bitumen behaves mostly like an elastic solid. That is, it acts
like a rubber band. When loaded it stretches or compresses to a different shape.
When unloaded, it easily returns to its original shape. At intermediate
temperatures, which also happens to be those in which pavements are expected to
function, bitumen has characteristics of both a viscous fluid and an elastic solid.

There remains another important characteristic about bitumen. Because it

is composed of organic molecules, it reacts with oxygen from the environment.
This reaction is called “oxidation” and it changes the structure and composition of
the bitumen molecules. When bitumen reacts with oxygen, a harder and more

8
brittle structure always results and that is the origin of the terms “oxidative
hardening” or “age hardening”. Oxidation occurs more rapidly at high
temperatures. That is why a significant amount of hardening occurs during HMA
production, when the bitumen is necessarily heated to facilitate mixing and
compaction. That is also why oxidation is more of a concern when the bitumen is
used in a pavement in a hot, desert climate. Modified bitumen binders are
produced to alter and improve the properties of the bitumen to enhance the long
term performance of pavements [6]. While the modifier may affect many
properties, the majority of modifiers attempt to reduce temperature dependency
and oxidative hardening of bitumen and the moisture susceptibility of asphalt
mixtures.

Figure 2.2. Viscoelastic behaviour of bitumen [6]

2.4 The reasons to modify bitumen binders

The National Centre for Asphalt Technology (NCAT), as quoted by King

et.al[3] has published a list of reasons for the use of bitumen modification:

(a) Soften binders and mixtures at high temperature to minimize

9
 rutting and reduce the detrimental effects of load induced moisture
damages,
(b) Stiffen binders at low temperatures to improve relaxation
properties and strain tolerance, thus minimizing non-load
associated thermal cracking,
(c) Improve fatigue resistance, particularly in environments where
higher strains are imposed on the asphalt concrete mixture,
(d) Improve bitumen-aggregate bonding to reduce stripping,
(e) Reduce raveling by improving abrasion resistance,
(f) Minimize tender mixes, drain-down, or segregation during
construction,
(g) Rejuvenate aged bitumen binders,
(h) Permit thicker films of bitumen on open-graded aggregates for
increasing durability,
(i) Reduce flushing or bleeding,
(j) Improve resistance to aging or oxidation,
(k) Stiffen HMA layers to reduce required structural thickness,
(l) Improve pavement durability with an accompanying net reduction
in life cycle costs,
(m) Replace PCC with asphalt construction methods that reduce lane
closure times and user delay costs, and
(n) Improve overall performance as viewed by the highway user.

2.5 The role of modifying bitumen in hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures

Read et.al [7], Epps [8], and Robert et.al [4], separately documented their
explanation about the role of modifying bitumen as follows:

(1) Read et.al [7] wrote that as the bitumen is responsible for the
viscoelastic behaviour characteristic of HMA, it plays a large part
in determining many aspects of road performance, particularly
resistance to permanent deformation and cracking. In general, the
proportion of any induced strain in HMA that is attributable to

10
 viscous flow, i.e. non-recoverable, increases with both loading and
temperature. The effect of this is illustrated in Figures 2.3 and 2.4.,
where Figure 2.3 shows the response of an HMA sample in a
simple creep test under static load and Figure 2.4 under moving
wheel load. The strain resulting from the applied loading shows an
instantaneous elastic response followed by a gradual increase in
strain with time until the load is removed. The change in strain
with time is caused by the viscous behaviour of the material. On
removal of the load, the elastic strain is recovered instantaneously
and some additional recovery occurs with time. This is known as
‘delayed elasticity’. Ultimately, a permanent residual strain
remains, which is irrecoverable and is directly caused by viscous
bahaviour.

Figure 2.3. Viscoelastic responses of an HMA under static load

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 Figure 2.4. Viscoelastic responses of an HMA under moving wheel load

(2) Epps [8], added that an ideal HMA pavement binder should be
modified to achieve the following improvements:
(a) Lower stiffness (or viscosity) at high construction
temperatures to facilitate pumping of the liquid asphalt
binder, and mixing and compaction of HMA.
(b) Higher stiffness at high service temperatures or reduce
rutting and shoving.
(c) Lower stiffness and faster relaxation properties at low
service temperatures to reduce thermal cracking.
(d) Increased adhesion between asphalt binder and aggregate in
the presence of moisture to reduce stripping.

(3) Robert et.al[4], give some specific technical reasons for using
additives and modifiers in HMA:

(a) Obtain stiffer mixtures at high service temperatures to

minimize rutting.
(b) Obtain softer mixtures at low service temperatures to

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 minimize non-load associated thermal cracking.
(c) Improve fatigue resistance of HMA mixtures.
(d) Improve bitumen-aggregate bonding to reduce stripping or
moisture susceptibility.
(e) Improve abrasion resistance of mixture to reduce reveling.
(f) Minimize tender mix problems during construction.
(g) Rejuvenate aged bitumen binders.
(h) Replace bitumen as an extender.
(i) Permit thicker bitumen films on aggregate for increased
mix durability.
(j) Reduce flushing or bleeding.
(k) Improve resistance to aging or oxidation.
(l) Reduce structural thickness of pavement layers.
(m) Reduce life cycle costs of HMA pavements.
(n) Improve overall performance of HMA.

2.6 History, use, and benefits of the present bitumen modifications

In his paper Yildirim [9] explains that processes of bitumen modification

involving natural and synthetic polymers were patented as early as 1843. The
projects were underway in Europe in the 1930s, and neoprene latex began to be
used in North America in the 1950s’. In the late 1970s, Europe was ahead of the
United States in the use of modified bitumen because the European use
contractors, who provided warranties, motivated a greater interest in decreased
life cycle costs, even at higher initial costs. The high preliminary expenses for
polymer modified bitumen limited its use in the US. In the mid-1980s, newer
polymers were developed and European technologies began to be used in the US.
At the same time, the prevalence of a long-term economic outlook in the country
increased. In Australia, the current National Asphalt Specification includes guides
and specifications regarding polymer modified binders.

A 2003 US Army Corps of Engineers [10] study points out that for
optimal economy, it is desirable to choose a bitumen modifier that resists multiple

13
distresses, such as rutting, fatigue, thermal cracking and water damage. It was
found that the choice of polymer may have a significant impact on fatigue
properties, and that the mixtures boasting the highest fatigue life contained
reactive styrene-butadiene cross-linked polymer.

King et.al. [3] add, in the early 1990’s the Strategic Highway Research
Programme (SHRP) developed Superpave Performance Graded (PG) asphalt
binder specifications based on the pavement’s temperature range. One of the
primary benefits of many polymer modified asphalt binders is a reduced
susceptibility to temperature. However, many of the PG’s can only be met with
polymer modification.

2.7 Temperature susceptibility

Robert, et.al [4], explains the temperature susceptibility is the rate at which
the consistency of bitumen changes with change in temperature and is a very
important property of bitumen. Bitumen highly susceptible to temperature change
are not desirable because (a) their viscosity at 135°C can be very low, resulting in
occasional tender mix problems during compaction, and (b) their viscosity
(stiffness) at the lowest service temperatures are usually very high, resulting in
low temperature shrinkage cracking. Two different approaches for determining
temperature susceptibility of bitumen which are currently used are penetration
index (PI) and penetration-viscosity number (PVN).

2.7.1 Penetration Index (PI)

Pfeiffer and Van Doormaal explanation as quoted by Robert et.al. [3],

expressed the temperature susceptibility quantitatively by a term designated as
“penetration index” (PI). The PI is determined from bitumen’s softening point
(ring and ball test), its penetration at 25°C, and an assumption that the penetration
of bitumen at its softening point temperature is 800, this is referred to as PI
(SP/pen).

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 The nomograph shown in Figure 2.5 is enabling the approximate value of
PI to be deducted from the penetration at 25°C and the softening point
temperature. According to [7] the value of PI ranges from around -3 for highly
temperature susceptible bitumens to around +7 for highly blown low-temperature
susceptible (high PI) bitumens.

Draw a line between the softening point (line A)

and penetration (line B) values. The intercept on
line C is the PI of the bitumen. Penetration at 25°C dmm
B

Softening Point °C
A

Penetration
Index
C

Figure 2.5. Nomograph to determine penetration index (SP/pen) [7]

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2.8 Stone Mastic Asphalt

Study on Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) was derived from Robert et.al [4]
and Standard Specification for Road Works [11]. Stone Matrix Asphalt or in
Europe also in Malaysia is called Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) has been used in
United States since 1991. In this thesis the term Stone Mastic Asphalt instead of
Stone Matrix Asphalt will be used. Prior to its use in the United States, SMA had
been used in Europe for more than 30 years. When first developed, SMA was
used in Germany to minimize the effects of studded tyres. The primary reasons for
using SMA mixtures in Europe today are its resistance to rutting and its increased
durability.

The SMA mixtures are designed to have a high coarse aggregate content
(typically 70-80%) a high bitumen content (typically over 6%) and high filler
content (approximately 10% by weight) [12]. Using high coarse aggregate content
results in stone on stone contact that produces a mixture which have highly
resistant to rutting. A view of a typical SMA mixture and for comparison a typical
dense-graded mix is shown in Figure 2.6. Notice the high stone content for the
SMA mixture and the coarse aggregate in the dense-graded mixture appear to be
floating in the fine aggregate matrix. The SMA mixture is more resistant to rutting
since coarse aggregate can develop more shear strength than the fine aggregate.

There are two typical gradation requirements for SMA mixture. One has
maximum particle size 9.5 mm and designation as SMA 14, while the other one
has maximum particle size 12.5 mm and designation as SMA 14 [13]. The
appropriate envelope of those two aggregate gradations is given in Table 2.1.
Mineral filler shall be added as part of the combined aggregate gradation.
Limestone dust, hydrated lime or ordinary portland cement shall be used as filler
[13]. The material shall pass 75 µm sieves by not less than 70% by weight. The
amount of the filler to be added shall be not less than 8% by weight of the
combined aggregates, where if cement is used it shall not exceed 2% by weight of
the combined aggregates.

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 Figure 2.6. Cross-sectional view of a typical SMA and a dense-graded HMA [4]

The mix design procedure for SMA mixtures is similar to that for dense-
graded mixtures but there are some significant differences. The Marshall and
Superpave design methods have been used to design SMA mixtures. The criteria
for both methods have been set to ensure coarse stone on coarse stone contact and
to ensure that high bitumen contents are selected. One step in the mix design
process is to ensure that stone on stone contact exists in the SMA mixture.

Table 2.1 Gradation limits of combined aggregates for SMA [18]

ASTM sieve Percentage by weight Passing Sieve

size (mm) SMA 14 SMA 19
19.0 100 100
12.5 90 - 100 85-95
9.5 72 - 83 65-75
4.75 25 - 38 20-28
2.36 16 - 24 16-24
0.600 12 - 16 12-16
0.300 12 - 15 12-15
0.075 8 - 10 8 - 10

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2.9 Testing the performance of Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA) mixtures

There are two general types of tests that are used to characterize asphalt
mixtures namely Physical and Mechanical test [4], and three groups of tests,
Fundamental, Simulative, and Empirical tests [7]. Physical tests include
measurement of density, air voids, voids in mineral aggregate, voids filled with
bitumen, and aging characteristics. The Mechanical tests include measurement of
Marshall stability and flow, Hveem stability and cohesion, gyratory shear index
(GSI), dynamic modulus, resilient modulus, flexural stiffness modulus, indirect
tension, creep, and moisture susceptibility. While Fundamental tests include
repeated load triaxial test, unconfined static uniaxial creep compression test,
repeated load indirect tensile test, and dynamic stiffness and fatigue tests,
Simulative tests include wheel tracking test, gyratory compactor, and durability
testing, and Empirical test include Marshall test. Anyhow, due to limited
laboratory equipments in the Road Research Laboratory in Faculty of Engineering
of UNISSULA, only physical and mechanical tests will be conducted.

Characterization of the asphalt mixture, when the Marshall mix design

procedure is used, generally includes measurement of air voids, voids in mineral
aggregate, voids filled with bitumen, Marshall stability, flow, and moisture
susceptibility. Mixture characterization with the Hveem mix design procedure
includes measurement of air voids, voids in mineral aggregate, Hveem stability,
and moisture susceptibility. The other tests such as gyratory shear index, dynamic
modulus, resilient modulus, flexural stiffness modulus, indirect tensile strength,
compressive strength, fatigue and creep are primarily used for research purposes.
These tests are important, and some will likely be used routinely in the future, but
they have not generally been used for mix design or quality control. Therefore,
only some of mechanical, fundamental and simulative tests such as resilient
modulus, fatigue or indirect tension, and creep test, wheel tracking test will be
reviewed. In addition to those, also moisture susceptibility tests will be studied
and reviewed.

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2.9.1 Moisture Susceptibility Tests

Numerous test methods have been developed and used in the past to
predict the moisture susceptibility of HMA mixtures [4]. However, no test has any
wide acceptance. This is due to their low reliability and lack of satisfactory
relationship between laboratories and is it field conditions. Only selected test
methods which are commonly used by some agencies, those are:

(1) In boiling water test according to ASTM D 3625 [14], loose HMA mix is
added to boiling water, specifies a 10-minutes boiling period. The
percentage of the total visible area of the aggregate that retains its original
coating after boiling is estimated as above or below 95 percent. This test
can be used for initial screening of HMA mixes. This test method does not
involve any strength analysis.

(2) Static-Immersion Test: A sample of HMA mixtures is immersing in

distilled water at 25°C for 16 to 18 hours [4], or 48 hours according to
John Read [7]. The sample is then observed through water to estimate the
percentage of total visible area of the aggregate which remains coated as
above or below 9 percent. Again, this method does not involve any
strength test.

2.10. The Hydrated Lime (HL) - modifier use in the

research

Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates,

oxides, and hydroxides predominate. In the strict senseof the term, lime is calcium
oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name of the natural mineral (native
lime) CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in
altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word "lime" originates with its
earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of "sticking or adhering" These
materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials
(including limestone products, concrete, and mortar), as chemicalfeedstocks, and
for sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the use of many of the

19
resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New
World. Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate.
The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived, typically
limestone or chalk, are composed primarily of calcium carbonate. They may be
cut, crushed or pulverized and chemically altered. "Burning" (calcination)
converts them into the highly caustic material "quicklime" (calcium oxide, CaO)
and, through subsequent addition of water, into the less caustic (but still
strongly alkaline) "slaked lime" or "hydrated lime" (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2),
the process of which is called "slaking of lime". Lime kilns are the kilns used for
lime burning and slaking.
When the term is encountered in an agricultural context, it usually refers
to agricultural lime, which is crushed limestone, not a product of a lime kiln.
Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime, as the more dangerous form is
usually described more specifically as quicklime or "burnt lime".

Figure 2.7. Lime Stone quarry, in Padalarang, West Java, Indonesia

To convert the raw material into lime, heating to temperatures between

800 oC - 1000 oC is required. At these temperatures the limestone breaks down
by giving off carbon dioxide leaving calcium oxide which is known as quicklime.
Quicklime is unstable and reacts, often very rapidly, with water to form calcium
hydroxide. This process produces heat and is known as hydration. When exposed

20
to the atmosphere this calcium hydroxide can react again by absorbing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere to once again become calcium carbonate.
This is known as the lime cycle and is shown in the diagram below. It is calcium
hydroxide which, when mixed with sand to make a mortar, builders have used
over the millennia. The setting process is the re-absorption of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere called carbonation.

Figure 2.8. Lime Cycles

The Lime Cycle is one of nature`s best known examples of chemistry. This
classic series of chemical reactions is the basis for numerous applications, many
of which affect our lives every day.
The image above illustrates how chalk or limestone (calcium carbonate) turns into
quicklime after heating, then into hydrated lime (slaked lime or calcium
hydroxide) after adding water and finally back into chalk by combining with
carbon dioxide from the air.
The reactions involved in lime manufacture are:

Calcining or burning of chalk/limestone to produce quicklime

CaCO3 + HEAT = CaO + CO2
Hydration or slaking of quicklime to produce hydrated lime
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2
Carbonation of hydrated lime to produce calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3

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Calcium hydroxide can be used by Builders in two forms, firstly, if it is hydrated
with an excess of water, lime putty is produced and mixed by Eden Lime Mortar
with sands to produce various Lime Mortars. All sources of pure calcium
carbonate produce a similar result, however the Romans discovered that the
calcium hydroxide would also react with volcanic ash, essentially a mixture of
silica and alumina. The resulting mixes set very much harder and for the first time
enabled structures of high strength to be built. By varying the quantity of silica
and alumina, mortars (and lime concretes) of different strengths could be
produced. These reactions are referred to as pozzolanic – from the town of
Pozzuoli in Italy from where the original material came.

The processes described so far use chalk or limestone that is relatively pure
containing over 95% calcium carbonate. However some limestones are less pure
and can contain quantities of silica and alumina which when heated produce very
similar results to the Roman mixes of pure lime with volcanic ash. These impure
limestones if they contain quantities of silica and alumina are referred to as
Natural Hydraulic Limes (NHL).
Hydraulic in this context refers to the ability of the material to set under water as
opposed to pure air limes which can only set when exposed to atmospheric carbon
dioxide. As with addition of pozzolanic silica and alumina, the strength of NHL's
depends upon the quality of these materials in the limestone. As the quantities
increase so does the strength but also the free lime (calcium hydroxide) in the
mortar reduces so that the set depends more on chemical reaction and the process
of carbonation reduces.
Singleton Birch have worked to develop a range of NHL products by sourcing the
appropriate chalk or limestone for burning, based on its' geology and mineralogy.

22
Lime Terminology

Calcium carbonate - also known as: chalk, limestone, agricultural lime chemical
formula: CaCO3
Calcium oxide - also known as: quicklime, burnt lime chemical formula: CaO
Calcium hydroxide - also known as: hydrated lime, slaked lime chemical
formula: Ca(OH)2
Building Lime Terminology

Air Lime - Air lime, or high calcium lime does not have any hydraulic
component. It can be quicklime for slaking or hydrated lime. It gains strength
slowly, by combining with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate
(as per the lime cycle). Several grades of air lime are identified in EN459 the
European standard for Building Lime.

Hydraulic Lime - Lime with hydraulic or cementitious properties which will set
when exposed to moisture. Several grades of hydraulic lime are identified in
EN459 the European standard for Building Lime.

Natural Hydraulic Lime - Hydraulic lime which does not contain any performance
enhancing additives. Its properties are as a result of the mineralogy of the calcium
carbonate stone which is quarried for burning.

Hydrated Lime - Hydrated lime is NOT Hydraulic lime and will not set in contact
with water.

CL90 & CL90 S - Grades of air lime for building as described in EN459 the
European standard for Building Lime. CL90 is the purest grade of building
quicklime and CL90 S is the purest grade of hydrated lime for building. Several
grades of air lime are identified in EN459 the European standard for Building
Lime.

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Other Chemical & Miscellanous Terminology
Carbon dioxide - chemical formula: CO2
Water - chemical formula: H20
Silica - chemical formula: Si02
Alumina - chemical formula: Al203

2.11. Summary of the literature review

Literature suggests that bitumen as a binder has to be modified in order

to alter and improve the properties of the bitumen to enhance the long-term
performance of asphalt pavements. Bitumen is viscoelastic material whose
behaviour is dependent on temperature and duration of loading. Modifier may
affect many properties, the majority of modifier attempt to reduce temperature
dependency and oxidative hardening of bitumen. By modifying, bitumen will
resist to all pavement distresses caused by temperature changes, as it will stiffen at
low temperature to improve relaxation properties and strain tolerance, thus
minimizing non-load associated with thermal cracking. Modified bitumen will
become soften at high temperature so that rutting can be minimized and the
detrimental effects of load induce moisture damages can be reduced. Modified
bitumen also improves fatigue resistance particularly in environment where higher
strains are imposed on the hot-mix asphalt mixtures. Briefly, the prime of a
bitumen modifier is to increase the resistance of the HMA to permanent
deformation at high road temperatures without adversely affecting the properties
of the bitumen or HMA at other temperatures.

Modification in bitumen has started decades ago and the most widely
used material for modifier was polymer with all types. Despite many advantages,
there are also disadvantages. Until now there are many researchers who continue
conducting research on the modification of bitumen in particular by using
polymer.

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 In this study, Hydrated Lime (HL), the natural bitumen which has never
been used as bitumen modifier before, was utilized as modifier. Use of Hydrated
Lime as bitumen modifier is to get other benefits from the modifier than those
obtained by other modifier. To know that Hydrated Lime can be completely
absorbed to the bitumen, Storage stability test will be conducted. In addition,
conventional tests for bitumen consistency such as penetration test, softening
point test, specific gravity test were also performed.

To prove that bitumen modification can improve the performance of

asphalt pavement mixtures, it is necessary to attempt to use it as binder of asphalt
mixtures. The tests to evaluate the performance of asphalt mixture Marshall
stability test, Moisture susceptibility test, and drain-down test will also be
performed.

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