Harduaganj Thermal Power Plant Vocationa

Harduaganj Thermal Power Plant
Vocational Training
Report
Submitted to : Submitted by:

Reena
Diploma 1st year
Electronics branch
Roll no. 160031000021

G.P.W. College (Faridabad)
Electronics and Instrumentation Page 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the entire , Harduaganj thermal power
plant. Who has provided me this sessional training . I am
thankful to Er. Alok Tripathi , the XEN/Training, who
organized my training schedule and also to Er. Shashikant
Gautam ,AE/C&I MD-1 , DTPS, and Er. Ankit Rawal JE ,
C&I MD-1 , DTPS for their benevolent guidance and kind
cooperation throughout my training along with completing
this project report and provided me the various knowledge
about their stations
I also thank the workers of the respective stations, who were
always ready to clarify my doubts and helped me to increase
my knowledge by illustrating me to the finer points.
I wish to express my deep gratitude to all the concerned

persons, whose enthusiasing support and co-ordination have
given me the success to complete my training in the
organization. I hope that my report will reflect my technical
knowledge and innovativeness, which I gained at Kasimpur
Thermal Power
Station, Harduaganj.

UNIT: 7(R&M) 120 MW
Extension (UNIT: 8 &9) 2 x 250 MW
Proposed 1 x 660 MW

TABLE OF CONTENT
Declaration
Certificate
Acknowledgement
1. Thermal Power Plant: An overview
2. Energy Conversion in Thermal Power Plant
3. Rankine Cycle
3.1 Introduction
4. Cycles
4.1 Coal Handling Cycle
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Wagon Tippler
4.1.3 Dryers
4.1.4 Magnetic Separators
4.1.5 Crusher House
4.1.6 Coal Bunkers
4.1.7 Row Coal Feeder
4.1.8 Mill
4.2 Water Cycle
4.2.1 Stream Cycle
4.2.2 Condensate Cycle
4.2.3 Feed Water Cycle
4.3 Ash Handling Cycle
4.3.1 Bottom Ash System
4.3.2 Fly Ash System
5. Boiler
5.1 Furnace
5.2 Super-heater
5.3 Economizer
5.4 Boiler Drum
6. Turbine
6.1 HP Turbine
6.2 IP Turbine
6.3 LP Turbine
7. Condenser
8. De-aerator
9. Boiler Feed Pump
10. Pulverized Oil System
11. Fuel Oil System
12. Electrostatic Precipitator
13. Fan
13.1.1 Primary Air Fan
13.1.2 Forced Draft Fan
13.1.3 Induced Draft Fan
14. Generator
15. Control System & Instrumentation
15.1 Objective
15.2 Aspect
15.3 Present Trend in C & I
15.4 Comparison between the old control room & new control room
15.5 Overview of max DNA
15.6 Pressure Measurement
15.6.1 Manometer
15.6.2 Mechanical Pressure Element
15.6.2.1 Bellow
15.6.2.2 Diaphragm
15.6.2.3 Bourdon Tube
15.6.3 Differential Pressure Transducer
15.6.4 Pressure Measurement Application

15.7 Temperature Measurement
15.7.1 Resistance Temperature Detector
15.7.2 Thermocouple
15.8 Flow Measurement
15.8.1 Differential Flow Meter
15.8.2 Electromagnetic Meter
15.9 Level Measurement
15.9.1 Ball Float
15.9.2 Pressure Head Method
15.10 Drum Level Control
15.10.1 Single Element Water Level Control
15.9.2 Double Element Water Level Control
16. Conclusion
1. Thermal Power Plant: An Overview

In a coal based power plant coal is transported from coal mines to the power plant by railway
in wagons. Coal is unloaded from the wagons to a moving underground conveyor belt. This
coal from the mines is of no uniform size. So it is taken to the Crusher house and crushed to a
size of 20mm. It is then stored in coal bunkers. Raw coal from the raw coal bunker is
supplied to the Coal Mills by a Raw Coal Feeder. The Coal Mills or pulverizer pulverizes the
coal to 200 mesh size. The powdered coal from the coal mills is carried to the boiler in coal
pipes by high pressure hot air. The pulverized coal air mixture is burnt in the boiler in the
combustion zone. The boiler is a water tube boiler hanging from the top. Water is converted
to steam in the boiler and steam is separated from water in the boiler Drum. The saturated
steam from the boiler drum is taken to the Low Temperature Super-heater, Platen Super-
heater and Final Super-heater respectively for superheating. The superheated steam from the
final super-heater is taken to the High Pressure Steam Turbine (HPT). In the HPT the steam
pressure is utilized to rotate the turbine and the resultant is rotational energy. From the HPT
the out coming steam is taken to the re-heater in the boiler to increase its temperature as the
steam becomes wet at the HPT outlet. After reheating, this steam is taken to the Intermediate
Pressure Turbine (IPT) and then to the Low Pressure Turbine (LPT). The outlet of the LPT is
sent to the condenser for condensing back to water by a cooling water system. This
condensed water is collected in the hot well and is again sent to the boiler in a closed cycle.
The rotational energy imparted to the turbine by high pressure steam is converted to electrical
energy in the Generator.
fig 1: layout of thermal power plant

2. Energy Conversion in Thermal Power Plant:
chemical kinectic mechanical electrical

heat energy
energy energy energy energy
The working of the power plant is based on first law of thermodynamic that is nothing but
energy conservation which states that energy neither can be created nor can be destroyed. It
can be transformed one form to another. Coal contain chemical energy itself when it is burnt,
heat is generated because it is an exothermic reaction.
C+O ₂ →CO ₂+ HEAT
Coal is burnt in the combustion chamber of Boiler and heat is generated. This heat converts
water which in water-tube of boiler into the stream. Stream has kinetic energy when it is
bombarded on the blades of turbine that causes blades to move and the kinetic energy of the
stream converts into the mechanical energy and turbine start to rotate. The prime mover of
the generator is coupled with the shaft of the turbine so prime mover start to rotate with
turbine and electricity generate. In this way chemical energy of coal converts into electrical
energy
3. Rankine cycle :
A Thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is
heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After
it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it
was heated; this know as a Rankine cycle.

4. Cycles:
Three main cycles are present in thermal power plant
1. Coal/ fuel handling cycle
2. Water cycle
3. Ash handling cycle
4.1 Coal Handling Cycle
wagon crusher coal RC

wagon mill
tippler house bunker feeder
4.1.1 Introduction:
It can be called the heart of thermal power plant because it provided the fuel for combustion
in boiler. The coal is brought to the HPTS is coal India ltd. Each train consists of 56-58
wagons and each wagon consists of 50-60 tons of coal of 300 mm size. The coal is firstly
unloaded from wagon by wagon tipplers then crushed by crusher and magnetic pulley and
pulverized to be transformed to boiler furnace. The whole transportation of coal is through
conveyor belt operated by 3Φ induction motor.
4.1.2 Wagon Tippler:- Tippler is used for emptying the loaded wagons by tipping it.
Tippler retains wagon from top as well as from side by using clamping devices provided on
it. Apart from that track stops, wheel grippers and different type of limit switches are
provides as features of wagon tippler. Tippler is driven by either hydraulic drive or by electro-
mechanical drive.
Fig 4.1.2 : wagon tippler

4.1.3 Dryers: They are used in order to remove the excess moisture from coal mainly
wetted during transport.
4.1.4 Magnetic separators: Coal which contain iron particles may result in wear and
tear so these are unwanted and so are removed with the help of magnetic separators.
Fig 4.1.4: magnetic separator
4.1.5 Crusher house : These are used to break the received coal from 300 mm size to
about 20 mm size. The crusher consists of fast moving rotor with a number of hammers
mounted on rods.
Fig 4.1.5: crusher house
4.1.6 Coal bunker: Coal from crusher house are comes into bunker. Bunker used to store
the coal.
Fig 4.1.6: coal bunker

M of conveyor belt used to load
4.1.7 RC feeder ( raw coal feeder): RC feeder is a type
the coal into mill bowl from the bunker time to time according to our requirement.
Fig 4.1.7: RC feeder
4.1.8 Mill (pulverizes): A pulverizer is a device for grinding coal for combustion in a
furnace in a power plant. size of cal in the mill converted into 70 µm from 20m
Fig 4.1.8: Mill
4.2 Water Cycle :-

water cycle is complete by three cycle.
 Stream cycle
 Condensate cycle
 Feed Water cycle

4.2.1 Steam cycle :

super
 drum
Boiler turbine condenser
heater
4.2.2 Condensate cycle :
condensate low pressure

condenser
 boiler feed
extraction heater de-aerator
pump
 pump
4.2.3 Feed water cycle :
high pressure
boiler feed economizer
heater boiler drum
pump
4.3 Ash Handling cycle :

the ash produced in boiler is transported to ash dump area by means of sluice type hydraulic
ash handling system, which consists of:
4.3.1 Bottom Ash system : In the bottom ash system the ash slag discharged from furnace
bottom is collected in two water impounded scraper troughs installed below bottom ash
hoppers. The ash is continuously transported by means of the scraper chain conveyor , on to
the respective clinker grinders which reduce the lump sizes to the required fineness.
4.3.2 Fly Ash system : In this system, fly ash gets collected in these hoppers drop
continuously to flushing apparatus where fly ash gets mixed with flushing water and the
resulting slurry drops into the ash sluice channel. Low pressure water is applied through the
nozzle directing tangentially to the section of pipe to create turbulence and proper mixing of
ash with water

Electrostatic Induced
Boiler Chimney
precipitator draft fan
5. Boiler: A boiler (or stream generator) is a closed hanging vessel in which water; under
pressure is converted into stream. It is one of the major components of a thermal power plant.
A boiler is always designed to absorb maximum amount of heat released in process of
combustion. This is transferred to the boiler by all the three modes of heat transfer i.e.
conduction, convection and radiation.
Boiler are classified as :
Fire tube boiler: In this type the products of combustion pass through the tubes which are
surrounded by water. These are economical for low pressure only.
Water tube boiler: In this type of boiler water flows inside the tubes and hot gases flow
outside the tubes. These tubes are interconnected to common water channels and to stream
outlet.
The water tube boiler have many advantages over the fire tube boiler
 High evaporation capacity due to availability of large heating surface.

 Better heat transfer to the mass of water.
 Better efficiency of plant owing to rapid and uniform circulation of water in tubes.
 Better overall control
 Easy removal of scale from inside the tubes
In HTPS, natural circulation, tangentially fired, over hanged type, water tubes boiler are used.
Oil burners are provided between coal burner for initial start up and flame stabilization.
Firstly, light oil(diesel oil) is sprayed for initialization then heavy oil (high speed diesel oil) is
used for stabilization of flame. Pulverized coal is directed feed from the coal mills to the
burners at the four corners of the furnace through coal pipes with the help of heated air
coming from PA fan.
For ensuring safe operation of boilers, furnace safe guard supervisory system (FSSS) of
combustion engineering USA designed has been installed. This equipment systematically
feed fuel to furnace as per load requirement. The UV flame scanner installed in each of the
four corners of the furnace, scan the flame condition and in the case of unsafe working
conditions trip the boiler and consequently the turbine. Turbine-boiler interlocks safe
guarding the boiler against possibility furnace explosion owing to the flame failure.
5.1 Furnace:
Furnace is primary part of the boiler where the chemical energy available in the fuel is
converted into the thermal energy by combustion. Furnace is designed for efficient and
complete combustion. Major factors that assist for efficient combustion are the temperature
inside the furnace and turbulence, which causes rapid mixing of fuel and air. In modern
boiler, water-cooled furnaces are used.
5.2 Super Heater:

Wet steam from the boiler is passed through super heater where it is dried and superheated by
the flue gases on their way to chimney to increase overall efficiency of plant. The ash ha
handling plants are steam jet system as well as electrostatic precipitator.
Fig 5: super heater
5.3 Economizer :
The flue gases coming out of the boiler carry lot of heat. An economizer extracts a part of this
heat from the flue gases and uses it for heating the feed water before it enters into the steam
drum. The use of economizer results in saving fuel consumption and higher boiler efficiency
but needs extra investment. The flow gases flow outside the tubes.
5.4 Boiler Drum:

The drum is a pressure vessel. Its function is to separate water and stream from mixture (of
stream & water) generated in the furnace walls. It provides water storage for preventing the
saturation of tubes. It also houses the equipment needed for purification of steam . The steam
purification primarily depends on the extent of moisture removal, since solids in steam are
carried by the moisture associated with it. water level in drum are continuously indicate using
hydrostatic level meter.

Fig 5.4: boiler drum
6. Turbine :
Turbine is a high speed rotating machine that converts the kinetic energy and pressure
energy of the steam in to useful work. A turbine generally has three stages namely as high
pressure, intermediate pressure and low pressure. The main steam enters in to H.P. turbine
and after expansion in the turbine the pressure and temperature fall down. The main steam is
returned to the boiler for the reheating in the Re-heater.
6.1 HP TURBINE:
It is a 12 stage turbine (High Pressure Turbine). The super heated steam without any moisture
content falls at the blades of HP turbine and pass out from it. It starts rotating The moving
and stationary blades are inserted into appropriately shapes into inner casing and the shaft to
reduce leakage losses at blade tips.
6.2 IP TURBINE:
The steam of 5350C temp and 22kg/cm2 IP turbine blades and tries to move it.It is a 11stage
turbine ( intermitted pressure turbine).The IP part of turbine is of double flow construction.
6.3 LP TURBINE :
It is a 8 stage turbine ( low pressure turbine ). Continuous steam flow in turbine is shown
below. The casing of double flow type LP turbine is of three shell design.

7. Condenser:
It is basically a heat exchanger which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state. It is
situated below the turbine. In general it improves the efficiency of plant. The surface
condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the
tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and
converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes . Such condensers use steam
ejectors or rotary motor- driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the
steam side to maintain vacuum.
Fig 7: condenser
8. De-aerator :
A de-aerator is a boiler feed device for air removal and used to remove dissolved gases from
water to make it non- corrosive. A de- aerator typically includes a vertical domed de-aeration
section as the de-aerator feed water tank. A steam generating boiler requires that the
circulating steam, condensate and feed water should be devoid of dissolved gases,
particularly corrosive ones and dissolved or suspended solids. The gases will give rise to
corrosion of the metal (due to cavitations) . The solids will deposit on heating surfaces giving
rise to localized heating and tube ruptures due to overheating. De-aerator level and pressure
must be controlled by adjusting control valves- the level by regulating condensate flow and
pressure by regulating steam flow.
Fig 8: de-aerator

9. Boiler feed pump :
A boiler feed pump is a specific type of pump used to pump water into steam boiler. The
water may be freshly supplied or retuning condensation of steam produced by the boiler.
These pumps are normally high pressure units that use suction from a condensate return
system and can be of centrifugal pump type or positive displacement type. Construction and
operation feed water pumps range from sizes upto many horsepower and the electric motor is
usually separated from the pump body by some form of mechanical coupling.

10. Pulverized fuel system :
The boiler fuel firing system is tangentially firing system in which the fuel is introduced from
wind nozzle located in the four corners inside the boiler. The crushed coal from the coal
crusher is transferred into the unit coal bunkers where the coal is stored for feeding into
pulverizing mill through rotary feeder. The rotary feeder feeds the coal to pulverize mill at a
definite rate. Then coal burners are employed to fire the pulverized coal along the primary air
into furnace. These burners are placed in the corners of the furnace and they send horizontal
streams of air and fuel tangent to an imaginary circle in the centre of the furnace.
Fig 10: tangential firing
11. Fuel Oil System :

This system provides efficient conversion of chemical energy of fuel into heat energy. The
fuel burning system should function such that fuel and air input is ignited continuously and
immediately upon its entry into furnace.
The fuel air (secondary air) provided FD fan, surrounds the fuel nozzles. Since this air
provides covering for the fuel nozzles so it is called as mantle air. Dampers are provided so
that quantity of air can be modulated. Coal burners distribute the fuel and air evenly in the
furnace.
Ignition takes place when the flammable furnace input is heated above the ignition
temperature. No flammable mixture should be allowed to accumulate in the furnace. Ignition
energy is usually supplied in the form of heat. This ignition energy is provided by oil guns
and by igniters.
12. Electrostatic Precipitator :

An Electrostatic Precipitator ( ESP) or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate device that
remove the particles from a flowing gas ( such as air) using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices, and can

easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air steam. ESP's
continue to be excellent devices for control of many industrial particulate emissions,
including smoke from electricity- generating utilities ( coal and oil fired), salt cake collection
from black liquor boilers in pump mills, and catalyst collection from fluidized bed catalytic
crackers from several hundred thousand ACFM in the largest coal-fired boiler application .
The original parallel plate-Weighted wire design (described above) has evolved as more
efficient ( and robust) discharge electrode designs were developed, today focusing on rigid
discharge electrodes to which many sharpened spikes are attached , maximizing corona
production . Transformer -rectifier systems apply voltages of 50-100 kilovolts at relatively
high current densities. Modern controls minimize sparking and prevent arcing , avoiding
damage to the components. Automatic rapping systems and hopper evacuation systems
remove the collected particulate matter while on line allowing ESP's to stay in operation for
years at a time.
Fig 12: Electrostatic precipitators
Cooling Tower :
It is a tower- or building-like device in which atmospheric air (the heat receiver) circulates in
direct or indirect contact with warmer water (the heat source) and the water is thereby cooled.
Fig 12.1: cooling tower

13. Fan: A Fan can be defined as volumetric machine which like pumps moves quantities
of air or gas from one place to another. In doing this it overcomes resistance to flow by
supplying the fluid with the energy necessary for contained motion. The following fans are
used in boiler house.
13.1 Primary air fan (P.A. fan ) or Exhauster fan:-

Pulverized coal is directly fed from coal mills to the burners at the four corners of the furnace
Fig 13.1: max DNA panel for PA .fan
through coal pipes with the help of heated air coming from PA fan. Secondly, this fan also
dries the coal. Usually sized for 1500 RPM due to high pressure.
13.2 Forced draft fan (F.D. fan):

The combustion process in the furnace can takes place only when it receives a steady flow of
air. This air is supplied by FD fan.

Fig 13.2 : max DNA panel for F.D. fan
13.3 Induced draft fan (I. D. fan):
Fig 13.3: max DNA panel for ID fan
The flue gases coming out of the boiler are passed to the ESP & then dust free gases are
discharged up by the chimney to the atmosphere through the ID fan.

14. Generator:
A generator is an electro-mechanical device that converts mechanical energy to ac current
electrical energy. Turbine is coupled with the turbo generator that normally spins at 3000
rpm in countries with 50 Hz supply frequency. It is an electro -mechanical device that
converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy.
Fig 14: generator
Instrument Transformers :
Potential Transformer:
Potential transformers (PT) (also called voltage transformers (VT)) are a parallel connected
type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply
being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate
secondary connected metering.
Current transformer:
A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high
voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and
protective relays in the electrical power industry.

Switch Yard :
Advantage :
• The fuel used is quite cheap.

• Less initial cost as compared to other generating plants.
• It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be
transported to the site of the plant by rail or road.
• It require less space as compared to Hydro power plants.
• Cost of generation is less than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantage :
• It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
• It is costlier in running cost as compared to Hydro electric plants.
• The overall efficiency of thermal power plant is less then 40 %.
Conclusion :
• Such plants are located at a place where supply of water and coal is available and
transportation facilities are adequate.
• Initial cost is lower and running cost is high.
• Overall efficiency is less.
• Requires a lot of time for starting. Maintenance cost quite high.
• Stand by losses maximum as the boiler remains in operation even when the turbine is
not working.

15. Control System & Instrumentation: This is back bone of thermal power plant.
Various parameters in various auxiliaries are controlled from here. All the equipment in this
room is imported. The equipment is very sensitive and can pick-up even minute disturbance.
15.1 Objectives of C & I systems :
 Safe operation of plant

 Better visibility, close monitoring of Plant parameters and events for fault analysis
 Lower the cost of generation
 Increase equipment life
 Minimize environmental effect
 Maximize efficiency
 Energy conservation
15.2The following aspects of C & I systems are improving continually:
 Standardization
 Speed of response
 Hardware
 Software compatibility
 User interface
 Memory
 Compactness
 Power requirement
 System integrity (reliability, availability, security)
 Control and logic algorithms
 Better Interfaces & Connectivity to other systems
15.3 Present Trends in C & I :

New technologies in C&I systems have been inducted for
 Improvement in plant performance and reduction in space and cost etc

 These include adopting of microprocessor based control valve positioner, wireless
LAN, microprocessor based 24 V DC system, digital CCTV system
 Large Video Screens as main operating tool
 Field-bus based systems
 Flame scanners

 High level of diagnostics for early detection of problems and to facilitate proactive
maintenance.
15.4 Comparison between the old control room & new control room
Old control room with many windows new control room with large screen
ol
15.5 Overview of max DNA control system :

The maxDNA Plant Automation System (PAS) is the latest version of Distributed control
system , developed by Metso Automation MAX Controls, US. The maxDNA works with the
popular operating systems Microsoft Windows 2000/XP and Windows CE, along with high-
speed switched Ethernet (maxNET) communications and Distributed Processing Units
(DPUs), to give an open architecture and reliable control system. The maxDNA DDCMIS
follows a multi-level hierarchy. The lowest or first level interacts with the actual plant by
acquiring the parameters/status, and issuing the actuating signals/commands. This is done by
the I/O modules. The second level performs closed loop control and open loop control, which
is accomplished through execution of atomic blocks by DPU in maxDNA. The operator
console or the Operator’s Workstation (OWS), and the supervisory console or the Engineer’s
Workstation (EWS), are at the third level. At the highest level, called Enterprise Management
Network, engineers and managers have access to the entire system database

The system consists of the following components:
 maxNET, a redundant Fast Ethernet network for communication

 maxDPU4E, Distributed Processing Units providing control and data acquisition
 maxPAC I/O Modules interfacing with the plant I/O
 maxSTATION is providing the human interface with the system
 maxLINKS for multi-protocol connectivity with external devices
 maxOPC for OLE (Object Linking & Embedding) data interchange between clients
The maxDNA software runs on popular Microsoft platforms. maxSTATIONs have Windows
XP operating system while DPUs have the compact version of Windows CE installed. The
attractive features of maxDNA software for the benefit of the engineer or operator are:
 High level object-oriented programming in Graphical User Interface(GUI)

 Wide selection of standard library functions
 Provision for user-defined multi-function expandability
 User flexibility in assigning inputs/outputs
 Unique address for I/O signals
 Service kit (Software Development Kit or SDK)
15.6 Pressure Measurement:
15.6.1 Manometer:
A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an
applied gas pressure causes the fluid height to shift proportionately. This is why pressure is
often measured in units of liquid height (e.g. inches of water, inches of mercury). As you can
see, a manometer is fundamentally an instrument of differential pressure measurement,
indicating the difference between two pressures by a shift in liquid column height
fig 15.6.1: manometer
Of course, it is entirely acceptable to simply vent one tube of a manometer and use it as a
gauge pressure instrument, comparing the applied pressure at one tube against atmospheric
pressure in the other.
U-tube manometers are very inexpensive, and are generally made from clear plastic (see the
left-hand photo). Cistern-style manometers are the norm for calibration bench work, and are
typically constructed from metal cisterns and glass tubes (see the right-hand photo):

Fig 15.6.1: U-tube manometers
Inclined manometer :
Inclined manometers are used to measure very low pressures, owing to their exceptional
sensitivity (note the fractional scale for inches of water column in the following photograph,
extending from 0 to 1.5 inches on the scale, reading left to right): Note that venting one side
of a manometer is standard practice when using is as a gauge pressure indicator (responding
to pressure in excess of atmospheric). Both pressure ports will be used if the manometer is
applied to the measurement of differential pressure, just as in the case of the U-tube
manometer.
Fig : inclined manometer
15.6.2 Mechanical pressure elements:
Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon
tube. Each of these devices converts a fluid pressure into a force. If unrestrained, the natural
elastic properties of the element will produce a motion proportional to the applied pressure.

Fig 15.6.2: shows the direction of applied pressure and induced force
15.6.2.1 Bellows: It resemble an accordion constructed from metal instead of fabric.

Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit causes it to elongate. A photograph of a bellows is
shown here:
Fig 15.6.2.1: Bellow
Fig 15.6.2.2: Diaphragm
15.6.2.2 Diaphragm: It is nothing more than a thin disk of material which bows outward
under the influence of a fluid pressure. Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which
gives them spring-like qualities. Some diaphragms are intentionally constructed out of
materials with little strength, such that there is negligible spring effect. These are called slack
diaphragms, and they are used in conjunction with external mechanisms that produce the
necessary restraining force to prevent damage from applied pressure. The following
photograph shows the mechanism of a small pressure gauge using a brass diaphragm as the
sensing element:
As pressure is applied to the rear of the diaphragm, it distends upward (away from the table
on which it rests as shown in the photograph), causing a small shaft to twist in response. This
twisting motion is transferred to a lever which pulls on a tiny link chain wrapped around the
pointer shaft, causing it to rotate and move the pointer needle around the gauge scale. Both
the needle and scale on this gauge mechanism have been removed for easier viewing of
diaphragm and mechanism.
15.6.2.3 Bourdon tube: Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into a
circular shape. Under the influence of internal pressure, a bourdon tube “tries” to straighten
out into its original shape before being bent at the time of manufacture. Most pressure gauges
use a bourdon tube as their pressure-sensing element. Most pressure transmitters use a
diaphragm as their pressure-sensing element. Bourdon tubes may be made in spiral or helical
forms for greater motion (and therefore greater gauge resolution).
It should be noted that bellows, diaphragms, and bourdon tubes alike may all be used to
measure differential and/or absolute pressure in addition to gauge pressure. All that is needed
for these other functionalities is to subject the other side of each pressure-sensing element to

either another applied pressure (in the case of differential measurement) or to a vacuum
chamber (in the case of absolute pressure measurement).
Fig 15.6.2.3: spiral bourdon gauge
Fig 15.6.2.3:C type bourdon gauge
15.6.3 Differential pressure sensing mechanisms:
The challenge in doing this, of course, is how to extract the mechanical motion of the
pressure sensing element to an external mechanism (such as a pointer) while maintaining a
good pressure seal. In gauge pressure mechanisms, this is no problem because one side of the
pressure-sensing element must be exposed to atmospheric pressure anyway, and so that side
is always available for mechanical connection. A differential pressure gauge is shown in the
next photograph. The two pressure ports are clearly evident on either side of the gauge:
Fig 15.6.3: differential pressure gauge
Differential pressure transmitter :
One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the
differential pressure transmitter. This device senses the difference in pressure between two
ports and outputs a signal representing that pressure in relation to a calibrated range.
Differential pressure transmitters may be based on any of the previously discussed pressure-
sensing technologies, so this section focuses on application rather than theory.
Differential pressure transmitters look something like this:
In each of these differential pressure transmitter examples, the pressure-sensing element is

housed in the bottom half of the device (the forged-steel structure) while the electronics are
housed in the top half (the colored, round, cast-aluminum structure). Regardless of make or
model, every differential pressure (“DP”, “d/p”, or _P)9 transmitter has two pressure ports to
sense different process fluid pressures. These ports typically have .25 inch female NPT
threads to readily accept connection to the process. One of these ports is labeled “high” and
the other is labeled “low”. This labeling does not necessarily mean that the “high” port must
always be at a greater pressure than the “low” port. What these labels represent is the effect
that a pressure at that point will have on the output signal.
The most common sensing element used by modern DP transmitters is the diaphragm. One
side of this diaphragm receives process fluid pressure from the “high” port, while the other
receives process fluid pressure from the “low” port. Any difference of pressure between the
two ports causes the diaphragm to flex from its normal resting (center) position. This flexing
is then translated into an output signal by any number of different technologies, depending on
the manufacturer and model of the transmitter:

Fig 15.6.3: differential pressure transmitter
15.6.4 Pressure measurement applications :
 Measuring process vessel clogging

 Measuring positive gauge pressure
 Measuring absolute pressure
 Measuring vacuum
 Inferential measurement applications
15.7 Temperature Measurement :
15.7.1 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) :
Every type of metal has a unique composition and has a different resistance to the flow of
electrical current. This is termed the resistively constant for that metal. For most metals the
change in electrical resistance is directly proportional to its change in temperature and is
linear over a range of temperatures. This constant factor called the temperature coefficient of
Electrical resistance (short formed TCR) is the basis of resistance temperature detectors. The
RTD can actually be regarded as a high precision wire wound resistor whose resistance varies
with temperature. By measuring the resistance of the metal, its temperature can be
determined. Several different pure metals (such as platinum, nickel and copper) can be used
in the manufacture of an RTD. A typical RTD probe contains a coil of very fine metal wire,
allowing for a large resistance change without a great space requirement. Usually, platinum
RTDs are used as process temperature monitors because of their accuracy and linearity. To
detect the small variations of resistance of the RTD, a temperature transmitter in the form of a
Wheatstone bridge is generally used. The circuit compares the RTD value with three known
and highly accurate resistors.
Fig 15.7.1: RTD using wheat-stone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge consisting of an RTD, three resistors, a voltmeter and a voltage source
is illustrated in Figure. In this circuit, when the current flow in the meter is zero (the voltage
at point A equals the voltage at point B) the bridge is said to be in null balance. This would be
the zero or set point on the RTD temperature output. As the RTD temperature increases, the
voltage read by the voltmeter increases. If a voltage transducer replaces the voltmeter, a 4-20
mA signal, which is proportional to the temperature range being monitored, can be generated.
As in the case of a thermocouple, a problem arises when the RTD is installed some distance

away from the transmitter. Since the connecting wires are long, resistance of the wires
changes as ambient temperature fluctuates. The variations in wire resistance would introduce
an error in the transmitter. To eliminate this problem, a three-wire RTD is used.
The connecting wires (w1, w2, w3) are made the same length and therefore the same
resistance. The power supply is connected to one end of the RTD and the top of the
Wheatstone bridge. It can be seen that the resistance of the right leg of the Wheatstone bridge
is R1 + R2 + RW2. The resistance of the left leg of the bridge is R3 + RW3 + RTD. Since
RW1 = RW2, the result is that the resistances of the wires cancel and therefore the effect of
the connecting wires is eliminated
Fig15.7.1: three wired RTD
Advantages of RTD :
 The response time compared to thermocouples is very fast in the order of fractions of
a second.
 An RTD will not experience drift problems because it is not self powered.
 Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity than a thermocouple.
 In an installation where long leads are required, the RTD does not require special
extension cable.
 Unlike thermocouples, radioactive radiation (beta, gamma and neutrons) has minimal
effect on RTDs since the parameter measured is resistance, not voltage
Disadvantages of RTD :
 Because the metal used for a RTD must be in its purest form, they are much more
expensive than thermocouples.
 In general, an RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range as a
thermocouple.
 A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings
 Small changes in resistance are being measured, thus all connections must be tight
and free of corrosion, which will create errors.
 Among the many uses in a nuclear station, RTDs can be found in the reactor area
temperature measurement and fuel channel coolant temperature.
Failure Modes :
 An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD and the bridge will
cause a high temperature reading.
 Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low temperature reading
15.7.2 Thermocouple :
RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-
sourced electric current in order to function as temperature sensors. Thermocouples, however,
generate their own electric potential. In some ways, this makes thermocouple systems simpler
because the device receiving the thermocouple’s signal does not have to supply electric

power to the thermocouple. The self-powering nature of thermocouples also means they do
not suffer from the same “self-heating” effect as RTDs. In other ways, thermocouple circuits
are more complex than RTD circuits because the generation of voltage actually occurs in two
different locations within the circuit, not simply at the sensing point. This means the
receiving circuit must “compensate” for temperature in another location in order to accurately
measure temperature in the desired location. Though typically not as accurate as RTDs,
thermocouples are more rugged, have greater temperature measurement spans, and are easier
to manufacture in different physical forms.
Dissimilar metal junctions :
When two dissimilar metal wires are joined together at one end, a voltage is produced at the
other end that is approximately proportional to temperature. That is to say, the junction of two
different metals behaves like a temperature-sensitive battery. This form of electrical
temperature sensor is called a thermocouple
:
Junction J1 is a junction of iron and copper – two dissimilar metals – which will generate a
voltage related to temperature. Note that junction J2, which is necessary for the simple fact
that we must somehow connect our copper-wired voltmeter to the iron wire, is also a
dissimilar-metal junction which will generate a voltage related to temperature. Note also how
the polarity of junction J2 stands opposed to the polarity of junction J1 (iron = positive ;
copper = negative). A third junction (J3) also exists between wires, but it is of no
consequence because it is a junction of two identical metals which does not generate a
temperature-dependent voltage at all. The presence of this second voltage-generating junction
(J2) helps explain why the voltmeter registers 0 volts when the entire system is at room
temperature: any voltage generated by the iron-copper junctions will be equal in magnitude
and opposite in polarity, resulting in a net (series-total) voltage of zero. It is only when the
two junctions J1 and J2 are at different temperatures that the voltmeter registers any voltage
at all.
z Fig 15.7.2: type K thermocouple
Failure Modes:
 An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current
flow, thus it will cause a low (off-scale) temperature reading.
 A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also cause a low temperature reading
because it creates a leakage current path to the ground and a smaller measured
voltage.
15.8 Flow measurement:
15.8.1 Differential flow transmitter
Orifice plates
 Flat plates 1/16 to 1/4 in. thick
 Mounted between a pair of flanges

 Installed in a straight run of smooth pipe to avoid disturbance of flow patterns due to
fittings and valves
Venturi tube
•Converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging recovery cone
•No projections into the fluid, no sharp corners, and no sudden changes in contour
Dall flow tube
 Consists of a short, straight inlet section followed by an abrupt decrease in the inside
diameter of the tube
 Inlet shoulder followed by the converging inlet cone and a diverging exit cone
 Two cones separated by a slot or gap between the two cones
15.8.2 Electromagnetic flow meter:

The electromagnetic flow meter is similar in principle to the generator. The rotor of the
generator is replaced by a pipe placed between the poles of a magnet so that the flow
of the fluid in the pipe is normal to the magnetic field. As the fluid flows through this
magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced in it that will be mutually normal
(perpendicular) to both the magnetic field and the motion of the fluid. This electromotive
force may be measured with the aid of electrodes attached to the pipe and connected to a
galvanometer or an equivalent. For a given magnetic field, the induced voltage will be
proportional to the average velocity of the fluid. However, the fluid should have some
degree of electrical conductivity.
Fig 15.8.2: schematic diagram
15.9 Level Measurement :

two type level measurement
15.9.1 Ball Float :

The operation of the ball float is simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in the tank. If the
liquid level changes, the float will follow and change the position of the pointer attached to
the rotating shaft
Fig 15.9.1: ball float
15.9.2 Pressure head method :

The differential pressure (∆P) detector method of liquid level measurement uses a ∆P detector
connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The higher pressure, caused by the fluid
in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure (usually atmospheric). This comparison
takes place in the ∆P detector. Figure illustrates a typical differential pressure detector
attached to an open tank
Fig 15.9.2: pressure head
15.10 Drum level Control:
15.10.1 Single element water level control:
Only single sensor i.e. level sensor is used to control the level.
15.10.2 Double element water level system :
This uses two sensors level and flow sensors. It is better and precise than single element
control.


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Electronics and Instrumentation Page 1

I wish to express my deep gratitude to all the concerned

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 2

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 4

15.5 Overview of max DNA

15.6 Pressure Measurement

15.6.2 Mechanical Pressure Element

15.6.2.3 Bourdon Tube

15.6.3 Differential Pressure Transducer

15.6.4 Pressure Measurement Application

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 6

15.7.1 Resistance Temperature Detector

15.8 Flow Measurement

15.8.1 Differential Flow Meter

15.8.2 Electromagnetic Meter

15.9 Level Measurement

15.9.1 Ball Float

15.9.2 Pressure Head Method

15.10 Drum Level Control

15.10.1 Single Element Water Level Control

15.9.2 Double Element Water Level Control

1. Thermal Power Plant: An Overview

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 7

fig 1: layout of thermal power plant

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 8

chemical kinectic mechanical electrical

C+O ₂ →CO ₂+ HEAT

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 9

Three main cycles are present in thermal power plant

1. Coal/ fuel handling cycle

3. Ash handling cycle

4.1 Coal Handling Cycle

wagon crusher coal RC

Fig 4.1.2 : wagon tippler

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 10

Fig 4.1.4: magnetic separator

Fig 4.1.5: crusher house

Fig 4.1.6: coal bunker

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 11

Fig 4.1.7: RC feeder

Fig 4.1.8: Mill

4.2 Water Cycle :-

 Feed Water cycle

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 12

4.2.2 Condensate cycle :

condensate low pressure

4.2.3 Feed water cycle :

4.3 Ash Handling cycle :

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 13

Boiler are classified as :

 High evaporation capacity due to availability of large heating surface.

5.2 Super Heater:

Fig 5: super heater

5.4 Boiler Drum:

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 15

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 16

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 17

Electronics and Instrumentation Page 18

Fig 10: tangential firing

11. Fuel Oil System :