Some basics

of
Mechanics (mostly 1 D)

Andy Ruina, Cornell TAM (&MAE)

1
 The zeroth laws of
mechanics
1. mass is not ephemeral
2. time and space are as we are used to
3. the laws apply to any collection of mass
(any system, any subsystem)
4. force is “the” measure of interaction between
objects (systems, subsystems)

Draw free body diagrams!

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 Introduction to Mechanics and Locomotion

The three pillars of mechanics May and

Introduction to Mechanics
Andy Ruina
Andy Ruina
5, 2006
Locomotion

1. Geometry & kinematics (geometry of

May 5, 2006
May 5, 2006

motion): relations between

x, v, a, r , θ, ω, α, t, %, . . .
!

x,x,v,
v,a,
a,rr,, θ, ω,
!
!
α,t,t,%,%,. . . .
ω, α,
2. Laws of mechanics (relations between
force and acceleration), momentum balance:
! ! ˙˙˙ actionand
!
FF==mma,
a, M = H,= H, ! action
reaction
! ! !! ! ! !

F = m a,! M M = H, and reaction

action and
3. Material properties = constitutive laws
!
T = k(%−%0), T = c%̇, F = −c|v|v! ! !
! !

T = k(%−%0), T = c%̇, F = −c|v|v

+ −
F = µN , v + = −ev −, ... !
T =F=k(%−%
µN , 0 ), v = −evT =, c%̇,... F= −
&% = 0
&% = +0 −
F = µN , v = −ev , ...
&% = 0 3
The three pillars cont’d
1. Geometry: we live in flatland

2. Mechanics: Newton was right

3. Constitutive laws: What are things made of?

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 The three pillars (cont’d)
1. Geometry: we live in flatland 0.0000001 %
(whether or not you can measure that well)

2. Mechanics: Newton was right 0.0000001 %

(whether or not you can measure that well)

3. Constitutive laws: What are things made of?

0.1 % (rarely, sometimes for spring constants)
1 % (when you are lucky)
10 % (pretty good for friction & collisions)
50 % (not unusual)
(whether or not you can measure that well, the equations are wrong/not accurate)

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 1D example: harmonic oscillator
Spring, mass and applied force
-
Need to pick %
• generalized coordinates !
• minimal coordinates $ !"#$%"&
'()*+*(,
• configuration variables
• dynamic variables "#
• motion variables
• whatever you want to call the things that if
• you know them and $
• you know their time derivatives then '$''#*"&
%
• you know the positions, velocities and
accelerations of all points in the system (at
least you know enough about them)
•x ( qi ) ./0)

Free Body Diagrams & )'!*,1 &

Think: “chainsaw” (or “scalpel”), and “deceit”. &

2$)) '$''#*"&

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 F = &%
µN , = 0 v +
= −evT F−
= =
,k(%
µN −, % 0
... ), v +
= T =
−ev c,%̇,
−
May 5, 2006
1D example:Fharmonic
= m a, M = H,
F
˙ oscillator =
action and F
!
reaction
m !a
= µN , &% =v +0 = −e
! !

&% = 0
LMB: x, v, a, r!, θ, ω, α, t, %, . . .
F F =
T = k(% −F
% ),
=
F
0
applied − m
T
=c%̇, F =m−c|av |v
T =
a T!= k& ! !
&% = 0

˙ F = ma
action and reaction F = µN , v + = −ev − , F = ma
==Tm0xa−F %T=0F=applied a == Tẍ=m ka
! ! ! ...
F &%
!
F = m a, M = H,
F = Fapplied −
=&% k&%
F F = =F F
T = capplied
applied
F =F
− T
v |v F
−c|=
−
T T
=
−T
k&% T
T = k&%
!
=
&% = x − %0
k&%
a = ẍ
−FT

=
Fapplied x −− k(x a
− F%=ẍ)Fapplied=
= m
! !
T = k(% − % ),
F = µN ,
0 %̇,
v +
= −ev , −
...
&%applied % 0 0
−T
F ma
of==
“Equation&% x −F %&% a = ẍ = Fapplied −&%
k(x=−x%−
0) % =
&% motion”:
0 0 F=
applied =F
m
x
&% = x − %
−k(x
−applied
ẍ
%
− T − %T0=
+
0
0 kx
a
=
= ẍ
) k&%m=ẍ + kxm=ẍF
F Fapplied − +
0
k%
applied
k(x −
+ k%0
% 0)
a = ẍ
Fapplied − F
k(x − %
applied −&%
) k(x
= x
=
−− % %
0 0 ) m
a = =
ẍ
ẍ m ẍ
applied 0
F = ma m ẍF0applied
+ kx − k(x= − %0F = m ẍ + k%
) applied m ẍ0 + kx = F ẋ
F −ẋ k(x m ẍ
= applied
− =
F = Fapplied − T T = k&%
m ẍ +mkx = F applied + k%
+0 k%0 v
&% =m
Standard applied
x −ẍ
% +a kx
forms: = ẍ
0 %0 )
ẍ + kx = Fapplied
= Fapplied + k%0 v̇ = −kx
= v
+ Fapplied +
F − k(x − % ) = m ẍ
applied
ẋ 0
=ẋ =v v ẋ = v
m ẍ + kx = F + k% ẋ or= v̇ v= −kx + Fapplied + k%0v̇ or ż = f (z)
= −kx + Fa
m ẍ kx F k%
applied 0

ẋ = v
ẋ
v̇ = −kx + F
= v
+ k%
+ = applied + v̇
0 +
v̇
=
v̇ = −kx + F
ż = f (z)
=
−kx −kx
+ F +
applied
+ k% + F k%
applied
0
ż = f (z) applied 0
applied 0

v̇ =ż = f (z)−kx + Fapplied

ż =ż = + k%0
f (z)
f (z) ż = f (z) 7
 F = ma ⇒ F dx = m a dx
!
Fapplied − k(x − %0 ) =dv m d xẍ ! !

Various theorems/facts
= m dt !
m ẍ + kx = Fapplied!+"dt
k%0dt # dv d x
= m
dv
v dt
F = ma ⇒F=
F v ma = =mamv ⇒dt dt
dv ! " dv #
dt
F dt = m
ẋ = v dt
! " 2# = =m m v v dt
v̇ = −kx + Fappliedd + k% v0 dt dt
= m
dt 2
dt ! ! " "2 ##
d d v v2 = m&
Impulse momentum ż = f (z) " 2 #
! = ! m
v
2 !
Conservation of momentum = =m m
dt dt 2 2
" " 2 2##
dt

F dt = m ' a dt
when no force m&v = 0 d ! mv v
F = ma ⇒ $ %&
Ek = = m 2
= !E=
k m&v dt $ 2%& '
$ %& ' Ek
Work = increase in kinetic energy
Work energy
Ek
m&v = 0 = !E k

F = ma ⇒ F v = ma v Conservation of
= Ė
energy when
Work = k increase in kinetic energy
Power = rate of increase of kinetic energy
dv
= m v
dt
" #
d v2
force dis “conservative”
F = ma
IF F = − E (x) ⇒
⇒ !
F v = ma v
F d x = −!E
dv ⇒ −!E =!
= m p p p
dt 2 dx = m v
" 2# dt
! " #
d v d d v2
= m
dt 2 1IF F = − E p (x) = m Fv = − Ė p
⇒ ⇒ − Ė p = Ė k
$ %& ' dx dt 2
Ek
" 2#
d v
= Ė k = m
dt 2
Power = rate of increase of kinetic energy $ %& '
Ek
!
d = Ė k
F F = − E p (x) ⇒ F d x = −!E p ⇒ −!E p = !E k
dx ! !
Power = rate of increase of kinetic energy
F = ma
d ⇒ F d x = m a d x
F F = − E p (x) ⇒ Fv =! − Ė p ⇒ − Ė p = Ė k !
dx dv d x d
= m dt IF F = − E p (x) ⇒ F d x = −!E p ⇒ −!E p = !E k
dt dt d x
m 1 ẍ1 = !T " #
dv d
= m
m 2 ẍ2 = F − dt T v dt IF F = − E p (x) ⇒ Fv = − Ė p ⇒ − Ė p = Ė k
d x
ẍ2 − ẍ1 = ! 0 d " v2 #
= m dt
dt 2
(m 1 + m 2 )ẍ "= F 2 #
v
= ! m
2
$ %& '
Ek
= !E k
Work = increase in kinetic energy 8
 Period = time to

Solution of ODEs complete one cycle

of oscillation

a b c d a b
x

Position
t
xP

Velocity
t

xR

Acceleration
t

EK
EK = kinetic energy

Energy
ET EP = potential energy
EP
ET = ETotal = EK + EP
0 t

Velocity
d

c a
Position
b

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 &% = 0
Galilean invariance
Note: F = ma
there is no v in Newton’sFlaw
=F −T T = k&%
applied

So: &% = x − %0 a = ẍ
all the theorems apply inFaapplied
steadily translating
− k(x − %0 ) = framem ẍ
(the equations are objective, so are t, d, m, F )
m ẍ + kx = Fapplied + k%0
But (!!):
Not all of the terms are objective
ẋ = v
(e.g., work, power, and kinetic energy
= frame
v̇ all
are + Fapplied + k%
−kx dependent)

ż = f (z) 10
Interaction (internal to
system) forces
F F

Gm e m m
F= rm=e

• Cancel in their effect on system

momentum
• Do not cancel in their effect on system
energy unless they are ‘workless’.

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 d v !
= m
Multi-bodies constrained
d
⇒
dt d 2
IF F =" − 2 # E p (x)
F dx = −
vd x
inextensible
= massless m
dt
connection 2 ı̂
$ %& 'd
m1 IF F m= −
2 E k E p (x) ⇒ Fv = − Ė p
= Ė k dx
x1 x2 Approach
Power = rate of increase of kinetic energy II: Use tricks to
FBDs ! guide m̈
the x
adding
1 1 =andT
T T F
subtracting of equations to
p (x) ⇒ F d x = −!E p ⇒ m̈ −!E
eliminate =
x = Fk − T
!E
constraints
p
2 2
F
E pApproach
(x) Fv = − Ėequations
⇒ I: Assemble p ⇒ ẍ−2Ė− ẍ 1
p = Ė k
= 0
for separate bodies
m 1 ẍ1 = T
(m 1 + m 2 )ẍ = F
m 2 ẍ2 = F − T
ẍ2 − ẍ1 = 0
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