LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases

Lower Secondary Science: Chemistry

Existence of Atoms
- Explains the results of experiments on gases and the consistency of the calculation of atomic weights of elements
- Rutherford’s alpha-particle experiment proved that something smaller, particles, had to exist
- Brownian motion showed how water particles can move a pollen grain, therefore showing that particles exist and
are in a state of constant vibration
- Structure of crystals: each substance has its own crystal structure

The Three States of Matter

1. Solids
a. Definite shape and volume, High Density, Low ease of compression
b. Strong inter-particulate forces of cohesion, resulting in low kinetic energy of particle
c. Particles held and vibrate about fixed position
d. Rotational movement is allowed

2. Liquids
a. Indefinite shape but definite volume, Medium Density, Medium ease of compression (In comparison to solids
and gases)
b. Inter-particulate forces of cohesion weaker than solids, stronger than gas
c. Particles able to achieve random motion
d. Kinetic energy is greater than solid, but less than gas

3. Gas
a. Indefinite shape and volume, Low density, High ease of compression
b. Negligible forces of cohesion
c. Particles spaced far apart
d. Highest kinetic energy of the three states
e. Movement Rapid and random: In all direction, but in straight lines
f. Collisions often occur (giving rise to pressure in closed containers)
g. Loosely packed

The Particulate Nature of Matter

1. Changes in state: Evaporation, Boiling, Condensation, Sublimation, Melting, Freezing

a. Note that pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points
b. When an impurity is introduced, the particles of the impurity interfere with the inter-particulate forces of
attraction, causing the melting point to be lowered as less energy is needed to break the bonds
c. Impurities make it hard for liquid particles to break apart, so substances boil at a higher temperature
d. Density has nothing to do with boiling point

2. Fourth State of Matter: Plasma

a. An ionized gas where sufficient energy is provided for electrons to break free
b. Present in stars (when large clouds of gas condense, gases are forced into such tight spaces that they ionize)
c. Used in inflorescent/neon lights, radiation processing, medicine
d. Can possibly be used as a sustainable and non-polluting energy
e. Fusion: combines the nuclei of light elements to form heavier elements, resulting in a nuclear reaction that
releases large amounts of energy: a potential energy source that is virtually inexhaustible, readily available
and any radioactive by-products are short-lived

3. Liquid Crystals
a. Like liquids, can achieve random motion
b. Like solids, have strong inter-particulate forces of attraction
c. Contain polar molecules, that change orientation in electric fields
d. Used in LCDs, smart windows, climate control

4. Bose-Einstein Condensate
a. Refer to own notes

5. Vapor Pressure and Atmospheric Pressure

a. Water boils when vapour pressure matches atmospheric pressure: When vapor pressure matches atmospheric
pressure, there is sufficient kinetic energy for the particles to break out of their bonds
b. Vapor pressure formed when particles in a liquid move randomly in a fixed volume
c. Collapsing can: As atmospheric pressure is greatly more than vapor pressure when water vapor inside the can
condenses but does not have an outlet for air to enter and displace it, the can is crushed
d. Food for thought: can water boil as it freezes?
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases
Diffusion
1. Graham’s Law: Rate of diffusion of gas 1/rate of diffusion of gas 2 = square root of mass of gas 2/mass of gas 1 =
square root of density of gas 2/density of gas 1
a. For example, where rate of diffusion of one gas is faster than another, another substance may be displaced

Collection of Gases
Factors of consideration: Density with regards to air, solubility in water
1. If gas is less dense than air, upward delivery method, AKA downward displacement of air can be used
a. The gas, being less dense, will take up the space originally occupied by the air, pushing the air downward
2. If gas is denser than air, downward delivery method, AKA upward displacement of air is used
a. The gas, being denser, will sink to the bottom of the jar and force the air to displace upward
3. Where the air is not soluble in water, water can take the place of air. When the water level in the gas jar decreases, it
shows that the gas is filling up the jar. However, as the gas collected is wet, drying agents such as silicon gel or
concentrated sulphuric acid is used to dry if off.
a. If the gas is soluble in water, it would simply dissolve, defeating the purpose of the experiment
• To avoid suck-back , keep test tube under heat while removing tube to avoid sudden change in atmospheric-vapor
pressure
• Avoid direct heating. Move tube in and out of fire

History of Atomic Structure

o Evidence: Based on objective data
o Logical Reasoning: theory-model must be consistent with evidence
o Skeptism: Theory is permanent. With new evidence, it can be changed.

1. Democritus
a. From philosophy, the Greek philosophers concluded that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible atoms
(from the Greek word that means indivisible), expounding that if a sample of a pure element is divided, it will
eventually reach a point where cutting is no longer possible
i. It was believed that atoms were all made of the same basic material, but atoms of different elements
had different sizes and shapes

2. John Dalton
a. Proposed the theory that atoms are indivisible through the following evidence
i. Law of multiple proportion: atoms of different elements always combine in whole number ratios
ii. Law of conservation of mass: If atoms have definite and indivisible mass and cannot be destroyed, a
chemical change is simply a rearrangement of atoms, where the total mass should be the same before
and after a chemical reaction
iii. Law of definite proportion: If atoms of different ratios combine in a definite ratio to form a compound,
the ratio always remains the same, where the mass will determine the ratio
b. Made the assertions that
i. Atoms of each element are all identical to one another but different from the atoms of all other
elements
ii. Atoms of different elements can combine to form more complex substances

3. J. J. Thompson
a. Discovered the electron, proposing the plum-pudding model, where negatively-charged electrons were
embedded in a large positively-charged atom
i. His observation of cathode rays being deflected by a magnetic and electric field that changed the
direction of a stream of charged particles helped him to discover the electron
ii. Concluded that he was observing a particle of a negative electrical charge, but was also more than a
thousand times less massive than a normal particle (protons and electrons)

4. Ernest Rutherford
a. Fired a beam of alpha particles (the nuclei of helium atoms, with double a proton’s charge) at a gold foil,
expecting to see no deflection.
b. However, the alpha particles were scattered at the gold-foil, where some were deflected a little but went
through, while others were heavily deflected by wide angles
i. This forced him to conclude that there was a concentrated nucleus in the middle of an atom, while the
rest of the atom was mostly empty space
c. Proposed a model of an atom with a concentrated nucleus and electrons orbiting it randomly, held together by
electromagnetic force
i. Laws of classical physics indicate that electrons moving in circular orbit should continuously emit
radiation, but not radiation was observed
ii. As radiation is emitted, electrons would circle into the nucleus: the atom would soon not exist
iii. Furthermore, the model did not explain the observation that only light of specific energies is emitted
when elements are heated, as different elements emit different photons

5. Neils Bohr discovered suggested that the laws of classical physics did not apply to the motion of electrons in atoms
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases
a. Proposed that atoms circled the nucleus without loss of energy and could move in certain fixed orbits
i. Electrons can only have a fixed energy level
ii. Energy is lsot to get to the 1st orbit
iii. In ‘excited state’, electron can jump to higher levels/orbits
b. Explained line spectrum of H
i. Established important idea of energy levels
c. When an electrical discharge passes through a small quantity of a gas in a glass tube, the atoms in the gas
emit light
d. Concluded that because atoms emit light only at discrete wavelengths, electrons could only orbit at certain
designated radii, and light could be emitted only when an electron jumped from one of these designated orbits
to another
i. When electrons absorb energy, they will move from a lower energy orbit to a higher energy orbit
further away from the nucleus. When electrons move from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy
orbit, they lose the energy, emitting light
e. Problems encountered: Why circular orbits?
i. There are four shells: Calculation of frequencies of lines in emission spectrum of atoms larger than H
did not match observations

6. John Chadwick
a. When bombarding Beryllium atoms with Helium atoms, he found that a neutron was knocked free, thus
revealing the presence of neutrons

7. Quantum Theory – The Quantum Mechanics Model (Erwin Shroedinger, from

Louis de Proglie,)
a. Electrons do not circulate in definite planet-like orbits
b. Quantum-mechanical approach acknowledges the wavelike
character of electrons and provides the framework for viewing the
electrons as fuzzy clouds of negative charge
i. Electrons have wave-like properties, meaning that a
beam of electrons would behave like a beam of light
c. Electrons still have assigned states of motion, but these states of
motion do not correspond to fixed orbits. Instead, they tell us
something about the geometry of the electron cloud—its size and
shape and whether it is spherical or bunched in lobes like a
figure eight. Physicists called these states of motion orbitals
d. Two of the rules of quantum theory that are most important to
explaining the atom are the idea of wave-particle duality and the
exclusion principle
e. The way electrons fill up orbitals determines the number of
electrons that end up in the atom’s valence shell. This in turn
determines an atom’s chemical and physical properties, such as how
it reacts with other atoms and how well it conducts electricity.
These rules explain why atoms with similar numbers of
electrons can have very different properties, and why chemical
properties reappear again and again in a regular pattern among the
elements.
f. Electrons do not orbit, move within space of orbital: the sphere is
the orbital that represents the position where there is a
probability of finding an electron at any one time.
g. Table on the right is based on the Pauline Exclusion Principle
i. Subshells: S, P, D, F, G
1. S can hold two electrons, P can hold 6 electrons, D can hold 10 electrons, F can hold 14
electrons
2. In S, atoms move spherically
3. In P, atoms move in figure of 8
ii. Each subshell must be filled before the next subshell is filled
iii. The reason why 3D is higher than 4S is because lower levels have a screening effect on higher levels,
as electrons are attracted to nucleus, yet repelled by previous row of electrons: thus net attraction is
less

8. Quarks
a. Fundamental particles (Electrons are already fundamental particles)
b. 6 types of quarks, but ordinary matter is only made up of two
i. Up quark: 2/3 charge
ii. Down quark: -1/3 charge
iii. Protons= 2 Up, 1 Down
iv. Neutrons= 2 down, 1 Up
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases

9. Nuclear Chemistry
a. Involves changes in the nucleus of atoms (normal reactions deal with electrons)
b. Emit radiation
c. Nuclear Fission: a large atom is bombarded with neutrons, leading to a chain reaction where large amounts of
energy is released. The original atom must be unstable (also known as radioactive)

10. The Manhattan project

a. Challenges
i. Find acceptable fuel
ii. Chain reaction needed
b. Little Boy: 90,000 – 100,000 people killed in Hiroshima
i. U-235 used: as it is seldom pure as it is unstable, thus often combining with other substances to
become stable, 100 Kg instead of 50 Kg was used, just in case
ii. A chemical explosive trigger accelerates a subcritical slug of uranium into another
c. Fat Man: 73, 884 killed in Nagasaki
i. Sub critical Plutonium-239 wedges were spaced equally apart
ii. Chemical explosive compresses plutonium to criticality, collapsing the sphere inward

History of the Periodic Table

1. Dohbereineer (Triads)
2. Newlands (Octaves)
3. Dmitry Mendeleyev (Spaces)
a. Dmitry Mendeleyev developed the Periodic Table and formulated the periodic law. Because his classification
revealed recurring patterns (periods) in the elements, Mendeleyev was able to leave spaces in his table for
elements that he correctly predicted would be discovered.

Atomic Structure

1. Matter is made up of discrete particles called atoms

a. Explains the results of experiments on gases and the consistency of calculations of the atomic weights of
elements
b. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment proved that something smaller – particles – did exist
c. Brownian motion, where water particles were observed to move a pollen grain, proved that particles existed
and were in a state of constant vibration
d. Structure of crystals: Each substance has its own crystal structure

Subatomic particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1836 of an electron’s mass +1
Neutron Slightly less than a proton’s mass 0
Electron 1/1836 of a proton’s mass -1

2. Atoms of an element is represented as the following symbol: a

a. ‘a’ represents the atomic mass number
b. ‘b’ represents the number of protons
X
c. ‘X’ represents the atomic symbol in the periodic table
b

3. Atoms are neutrally charged

a. The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons
b. Atoms of the same element but have different mass numbers due to the different number of neutrons in their
nuclei are known as isotopes
- Examples of isotopes: Hydrogen, Carbon and Chlorine
- Example of calculation

Atomic Mass of Chlorine = Sum of percentages of

each isotope of the element
= 75.77% x 35 + 24.23% x 37
= 20.5195 + 8.9651
= 35.4846
= 35.5 (rounded to 3 S.F.)

4. Electron Configuration is defined as the notation describing the distribution of electrons in an atom
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases
Properties of the Periodic Table

5. Periods runs horizontally, Columns or Groups run vertically

a. The period number corresponds to the number of electron shells

6. Drawing Atoms
a. The group number corresponds to the number of electrons in the outer shell
b. Group I is the most metallic, made of alkaline metals, Group VIII is the least
c. Group VII is made up of halogens, which end with –ide after stabilizing
d. Metalloids (Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony and Tellurium) separate the metals from non-
metals

7. Stability occurs when an element has a full outer shell

a. Atoms are considered stable when they have fulfilled their octet structure
b. The lower the energy level, the higher the stability, the more unlikely they are to react
c. Atoms combine to achieve stable electronic configuration of nearest noble gas

8. Special Groups
a. I: Alkali
b. II: Earth Alkali
c. VII: Halogens
d. VIII: Noble Gases
e. I + II: Metals
f. VI + VII: Non-metals

Drawing Atoms

9. The nucleus is represented by a large empty circle with either the Atomic Symbol or number of protons and neutrons
within
10. Electron shells are represented by concentric circles around the nucleus
11. Electrons are represented by either crosses or dots, with a legend by the side
12. These are not to scale as in reality, the nucleus is very dense and the electrons are very far away

Isotopes
1. Radioactive Isotopes
a. Also known as radioisotopes, can cause damage to DNA
b. Exist naturally, while others are artificially produced
c. Emit radiation in form of alpha, beta and gamma rays (detected by Bohr)
i. Beta rays can be kept in a lead containers
ii. External alpha rays can be stopped by a epidermis
iii. Internal gamma rays are the most dangerous
d. Half-life: time taken for amount of substance to be reduced by half
e. Radioisotopes with short half-life used in medical field
i. Can be external or internal
ii. Different types of radiation have different penetrating powers
iii. For example, Cobalt-60 Gamma rays used in radiotherapy
iv. Beta-rays from P-32 are used for cancer of surface of body
v. Tracers that follow path of blood in body
f. Used in bombs: Uranium-235 as nuclear fuel
g. Radio-carbon dating
i. Fixed amount of C-14 in atmosphere
ii. Proportion C-14 in CO2 of living plants same as air
iii. Dead plants do not take in anymore CO2
iv. Decay of C-14 to C-12 (Radioisotopes, being unstable, decay into a more stable compound) allow
measurement of age of organism

Valency Table

+1 charge -1 charge
H Hydrogen F Fluoride
Li Lithium Cl Chloride
Na Sodium Br Bromide
K Potassium I Iodide
Rb Rubidium NO3 Nitrate
Cs Caesium NO2 Nitrite
Fr Francium OH Hydroxide
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases
Ag Silver
NH4 Ammonium
NH3 Ammonia

+2 charge -2 charge
Mg Magnesium O Oxide
Ca Calcium S Sulphide
Sr Strontium SO4 Sulphate
Ba Barium SO3 Sulphite
Ra Radium CO3 Carbonate
Cu Copper (II)
Fe Iron (II)
Pb Lead (II)
Zn Zinc

+3 charge -3 charge
Fe Iron (III) N Nitride
Al Aluminum PO4 Phosphate

+4 charge -4 charge
Pb Lead S Sulphur
Sn Tin C Carbon
Mn Manganese (IV)

Common Molecules

Notable Formula Notation

Molecules
Oxygen O2 O=O
Hydrogen H2 H-H
Carbon Dioxide CO2 O=C=O
Water H2O H–O–H
Nitrogen N2 N≡ N
H–N–H
Ammonia H3N |
H
H–C–H
Methane H4C /\
H H

An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions in water.

Chemical Formulas of Acids

- Hydrochloric -- HCL
- Sulphuric -- H2SO4
- Nitric -- HNO3
- Ethanoic - C2H4O2 or CH3COOH
- Citric -- C6H8O7

Reactions of Acids
1. Many dilute acids react with metals above copper in the electrochemical seriesto produce hydrogen gas and a
salt.
2. Acids react with carbonates to produce salt, carbon dioxide and water.
3. Acids react with hydroxides AND metal oxides (such as CuO) [alkalis and bases] to form salt and water.

Properties of Acids
1. Acids only behave like acids when dissolved in water; tasting sour and have a ph less than 7
2. Acids contain small covalent molecules. When water is added, the molecules react with water
to form ions, ionizing the acid.
3. Weak acids are purer as they are not as diluted by water, and thus are less ionized, have
more covalent molecules and less ions. (Note: Thus, pure/weak acids are poor conductors of electricity because they
have less ions in the solution)
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases
4. Strong acids are less pure as they are more diluted by water, and thus are more ionzed and
have less to no covalent molecules and more ions. (Note: Thus, strong acids are good conductors of electricity because
they have many ions in the solution)
5. Examples of Strong Acids are: Hydrochloric, Sulphuric and Nitric
6. Examples of Weak acids are: Ethanoic, Citric and Carbonic (Mostly used in food)
11. Turns blue litmus paper RED.

Uses of Acids
1. Acids are used to make fertilisers, detergents and paints (Mostly Sulphuric Acid)
2. Acids are also used to preserve or to add flavoring to food. Vegetables are preserved in
vinegar, which is ethanoic acids. Citric acid and ascorbic acid stop oxidization of food.

Bases are metal oxides or hydroxides. Metal Oxides are known as insoluble bases and thus are NOT alkalis.

Alkalis are soluble bases that produce Hydroxide ions in water.

Properties of Alkalis
1. Hydroxide ions make alkalis feel soapy to skin; they taste bitter
2. Some carbonates such as potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate also dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions,
making them alkaline (i don't understand this)
3. As the same as acids, strong alkalis dissolve completely in water to become only OH ions.
4. When weak alkalis dissolve in water, only a small fraction react with water to form OH ions. Most molecules remain
unchanged.
5. Examples of strong alkalis are Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium Hydroxide
6. Example of weak alkalis is Ammonia
7. Turns red litmus paper BLUE.
 LSS: Chemistry History, Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, Balancing Equations, Acids, Alkalis and Bases
Reactions of Alkalis
1. Acids react with alkalis and bases to form salt and water, neutralising the acid by causing the H ions to join with the
OH ions to form water. This destroys all acidic properties, and is known as the Neutralisation Reaction.
2. Alkalis react with solutions of most metal salts (such as FE(OH)3) to give metal hydroxides and a salt.
3. Strong alkalis react with Ammonium Salts to produce Ammonia Gas.

Uses of Alkalis
1. They are used in the neutralisation of acids, such as toothpastes, which contain Magnesium Hydroxide.
2. They are used to dissolve dirt and grease, often using Sodium Hydroxide. Ammonia is used to clean glass windows.

- Note: Plants grow back in slightly acidic soil. However, as acid rain often turns soil acidic, excess acid in soil is
often neutralised using calcium hydroxide or slaked lime.
- Note2: When acids or alkalis are dissolved in an organic solvent, no dissociation occurs, and thus, does not
conduct electricity

The pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is in water.

Red: 0 -- Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

Red: 2 -- Lemon Juice
Orange: 3 -- Vinegar
Orange: 4 -- Canned Drinks
Yellow: 6 -- Rainwater
Green: 7 -- Pure water
Green: 8 -- Blood
Blue: 10 -- Some toothpastes
Blue: 11 -- Detergents
Purple: 14 -- Dilute Sodium Hydroxide

Features of a pH scale
1. A ph of 7 is neutral.
2. A solution with pH less than 7 is acidic. The stronger the acid, the smaller the number
3. A solution with pH more than 7 is alkali. The stronger the alkali, the bigger the number
4. NOTE: Only pure water has a pH of 7. Most water does not because they contain impurities. For example, rainwater is
slightly acidic because carbon dioxide from the air makes it slightly acidic.

Indicators are substances that have different colors in acidic and alkaline solutions

Properties of indicators
1. Each indicator has an acidic color, an alkaline color and a pH at which it changes color, excepting the universal
indicator.
2. The pH of a solution can also be measured using electricity. It consists of a pH electrode connected to a meter and is
more reliable