Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
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July 31, 2017
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sG
2017/openbook.png 2017/openbook.png
Contents
I. GROUPS 9
1. Groups 10
1.1. Sub-Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
22
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2.2. Transpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3. Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1. Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2. Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3. Isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
II. RINGS 43
6. Rings 44
6.1. Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2
Contents Contents
8. Euclidean Rings. 55
9. Division Rings 60
III. FIELDS 62
10. Field Extensions 63
Questions.
11.
11.2. Rings
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11.1. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
67
69
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IV. Appendix 71
11.3. Mathematical Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many thanks and appreciation go out to my colleagues in developing this project and to those who
have willingly assisted by volunteering their time and expertise. I would like to especially thank the
Amaal Ali
Rajesh Lakhan
Diana Munro-Mulchan
Sach Mulchan
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Jagdesh Ramnanan
Chandra Rajaram
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for their continued input in this venture. A special thanks to the students who attended and who will
attend, without whom this project would have not been successful. Sincere thanks to all of them. Also
a very special thanks to those who assisted in the compilation of these notes, for their advice, time and
eorts in ensuring that these notes are accurate and correspond to a basic course in modern algebra.
Ultimately, my greatest appreciation goes out to Jay who facilitated and created the sG sessions,
sG
-Aristotle
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In short : group theory is the systematic study of symmetry; when a physical system or mat-
hematical structure possesses some kind of symmetry, its description can often be dramatically
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simplied by considering the consequences of that symmetry. When we are dealing with an
object that appears symmetric, group theory can help with the analysis. We apply the label
The purpose of these notes is to provide readers with some basic insight into group theory
as quickly as possible. Simplicity and working knowledge are emphasized over mathematical
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completeness. As a result, proofs are very often sketched or omitted in favor of examples and
discussion. Readers are warned that these notes are not a substitute for a thorough study of
modern algebra. It is assumed that the reader has a working knowledge of basic set theory
notions, that is have completed a course in introductory Set Theory and Number Systems.
We start this study with group theory as it is a basic building block for other algebraic structu-
res. Notes on both Ring theory and Field theory are also provided to be read at the convience of
the student. However it is recommended that these be read before any futher course in Modern
Algebra. Part I of these notes covers basic set theory - a review of what is needed to succeed
in a course of this nature. Part II of these notes deals with the introduction of group theory -
this is an important part in developing knowledge in modern algebra. Part III intoduces the
concepts of ring theory which are used in Part IV to develop the notion of eld theory.
5
Contents Contents
Goals of sG:
+ Gain a deep understanding of problem solving / proof construction with respect to Abstract
Algebra.
Note: The list of YouTube Videos to view before each session is n the appendix.
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3.
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If f and g are bijective, then g ◦ f is bijective.
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Proof.
⇒ x = y. ∵ ( injectivity of f )
∴ g◦f is injective.
Let z ∈ C.
∴ g◦f is surjective.
7
Contents Contents
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GROUPS
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9
1. Groups
Denition 1.1. A non-empty set of elements G is said to form a group if associated with G
there is a binary (closed) operation called product and denoted by · such that
+ We say that (G, ·) or (G, ?) or (G, ∗) is a group. We generally write G is a group and take
the operation to be ” · ”. Eg. a·b=a+b
sG
+ Clearly all groups must have at least one element. The group with exactly one element is
Denition 1.3. The number of elements in G is called the order of the group and is denoted
by |G|.
10
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1. The set of all integers is an abelian (or commutative) group under the operation of addi-
2. The set of all rational numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition.
3. The set of all real numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
4. If G = {1, −1, i, −i} is a set of complex numbers and ∗ denotes usual multiplication then
(G, ∗) is an abelian group. It can be shown that G satises all properties of a group
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(Denition 1.1) and is also commutative under usual multiplication.
four elements, the group formed is said to have order of four ie. |G| = 4.
Since G contains
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5. (e, ∗) is a group, where ∗ is dened by e ∗ e = e.
6. Let G consist of the real numbers 1, −1 under the multiplication of real numbers. G is an
abelian group of order 2.
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7. The set of all 2×2 matrices is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
Proof. We know from the axioms that the group G contains at least one element x−1 which
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a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac)
=⇒ a−1 a b = a−1 a c
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=⇒ eb = ec
=⇒ b = c.
1.1. Sub-Groups
Denition 1.8. Let (G, ·) be a group. Let H⊆G such that (H, ·) is also a group.
1. e ∈ H,
2. ab ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H ,
Example 1.11.
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The following are some examples of subgroups:
1. The group of integers is a subgroup of the groups of rational numbers, real numbers and
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complex numbers under addition.
2. The group of non-zero rational numbers is a subgroup of the groups of non-zero real
3. The group of all 2 × 2 matrices of real numbers with determinant equal to 1 is a subgroup
of the group of all 2×2 matrices of real numbers with non-zero determinant under the
cos α − sin α
4. Consider the collection of all 2×2 matrices that are of the form for
sin α cos α
some real number α. This is a subgroup of the group of all 2×2 matrices with non-zero
determinant under matrix multiplication. Indeed the above matrix is the identity matrix
when α = 0.
cos α − sin α cos β − sin β cos(α + β) − sin(α + β)
Also =
sin α cos α sin β cos β sin(α + β) cos(α + β)
(as can be seen from the well-known formulae giving sin(α + β) and cos(α + β) in terms
of α and β ), and
−1
cos α − sin α cos(−α) − sin(−α)
=
sin α cos α sin(−α) cos(−α)
for all real numbers α and β. Thus the denition of a subgroup is satised. The cor-
responding geometrical result states that the set of all rotations of the plane about the
origin is a subgroup of the group of all linear transformations of the plane that send a
point (x, y) to (ax + by, cx + dy) for some real numbers a, b, c and d satisfying ad − bc 6= 0.
Theorem 1.12. Let G be group and H a non-empty subset of G, such that ∀ a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H .
Then H is subgroup of G.
H.
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hh−1 = e ∈ H (where e is the identity in G).
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Inverse: Let h ∈ H. Since e, h ∈ H, then eh−1 = h−1 ∈ H. Hence every element h∈H has an
inverse h−1 ∈ H.
Closure: Let a, b ∈ H. Then b−1 ∈ H (from above), and a, b−1 ∈ H =⇒ a(b−1 )−1 = ab ∈ H.
Proof. Suppose that the condition holds, then from Theorem 1.12, H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem 1.14. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G such that H · H = H.
Then H is a subgroup of G.
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({1, −1} , ·) is a subgroup of ({1, −1, i, −i} , ·)
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Remark 1.17. Handout from Herstein page 39, example 2.4.7. The solution is in my handwriting.
Proof. The identity element of G belongs to H ∩ K since it belongs to the subgroups H and K.
Also the inverse x−1 of an element x of H∩K belongs to H and to K and thus belongs to
H ∩ K, as required.
So assume H 6= {1} .
Hence, H again contains positive powers of g, so it contains a smallest positive power, by Well
Ordering.
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in H.
It follows that
g n = g mq+r = (g m )q · g r , so h = (g m )q · g r or g r = (g m )−q · h.
Therefore, n = qm , and h = g n = (g m )q ∈ hg m i.
Denition 1.20. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g ∈G such that G=
{g n : n ∈ Z}, where Z is the set of integers and
g·g·g (n times) if n>0
n
g = if n = 0 .
e
g −1 · g −1 · g −1 (|n| times) if n < 0
Remark 1.21. If a nite group G can be generated from one of its elements, g together with its
Example 1.22.
1. The group
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The following are some examples of cyclic groups:
2π
2. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin through an integer multiple of
n
Denition 1.23. The order of an element g ∈ G is the smallest positive integer n such that
gn = e (the identity in G), if such n exists. Otherwise, g is said to be of innite order.
Lemma 1.25. Let G = hgibe a nite cyclic group, where g has order n. Then the powers
{1, g, . . . , g n−1 } are distinct.
Proof. Since g has order n, g, g 2 , ...g n−1 are all dierent from 1.
Now I'll show that the powers {1, g, . . . , g n−1 }are distinct.
Then 0<i−j <n and g i−j = 1. This is a contradiction, since the order of g is n.
Lemma 1.27. Let G = hgi be an innite cyclic group. If m and n are integers and m 6= n ,
then g m 6= g n .
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This contradicts the fact that a generator of an innite cyclic group has innite order.
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Therefore, g m 6= g n .
Problem 1.28. (Finding the order of an element.) Find the order of the element a6 in the cyclic
sG
group G = {1, a, a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 }.
Solution: If n is the order of the group, then n = 8. Since gcd(6, n) = gcd(6, 8) = 2 , a6 has
n 8
order = = 4.
gcd(6, n) 2
Check:
Theorem 2.1. For any non-empty set X , let S (X) denote the set of all bijections on X . Then
(S (X) , ◦) is a group, where ◦ denotes composition of functions.
Identity:
Inverses:
The identity function
es
is a bijection on
have inverses in
X,
S (X).
hence e ∈ S (X).
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Denition 2.2. The group S (X) (sometimes also denoted SX ) is called the symmetric group
on the set X.
sG
Example 2.3. Let X = {1, 2}. Then S (X) = {e, f }, where e is the identity function (i.e.
e (1) = 1 and e (2) = 2), and f is the function such that f (1) = 2 and f (2) = 1.
Exercise 2.4. Find the symmetric group on the set X = {1, 2, 3}.
When X is a nite non-empty set, the bijections on X are simply permutations (or arrange-
ments) of the elements of X. If X has n elements, then we denote the group of permutations
S (X) by Sn , and we call this group the symmetric group on n elements, or the symmetric
group of degree n.
Note that, for simplicity, we usually take X to be the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. However, the properties
19
CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Remark 2.5. The symmetric groups given in Example 2.3 and Exercise 2.4 are S2 and S3 ,
respectively.
Proof. The order of Sn is the number of bijections on X. The number of bijections is simply the
number of dierent ways there are to permute the n elements of X. Therefore, the number of
represented as permutations.
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Φ : {1, 2, . . . , n} → {1, 2, . . . , n}
1 2 3 1 2 3
Example 2.8. Consider S3 . Let Φ1 = and Φ2 = .
sG
3 1 2 1 3 2
Then Φ1 (1) = 3, Φ1 (2) = 1, Φ1 (3) = 2, and Φ2 (1) = 1, Φ2 (2) = 3, Φ2 (3) = 2.
Therefore,
Φ1 Φ2 (1) = Φ1 (1) = 3,
Φ1 Φ2 (2) = Φ1 (3) = 2,
Φ1 Φ2 (3) = Φ1 (2) = 1.
1 2 3
Thus, Φ1 Φ2 = .
3 2 1
1 2 3
Similarly, Φ2 Φ1 = .
2 1 3
In fact, S1 and S2 are the only abelian symmetric groups. All other symmetric groups are
non-abelian.
Exercise 2.10. Using the notation above, list all the elements of S3 .
1. Is Φ3 an element of S4 ? Explain.
Φ.
inverse
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of a permutation
Φ−1
Φ (denoted by Φ−1 ) is one that undoes the
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changes made by We can nd by nding the inverse image of each element, which
can be done by reading the permutation in reverse order (upside down). This is equivalent to
switching the two rows of the permutation and rearranging the columns so that the numbers
1 2 3 4
Example 2.13. Consider S4 . Let Φ= .
sG
2 4 1 3
1 2 3 4
Reading the permutation in the reverse order gives Φ−1 = .
3 1 4 2
2 4 1 3
Alternatively, switching the rows gives ,
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
and after moving around the columns, we get Φ−1 = .
3 1 4 2
Exercise 2.14. For the permutations used in Exercise 2.11, nd Φ−1
1
−1 −1 −1 −1
, Φ , Φ Φ , (Φ1 Φ2 ) .
2 2 1
We can represent the elements of Sn even more concisely, as we will see below.
+ Φ (a1 ) = a2 , Φ (a2 ) = a3 , . . ., Φ am−1 = am , Φ (am ) = a1 and
1 2 3
Example 2.16. The permutation = (132) is a 3-cycle in S3 .
3 1 2
1 2 3 4
Example 2.17.
Example 2.18.
The permutation
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4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
= (1423)
is a 2-cycle in S4 .
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The permutation = (132) is a 3-cycle in S5 .
3 1 2 4 5
Note. (132) and (321) represent the same cycle. The starting number in a cycle is not important;
For each x∈
/ {a1 , a2 , . . . , am }, we have Φ (x) = x, and hence Φm (x) = x.
Now take x ∈ {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } , say x = ak , and let am+1 = a1 , am+2 = a2 , and so on (since
Note: This is equivalent to saying that the order of a cycle is equal to its length.
The algorithm proving this theorem is best illustrated by the following example:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 2.21. Consider the permutation Φ= in S8 .
6 7 8 4 5 2 1 3
We start by writing '(1 '.
Since Φ (7) = 1, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
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Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in the cycle above.
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In this case, the number we are looking for is 3 (since both 1 and 2 appear in the cycle above).
Since Φ (8) = 3, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
Next, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in either cycle above.
Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not already encountered. In this case, the
Since all the remaining elements of X (i.e. 6, 7, 8) have already been met, we stop.
not appear in any other cycle, the order in which the cycles are considered does not matter.
Thus, in the example above, it would have also been correct to write Φ = (38) (1627) .
Remark 2.23. Not all elements of X have to appear in the cycle decomposition of Φ.
The elements that do not appear are xed, i.e. they are not aected by Φ.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Exercise 2.24. Give the cycle decomposition of Φ= in S9 .
1 4 8 5 2 3 9 6 7
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α = (1236)−1 (435) (14) as a product of disjoint cycles.
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Theorem 2.28. The order of a permutation is the least common multiple (LCM) of the length
of its disjoint cycles.
Exercise 2.29. Find the orders of the permutations given in Example 2.21 and Exercises 2.24
- 2.27.
Proof. First, note that the identity permutation e can be written as the product of any trans-
Now, Theorem 2.20 states that every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
We are left to show that every cycle can be written as a product of transpositions.
sitions by pairing up the rst term a1 with each of the other terms in reverse order, as follows:
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α = (a1 am ) a1 am−1 · · · (a1 a3 ) (a1 a2 ) .
Exercise 2.32. Express the permutations given in Example 2.21 and Exercises 2.24 - 2.27 as
products of transpositions.
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Denition 2.34. A permutation is even if it can be written as the product of an even number
of transpositions. Similarly, a permutation is odd if it can be written as the product of an
odd number of transpositions.
Proof. By Corollary 2.33, we can write any m−cycle as a product of m−1 transpositions.
On the other hand, if m is even then m−1 is odd, so the m−cycle is odd.
Exercise 2.37. Find the parities of the permutations given in Example 2.21 and Exercises 2.24
- 2.27.
Theorem 2.38. The set of all even permutations An forms a subgroup of Sn . It is called the
alternating group on n elements.
Exercise 2.39. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 + x3 x4 , where
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ R.
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2.3. Symmetry
A symmetry of a geometrical gure is a rearrangement of the gure that preserves the ar-
rangement of its vertices and sides as well as its distances and angles. Each symmetry is a
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bijection, or permutation of the vertices.
Example 2.42. A scalene triangle has a unique symmetry - the identity mapping.
Example 2.45. A rectangle (with unequal sides) has four symmetries. These form a group
3.1. Cosets
Denition 3.1. Let (G, ·) be a group with subgroup (H, ·). For a, b ∈ G,we say that a is
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Theorem 3.2. The relation ≡ (mod H) is an equivalence relation on G
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Proof. For all a ∈ G ,aa−1 = e ∈ H. ⇒ the relation is reexive.
Denition 3.3. The equivalence class containing a is Ha = {ha : h ∈ H} is called a right coset
of H in G. A left coset is analogously dened.
Proof. Let h ∈ H.
27
3.1. COSETS CHAPTER 3. COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
⇒ H ⊆ Ha.
Since a ∈ H, ha ∈ H.
Therefore Ha ⊆ H.
Hence Ha = H.
Lemma 3.5. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G have the
following properties:
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(ii) if x and y are elements of G, and if y = xa for some a ∈ H , then xH = yH ;
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(iii) if x and y are elements of G, and if xH ∪ yH is non-empty then xH = yH .
Then yh = x(ah) and xh = y(a−1 h) for allh ∈ H. Moreover ah ∈ H and a−1 h ∈ H for all
h ∈ H,
This proves (ii). Finally suppose that xH ∩ yH is non-empty for some elements x and y of G.
Let z be an element of xH ∩ yH .
Therefore xH = yH .
Proof. Let H = {h1 , h2 , ..., hm }, where h1 , h2 , ...,hm are distinct, and let x be an element of G.
Then the left coset xH consists of the elements xhj for j = 1, 2, ..., m.
Suppose that j and k are integers between 1 and m for which xhj = xhk .
Then hj = x−1 (xhj ) = x−1 (xhk ) = hk , and thus j = k, since h1 , h2 , ..., hm are distinct.
It follows that the elements xh1 , xh2 , ..., xhm are distinct.
We conclude that the subgroup H and the left coset xH both have m elements, as required.
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3.2. Lagrange's Theorem
Theorem 3.7. (Lagrange's Theorem) If H is a subgroup of the nite group G, then the order
of H is a divisor of the order of G.
Hence we can write G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ ... ∪ Ham , where m is the number of distinct right cosets
nite then the number of such cosets is referred to as the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].
Proof. Let G be a group of prime order, and let x be some element of G that is not the identity
element.
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is greater than one and divides the order of
Denition 4.1. If H is a subgroup of a group G with operation ∗ and a ∈ G then the left coset
a∗H of G is the subset a∗H of G, where a ∗ H = {a ∗ h : h ∈ H}.
Denition 4.2.
or normal divisor ) of
A subgroup
G if
H of a group
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G is called a normal subgroup (or invariant subgroup
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gH = Hg, ∀g ∈ G.
The following theorem is useful for proving that a subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup
sG
of G.
Let h ∈ H. Then hg ∈ Hg .
Now, since
=⇒ g −1 hg = h0 , g −1 hg ∈ H.
31
4.1. NORMAL SUBGROUPS CHAPTER 4. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Let hg ∈ Hg . Now
hg = gg −1 hg = gh ∈ gH
since g −1 hg ∈ H, ∀g ∈ G and ∀h ∈ H .
=⇒ Hg = gH .
Thus H C G.
Let gh ∈ gH .
H
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be a subgroup of an abelian group G.
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Then, since G is abelian, gh = hg ∈ Hg : =⇒ gH = Hg =⇒ H CG.
Example 4.6. Let G be the group of all integers under addition and H be the set of all integers
H,
H1 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 1)} ,
H2 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 2)} ,
H3 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 3)} ,
H4 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 4)} .
Fact 4.7. A relation is well-dened if every object has a unique image. i.e. f is well-dened
a = b =⇒ f (a) = f (b).
Proof. We rst show that the operation ∗ is well-dened on the set G/N .
Suppose
N g1 = N h1 and N g2 = N h2 .
Then by denition of ∗,
N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Nowg1 ∈ N g1 = N h1 .
∴ g1 = n1 h1 for some n1 ∈ N
Similarly,
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g2 = n2 h2 for some n2 ∈ N.
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∴ g1 g2 = n1 h1 n2 h2
Now,
= n1 h1 n2 h−1
1
= n ∈ N, since N /G
∴ g1 g2 (h1 h2 )−1 ∈ N
=⇒ N g1 g 2 (h1 h2 )−1 = N
=⇒ N g1 g2 = N h1 h2
Let N g1 · N g2 ∈ G/N .
Then N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 = N g ∈ G/N.
Then N g1 (N g2 N g3 ) = N g1 N g2 g3 = N g1 g2 g3 = (N g1 g2 )N g3 = (N g1 N g2 )N g3 .
Inverses: N gN g −1 = N gg −1 = N = N g −1 g .
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4.2. Quotient Group
Denition 4.9. The group G/N is called the quotient group or factor group of G by N.
Exercise 4.10. Prove that if H and K are two normal subgroups of a group G, then the group
sG
H ∩K is normal in G.
Exercise 4.11. Prove that two right cosets, Ha and Hb of a group G are identical i ab−1 ∈ G:
Denition 5.1. Let H and K be groups. The direct product of H and K denoted by H × K,
is the group with elements all ordered pairs (h, k) where h∈H and k∈K with operation
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(h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , k1 k2 )
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Exercise 5.2. Prove that H ×K is abelian if and only if both H and K are abelian.
Example 5.4. The set of all non-identity elements of a group is a generating set for the group.
5.2. Homomorphism
Denition 5.5. Let (G, ∗) and (H, •) be two groups. A function ϕ: G→H is a homomorphism
35
5.2. HOMOMORPHISM CHAPTER 5. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Example 5.6. Let f : G → H be dened by f (x) = eH , ∀x ∈ G, where eH is an identity
Then, for any a, b∈ G,f (ab) = eH = eH eH = f (a)f (b) and hence f is a homomorphism.
= log a + log b
= ψ(a) + ψ(b)
Hence
Example 5.9.
ψ is a homomorphism.
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Let n be a xed positive integer. Let φ : (Z, +) → (C\ {0} , ·) such that φ(k) =
2ikπ
e n . Then φ is a homomorphism.
Consider φ(k1 + k2 )
2i(k1 +k2 )π
=e n
2ik1 π 2ik π
= e( n
+ n2 )
sG
2ik1 π
= e( n ) · e( 2ikn2 π )
= φ(k1 ) · φ(k2 ).
Example 5.10. Dene a map φ:G→H where G=Z and H = Z2 = Z/2Z is the standard
0,
if x is even
f (x) = .
1, if x is odd
x is even, y is odd;
x is odd, y is even.
Now if x and y are both even or both odd, then x+y is even. In this case φ(x + y) = 0.
In the rst case φ(x) + φ(y) = 0 + 0 = 0 and in the second case φ(x) + φ(y) = 1 + 1 = 0.
Otherwise one is even and the other is odd and x+y is odd.
es
Proposition 5.11. (Properties of homomorphism) If ϕ : G → H is a homomorphism of groups
not
and eH , eG are the identity elements in H and G respectively. Then for all x, y ∈ G, ϕ(xy) =
ϕ(x)ϕ(y) the following hold:
−1
(ii)ϕ(x)ϕ(x ) = ϕ(xx−1 ) = ϕ(eH ) = ϕ(eG ) ( from (i)).
dened by
Proof. We have to show that the kernel is non-empty and closed under multiplication and
Thus xy ∈ ker ϕ
x, y ∈ ker ϕ, so that
es
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y) = e
Consider ϕ(gkg −1 )
= ϕ(g)ϕ(k)ϕ(g −1 )
= ϕ(g)ϕ(g −1 ) = e
Proof. If f is injective, then at most one element can be sent to the identitye ∈ H.
Let g = x−1 y.
Then ϕ is injective.
es
Proof. ( Left as exercise)
not
5.3. Isomorphism
correspondence, then f is called an isomorphism. Two groups G and H are called isomorphic,
denoted by G∼
= H, if there exists an isomorphism between them.
Note 5.18. If two groups are isomorphic, all their structural properties are the same.
Thus, if one of the groups has some structural property, while the other does not, then these
groups are not isomorphic. Let us give a couple of examples of this situation.
Example 5.19.
1. The group U3 is not isomorphic to U4 , because U3 has 3 elements, and U4 has 4 elements.
2. The group R∗ under multiplication and the group C ∗ under multiplication are not isomorphic.
The equation x2 = a has solution x ∈ C∗ for any a ∈ C ∗, but the same equation does not have
3. The group R
x2 = 1 R∗
es
under addition is not isomorphic to the group
−1),
R∗ under multiplication.
not
The equation in has two solutions (1 and and the corresponding equation
Example 5.20. Consider the mapping ϕ : (R, +) → (0, +∞, ·) be dened by ϕ(x) = ex , ∀x ∈ R.
+ Construct a mapping,φ.
+ Show normality
+ Show HT is a subgroup of G.
+ Show NT B T
es
Now that all these remarks have been done, it is not dicult to see that the 2nd
Isomorphism Theorem follows from the 1st Isomorphism Theorem, as does the 3rd
not
Isomorphism Theorem.
Then S → ν(S) = S/K is a bijection from the family of all these subgroups S of G which
contain K to the family of all the subgroups of G/K . Moreover , if one denotes S/K by S ∗ ,
then
es
not
sG
es RINGS
not
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43
6. Rings
Denition 6.1. A ring R is a set with two binary operations,+ and ·, satisfying:
Example 6.2.
es
The following are some examples of rings:
not
1.Z, Q, R, C .
6.1. Subrings
Denition 6.4. A subring of a ring R is a subset which is a ring under the same subring addition
and
multiplication.
1.Z is a subring of Q.
2.Q is a subring of C.
44
6.1. SUBRINGS CHAPTER 6. RINGS
subset of R.
es
Associativity and distributivity hold for S because they hold for R
not
√ √
Denition 6.8. . Let d be an integer which is not a square. Dene Z[ m] = {a + b Z[m | a, b ∈ Z}.
√ √
Call Z[ − 1] = a + b − 1, a, b ∈ Z . Gaussian integers the ring of Gaussian integers
sG
(1) r0 = 0r = 0,
Similarly,r(−s) = −(rs).
(2)
(3)
R
R
es
has an identity under multiplication (written as 1),
Proof. The only non-obvious thing to check is that there are no zero divisors.
For contradiction, assume that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + am xm , g(x) = b0 + ... + bn xn are elements
Proposition 6.14. Every integral domain R satises the cancellation property if ax = ay and
a 6= 0
es
not
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Note 7.2. R is commutative, we only need to worry about multiplication on one side. More
generally,
es
one can speak of left ideals and right ideals and two-sided ideals.
1. nZ = {kn|k ∈ Z} for anyn ∈Z is an ideal in Z. If n=0 we get the zero ideal, an ideal
of any ring R. If n = ±1 we get Z, the whole ring.Again, for any ring ,R the whole ring
is an ideal of R.
3. p(x)R[x] = {p(x)f (x)|f (x) ∈ R[x]}is an ideal of R[x] for any commutative ring R with 1.
4. . In Z[x], the set I = {f (x) ∈ Z[x] | f (0) ≡ 0 (modn)} is an ideal for any n≥2 in Z.
48
CHAPTER 7. IDEALS AND RING HOMOMORPHISMS
7.0.1. Principal ideals.
Let R be a ring. Every (left)(right) ideal I is generated by a subset of R, namely I itself,
however it is useful to ask if we can nd a smaller generating set. A (left)(right) ideal I is
called nitely generated if it is generated as a (left)(right) ideal by a set X with |X| < ∞.
element.
(x)L = {rx|r ∈ R}
(0)
es
(1) = R
not
The zero ideal and the whole ring are always examples of principal ideals in any
ring R.
Theorem 7.6. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Let c ∈ R. The set I = rc | r ∈ R is
an ideal of R.
sG
Therefore I is an ideal.
(We have implicitly used the fact that R is commutative so that multiplication on the right
also works.)
Example 7.7. LetR = Z. If n is an integer, let nZ be the set of all multiples of Z .That is,
nZ = {na : a ∈ Z} .
To see that this set is an ideal, rst consider addition. if x, y ∈ nZ , then there integers a and b
Therefore, x + y ∈ nZ.
Therefore, rx ∈ nZ .
es
not
7.1. Ideals and Quotient Rings
then (a + c) + I = (b + d) + I and ac + I = bd + I .
sG
Proof. (Disscussion)
so is R/I . It is called the quotient ring or factor ring of R by I .It is easy to see that if R is
suppose that a∈
/ I. Let x = a + I, y = b + I . Then xy = ab + I = 0.
es
not
Example 7.11. Let R = Z. Then every ideal in R has the form (n) = nZ .
Note 7.13. the condition that (a) is not the whole of R is equivalent to requiring that a is not
a unit.
We say that the characteristic of R is n if the order of the image of ϕ is nite, equal to n;
Thus ϕ is certainly unique and it is not hard to check that in fact ϕ is a ring homomorphism.
Now suppose that R is an integral domain. Then the image of ϕ is an integral domain.
es n1 = 0.
not
Example 7.16. The characteristic of Q is zero. Indeed the natural map Z → Q is an inclusion.
Denition 7.17. Let I be an ideal. We say that I is maximal if for every ideal J,
Therefore0 6= 1 inR/M .
Thena ∈
/M and we build a bigger ideal I = ra + m|r ∈ R, m ∈ M .
(Check that this is an ideal.) Since a∈I and M is maximal, we must have I = R.
SinceR/M is commutative, this gives an inverse for a+M and so R/M is a eld.
If I 6= M , let a ∈ I, a ∈
/ M.
Therefore M is maximal
es
Proposition 7.19. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R is a eld i the only ideals are {0}
not
and R.
Proof. We have already seen that if R is a eld, then R contains no non-trivial ideals.
Suppose that a = 0 and let I = (a). Then I = {0}. Thus I = R. But then 1∈I and so 1 = ba.
sG
Theorem 7.20. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R/M is a eld i M is a maximal ideal.
Proof. Note that there is an obvious correspondence between the ideals of R/M and ideals of
Corollary 7.21. . Let R be a commutative ring. Then every maximal ideal is prime.
Example. Let R=Z and let p be a prime. Then I = (p) is not only prime, but it is in fact
maximal.
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not
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Denition 8.1. An integral domain R is said to be a Euclidean ring if for everyx 6= 0 in R there
(ii) For any x and y in R, both nonzero, there exist z and w in R such that x = zy + w
where either
Example 8.2. Z
w=0 or d(w) < d(y).
es
not
is clearly a Euclidean Ring with||n|| dened to be absolute value.
Denition 8.3. An integral domain R with unit element is a principal ideal ring if every ideal
in R
is a principal ideal;
sG
Note 8.4. If R is a commutative ring, a principal ideal is one of the form dR for some d ∈ R.
A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal.
55
8.1. DIVISION ALGORITHM CHAPTER 8. EUCLIDEAN RINGS.
8.1. Division Algorithm
Hencer < n.
es
not
Example 8.9. : If m = −37 andn =6 we may write −37 = 6 ∗ (−6) − 1 in which case q = −6
and r = −1.
written as a/b,
3. . If R is a eld, e.g. R=Q or R, then for any a, b ∈ R,a 6= 0, we can write b = ac for
some c∈R by
Denition 8.12. Element u∈R is a unit (or an invertible element) if uv = 1 for unit some
v ∈ R,
1. Z∗ = {±1}.
F ∗ = F − 0.
es
2. . Clearly, an integral domain F is a eld i
3. . Z[i]∗ = 1, −1, i, −i :Suppose that a + bi ∈ Z[i]∗ is a unit, so(a + bi)(c + di) =1 for some
not
c, d ∈ Z .
Then also (a − bi)(c − di) = 1.,so clearly a + bi ∈ 1, −1, i, −i.
(1)r ∈
/ R∗,
sG
Note 8.15. An element r∈R is reducible if r = st for some s, t ∈ R where neither s nor t is a
unit.
Example. In R[x] the polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible. But in C[x], x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x − i), and
An irreducible element of a polynomial ring F [x], where F is a eld, is the same as the irreducible
polynomial.
(4) aR = bR.
Proof. (1) is the denition. Since a = bu implies b = au−1 with u−1 ∈ R∗,
For (3) implies (1), consider b = sa for some s∈R and a = tb for some t ∈ R.
es
a 6= 0 we have that
are associates.
ts = 1.
not
Otherwise t, s are units, hence again a and b are associates.
Denition 8.17. An integral domain R is called a unique factorization domain (UFD) if the
following hold:
sG
(1) Every non-zero element of R is either unit or a product of nitely many irreducibles.
(2) If a1 · · · am = b 1 · · · b n , where the ai , bj are irreducibles, then n=m and after reordering of
factors,
Theorem 8.19. Element α ∈ F is a root of f (x) ∈ F [x] if and only if (x − α) divides f (x).
Theorem 8.20. Let ,f (x) ∈ F [x] where F is a eld and degf (x) = n ≥ 1.
es
−b
a
n − 1.
not
If f (x) has no roots in F, we are done.
Otherwise,f (x) has at least one root, say α. Writef (x) = (x − α)g(x) by the induction assump-
tion,
Example. . The polynomial x6 − 1 ∈ Q[x] has only two roots in Q, namely 1 and −1.
√ √
Example 9.2. Numbers » 2, 33, − 1 ∈ C are algebraic over Q with corresponding polyno-
mials
x2 − 2, x3 − 3, x2 + 1.
es
not
Proposition 9.3. Suppose F ⊂ K are elds, α ∈ K is algebraic over F . Then
(1) there exists an irreducible polynomial p(x) ∈ F [x] such that p(α) = 0,
Proof. Take p(x) to be a polynomial of the least degree such that p(α) = 0.
sG
Suppose then p(x) = a(x)b(x) where a(x), b(x) are not units,
Now 0 = a(α)b(α) and hence α is a root of polynomial of degree less than degp(x), a contra-
diction.
So p(x) is irreducible.
(2) Write f(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x), where p(x) is from part (1).
Otherwise, degr(x) < degp(x). But 0 = f (α) = q(α)p(α) + r(α) implies r(α) = 0.
60
CHAPTER 9. DIVISION RINGS
Corollary 9.4. If F ⊂ K are elds, α ∈ K algebraic over F , then there exists a unique
Proof. Consider p(x) dened as in Proposition 8.3 and divide it by its highest degree coecient.
If p1 (x) is another monic, irreducible polynomial with p1 (α) = 0, then degp(x) = degp1 (x).
If p(x) − p1 (x) is a non-zero polynomial, it vanishes at α and deg(p(x) − p1 (x)) < degp(x), a
contradiction.
Theorem 9.5.
at least 1.
es
(Gauss's Lemma). Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coecients of degree
not
If f (x) is irreducible in Z[x], then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
If a prime p does not divide an , but p divides an−1 , ..., a1 , a0 and p2 does not divide a0 ,
Example 9.7. Polynomial x7 − 2 is irreducible in Q (choose p=2 in the criterion) and the
polynomial
es
FIELDS
not
sG
62
10. Field Extensions
√
Example 10.2. Fields R and Q( 2) are extensions of Q.
es
Proof. Recall that a vector space is an abelian group under addition where we can multiply
not
elements by the
elements of F.
(4) 1v1 = v1 .
So [C : R] = 2.
63
CHAPTER 10. FIELD EXTENSIONS
√
Example 10.6. Find [Q( 3 2) : Q].
√
3
√
3
2 √
We claim that 1, 2, 2 is a basis of Q( 3 2).
√
Indeed, since otherwise these three elements are linearly dependent (they clearly span Q( 3 2)),
√ √
i.e. we can nd b0 , b1 , b2 ∈ Q not all zero, such that b0 + b1 3 2 + b2 ( 3 2)2 = 0.
√
But the minimal polynomial of
3
2 is x3 − 2 because it is irreducible over Q (by the Eisenstein
Criterion).
√
Therefore [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
i [F (α) : F ] = n.
Proof. ⇒Suppose
es
the degree of minimal polynomial of α is n. We know that
not
F(α) = a0 + a1 α + · · · + an−1 αn−1 |ai ∈ F
If not, there are b0 , ..., bn−1 ∈ F such that b1 + b1 α + · · · + bn−1 αn−1 = 0 and not all bi = 0
sG
⇐ Suppose [F (α) : F ] = n.
The elements 1, α, α2 , ..., αn−1 , αn ∈ F (α) are n+1 vectors in a vector space of dimension n.
√ √
2. . x2 − 2 is the minimal polynomial of 2 over Q and [Q( 2) : Q] = 2.
√ √
3. . x3 − 2 is the minimal polynomial of
3
2 over Q and [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
√ √ √ √
Example 10.9. Let Q( 2, 3) be the smallest subeld of R containingQ, 2 and 3.
√ √ √ √
We have (Q( 2))( 3) = Q( 2, 3):
√ √ √ √
By previous results (Q( 2))( 3) = nα + β 3|α, β ∈ Q( 2) because
√ √
x2 − 3 is the minimal polynomial of 3 over Q( 2).
Also
√ √ √ √ √
es
(Q( 2))( 3) = na + b 2 + c 3 + d 6|a, b, c, d ∈ Q
not
Theorem 10.10. Let F ⊂ K ⊂ E be elds. Then [E : F ] = [E : K][K : F ].
[E : K] divides [E : F ].
1 + 1 + · · · + 1|{z} = 0
( n times ) is called the characteristic of the eld F. If there is no such n, then F has
characteristic 0.
then x = 0or(n × 1) = 0, so x = 0.
es
not
(3) If char(F ) = p, p prime, then for any x ∈ F, (p × x) = (p × 1)x = 0x = 0.
sG
11.1. Groups
(G, ·)
b) Let
under the same operation
H = {kn : n ∈ Z},
es · .
a) H is a subgroup of G.
b) H is a normal subgroup of G.
8,
sG
c) Find all subgroups of the dihedral group of order and calculate also all left and
4. Let G be a set with a binary operation ∗, associating to each pair of elements x and
exists an element e of G such that e∗x = x for all elements x of G; for each element
respect to this binary operation. [Thus you must show that x∗e = x and x ∗ x0 = e for
all x ∈ G.]
67
11.1. GROUPS CHAPTER 11. QUESTIONS.
6. Let G be a group. Prove that any subgroup N of index 2 in G is a normal subgroup of
G.
7. Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Show that the function mapping G onto
itself that sends g∈G to g −1 induces a bijection from the set of left cosets of H in G to
the set of right cosets of H in G. Hence show that the number of left cosets of H is equal
Isomorphism Theorem.)
9. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 +x3 x4 , where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈
R.
es
not
sG
a) (51, 192)
b) (20, 500)
d) 26 − 13i and 17 + 7i
es
(c) A non-commutative ring of characteristicp, p a prime.
invertible elements.
not
(e) An innite non-commutative ring with only nitely many ideals.
3. Show that a non-zero ring R in which x2 = x for all x∈R is of characteristic 2 and is
commutative.
4. Determine for which integers n the ring Z/nZ is a direct sum of elds. Prove your answer.
sG
5. Let R be a nite commutative ring with more than one element and no zero-divisors.
6. Show that if p is a prime such that p ≡ 1(mod4), then x2 + 1 is not irreducible in Zp [x].
8. Let R be a non-zero ring with identity. Show that every proper ideal of R is contained in
a maximal ideal.
es
not
sG
es
Appendix
not
sG
71
FREQUENTLY USED NOTATION
es
not
∀ for all
∃ there exists
: or | such that
=⇒ implies
sG
⇐⇒ is logically equivalent to
∝ is proportional to
∼
= is isomorphic to
+ Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra) Made Easy - Part 6 - Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem by
es
scalenescott.
What is a proof ?
logical argument that establishes the truth of the statement based upon other already proven
statements or axioms.
Statement Notation
not
es
or
P
Q
¬P
W
P Q
V
not
P and Q P Q
If P then Q P =⇒ Q
P if and only if Q P ⇐⇒ Q
The statement P ∩ Q is true if and only if both P and Q are true. The statement P ∪ Q is
true if and only if at least one of the statements P, Q is true. This is what we call the inclusive
sG
For example, the statement: 'We will have class in the morning or in the afternoon' means
in real life that only one of the alternatives will take places (exclusive or). In mathematics
however, this includes the possibility that we will have class in the morning as well as in the
P ⇒Q is considered to be false only in the case that P is true and Q is false. Otherwise it is
true. This is also in contrast to the plain English. For example, a statement like: 'If it rains
now then 2 is a prime number' is mathematically true, despite the fact that there is no relation
between the two parts of the statement, and regardless of whether the rst part is true or not.
The statement P ⇐⇒ Q is true if and only if P and Q have the same truth values. We also
es
not
sG
You may nd it useful at rst to separate such a statement into background assumptions, the
Specically:
n 6
es
+ If: is divisible by
+ Then: n is even.
not
Note 11.1. The background assumptions are just as important as the 'if ' assumptions.
+ Carefully write out all assumptions (the 'if ' part) at the beginning of the proof. Usually
this involves expanding what's written in the assumptions using the denitions of the
+ Write out the conclusion of the theorem (the 'then') at the end of the proof, and expand
it using denitions as well. This is what we want to show follows from our assumptions.
+ The point of the proof is now to show that, given the assumptions, logical deduction leads
to the conclusion.
+ One of the best ways to do this is to work forward logically from the assumptions (think:
what follows from the 'if ' ?) and backwards from the conclusion (think: what would imply
Example 11.2. The assumptions of the theorem are: n is an integer divisible by 6. By the
The conclusion of the theorem says: n is even. By the denition of even, that is the same
as saying that n is divisible by 2. By the denition of divisibility, this means that we want to
So now, we want to assume that n = 6d for some integer d, and then somehow deduce that
n = 2r for some integer r. However, if we know that n = 6d, then after a while, we might see
that n = 2(3d), which means that n = 2r holds for r = 3d. We therefore obtain the following
proof:
we see that
r = 3d,
n = 2r for an integer r,
es
not
which means that n is even.
A if and only if B
sG
Note: This statement may also be written in dierent forms (See Notes on Logics).
Proof Structure:
Proof: Assume A
.
.
.
Hence B
Conversely, Assume B
.
.
.
Hence A
In a direct proof , the rst thing that you do is explicitly assume that the hypothesis is true for
your selected variable, then use this assumption with denitions and previously proven results
Theorem 11.3. If x, y are integers and x and y are both odd, then x + y is even.
es
Consider
k a + b + 1.
not
where is the integer
T
Proof. Assume that A∪B =A B.
the theorem.
We assumed that A ∪ B = A ∩ B, so x ∈ A ∩ B.
Finally, A ∩ B ⊆ B, so consequently, x ∈ B.
Notice this is a formal proof and not a proof using set theory and that we did not end
the proof with the consequence of the theorem, but rather with a statement that suces to imply
the theorem by our earlier understanding. Here also we used implicitly some denitions from
set theory, like (x ∈ D) (D ⊆ C) ⇒ (x ∈ C).
V
In a proof by contrapositive , you explicitly assume that the conclusion is false for your variable,
then use this assumption, plus denitions and proven results, to show that the hypothesis must
Remember that the contrapositive of an implication is logically equivalent to the original im-
plication, so this is an indirect method for showing that the original implication is true. This
method should be used when the negative of a denition in your implication is easier to work
A good example is linear dependence, which only means that a set is not linearly independent.
If you use the contrapositive, you are working with linear independence, which is a set denition
with many theorems tied to it, making it much easier to work with.
es
not
Restate the original statement to be as follows:
Case 1. If y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of two odd numbers
Case 2. If y is even then y = 2a for some integer a and the dierence x = (2n + 1) − 2a =
2(n + a) + 1 is odd.
Therefore we have proved the contrapositive statement is valid and so the original statement is
also true.
selected variable.
Then use both of these assumptions to arrive at a contradiction of some other proven result.
Because you know the other proven result must be true, you must conclude that your original
assumption that the conclusion was false was incorrect; in other words, you are indirectly
proving that the original implication is true by showing that it cannot possibly be false. Proofs
by contradiction are useful for showing that something is impossible and for proving the converse
of already proven results. Proofs by contradiction can be somewhat more complicated than
es
direct proofs, because the contradiction you will use to prove the result is not always apparent
Restate the original to be that x and y are odd integers and x+y is also odd.
Given that y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of the two odd
Therefore the original statement must be true, and if x, y are integers and x and y are both
1. A proof must always begin with an initial statement of what it is you intend to
prove. It should be self-contained, in that it denes all variables that appear in it. After
you have written what it is you are proving, you should begin the proof itself with the
2. Always introduce your variables. The rst time a variable appears, whether in the
initial statement of what you are proving or in the body of the proof, you must state what
kind of variable it is (for example, a scalar, an integer, a vector, a matrix), and whether
it is universally or existentially quantied. For example, "there exists some k∈Z such
that . . . " or "for any a∈A . Note that if you write "let a∈A ," you are implying that
3. If asked to disprove a statement, then the method of counterexample may be used. Ho-
wever, please note that if asked to prove a statement involving for all integers, then the
a single integer n.
es
5. Now that you have your universally quantied implication, there are three common stra-
tegies for proving the implication is true and only one for proving it is false; these are
not
outlined here. Note that direct proofs are preferred whenever possible, and that direct
proofs and proofs by contrapositive are far more common than proofs by contradiction.
6. At the end of your proof, one of the following must be placed to indicate the end of the
00
proof: 00 , or Q.E.D..
Exercise 11.5.
sG
1. Prove that if a is an integer, then a is not evenly divisible by 3 if, and only if, a2 − 1 is
evenly divisble by 3.
2. Prove if x and y are two integers for which x+y is even, then x and y have the same parity.
4. The sum of any even integer and any odd integer is odd.
5. If a, b are integers, The product is odd if and only if a and b are both odd.
End of sG notes 2017. Thank you for participating. All the best in your exams and academic career.
Regards,
The sG Team.
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sG