ATMOSPHERE- thin layer of gases that surrounds the
Earth. It composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and trace
amounts of other gases like Ne, He, CH4, O3 and
other variable components like water vapor and
aerosols.
- This thin gaseous layer insulates the Earth
from extreme temperatures; it keeps heat
inside the atmosphere and it also blocks the
Earth from much of the Sun's incoming
ultraviolet radiation.
- These gases are collected and measured
through weather satellites like TERRA.
Under TERRA are some satellite
instruments like MOPITT (Measurement of
Pollutants in the Troposphere) and MAPS
(Measurement of Air Pollutants from
Satellites).
Gases in the Atmosphere:
Nitrogen- is the most abundant and also an
important gas in the atmosphere
- It is considered a “relatively inactive
element”
- It dilutes oxygen to lessen the rate of
oxidation or burning
- Nitrogen compounds are found in foods as
refrigerant, organic materials, fertilizers,
poisons and explosives/gunpowder.
- Nitrogen in its liquid state is often used in
cryogenics.
- It is also an important element in the body
of plants and animals.
Oxygen- “breathe of life”, used for respiration nd
combustion
- The energy exhibited by animal life is
released by using the oxygen to burn the
foods, releasing energy and carbon dioxide.
- It is used to burn fossil fuels like coal, oil
and natural gas.
- In industries, it is used in steel making and
welding purposes.
Carbon Dioxide- plays an important role in life.
Plants use it in the process of photosynthesis. It has
the ability to absorb heat energy radiated by the
earth and helps the atmosphere warm.
- The “dry ice” is used in refrigeration and in
cloud seeding method.
- In industries, it is used for making soda
water and carbonated beverages.
- The major suppliers of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere includes :
 Volcanic eruption
 Respiration by living things
 Decay of organisms
 Burning of fossil fuels
 Cultivation of land
Argon- is the most abundant of the noble gases. It is
used in incandescent light bulb and used to produce
an inert atmosphere for welding.
Neon- is used in neon lights/red lights such as shop
displays and advertisements.
Helium- is found in fairly large amounts mixed with
natural gas. It is used in filling balloons and other
dirigibles. It is often used by deep-sea divers to
breathe under the pressure of water. In medical
field, liquid helium is used in MRI.
Methane- In nature is produced by the anaerobic
bacterial decomposition of vegetable matter under
water (where it is sometimes called marsh gas or
swamp gas). Other important natural sources of
methane include termites (as a result of digestive
processes), volcanoes, and vents in the ocean floor.
- The production and combustion of natural
gas and coal are the major anthropogenic
(human-associated) sources of methane.
- It is also one of the greenhouse gases that
absorb infrared radiation and reradiate it
back to Earth’s surface, potentially trapping
heat and producing substantial changes in
climate.
Ozone- is very rare in our atmosphere, averaging
about three molecules of ozone for every 10 million
air molecules. In spite of this small amount, ozone
plays a vital role in the atmosphere since it absorbs
the harmful radiation from the sun.
- Most of the ozone in the atmosphere is in
the stratosphere of the atmosphere, with
about 8% in the lower troposphere.
- The ozone level is measured in Dobson Unit
(DU), named after Gordon Dobson.
- SBUV- Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet
Instrument and TOMS- Total Ozone
Mapping Spectrometer are satellite
instruments used to measure ozone levels.
Water vapor- is the gaseous phase of water. It can
be produced from the evaporation or boiling of
liquid water or from the sublimation of ice.
- is also the Earth's most important
greenhouse gas, accounting for about 90%
of the Earth's natural greenhouse effect,
which helps keep the Earth warm enough to
support life.
- It the source of all clouds and precipitation.
Aerosols- any microscopic particles suspended in the
air like dusts, mists, or fumes, smoke or soot from
fires, pollen ashes and dust from volcanic eruptions.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
TROPHOSPHERE- is the lowest layer of the Earth's
atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an
average height of about 9km-12km.
- It comes from the word TROPEIN which
means to turn or to change.
- It contains about 75% of the total mass of
the atmosphere
- Air is densest.
- Weather and climate takes place.
- In the troposphere, the temperature
generally decreases as altitude increases up
to the tropopause (boundary between the
troposphere and stratosphere).
STRATOSPHERE- is characterized by a slight
temperature increase with altitude and the
absence of clouds. The stratosphere extends
from the tropopause at about 12km-51km. The
earth's ozone layer is located in the
stratosphere. Only the highest clouds (cirrus,
cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus) are in the lower
stratosphere.
- It makes up about 24% of the total mass of
the earth’s atmosphere.
- It comes from the Latin word STRATUS
which means a stratified layer.
- This is where most planes like to fly.
MESOSPHERE- is characterized by temperatures
that quickly decrease as height increases. It is
the coldest zone of the atmosphere. It extends
from the stratopause at an altitude of about
50km-80km.
- In the mesosphere, the thin air, less density,
and few ozone molecules prevent the air
from warming too much. Carbon dioxide
also helps make this layer cold.
- It is also thick enough to slow down
meteors hurtling into the atmosphere.
THERMOSPHERE- warmest layer of the
atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause
(which separates it from the mesosphere) at an
altitude of about 80 km although it varies
considerably due to changes in solar activity.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of
water vapor.
IONOSPHERE- is part of the atmosphere where
sun’s radiation is ionized or pulled part as it
travels the earth’s magnetic field to the north
and south poles. It starts at about 43-50 miles
(70-80 km) high and continues for hundreds of
miles (about 400 miles = 640 km).
- It contains many ions and free electrons
(plasma). The ions are created when
sunlight hits atoms and tears off some
electrons.
 - Auroras occur in the ionosphere.
- Represents less than 0.1% of the total mass
of the earth’s atmosphere.
- Since it absorbs most energetic photons
from the sun, it is also responsible for
reflecting radio waves, thereby making long
distance communications possible.
EXOSPHERE- is the outermost layer of the Earth's
atmosphere. It extends from the exobase, which is
located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude
of about 700 km above sea level.
- It is mainly composed of hydrogen, helium
and other heavier atoms of nitrogen,
oxygen and carbon dioxide. The atoms and
molecules are so far from each other that
they can travel hundreds of kilometers
without colliding with each other.
- Molecules have enough kinetic energy to
escape the earth’s gravity and thus fly off
into the space.
WEATHER and CLIMATE
WEATHER- denotes the state of the atmosphere at a
given time and place
- It is the average interplay of all the
interacting elements over a short period of
time.
FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHER:
 TEMPERATURE- the degree or intensity
of heat present in a substance or
object, especially as expressed
according to a comparative scale and
shown by a thermometer or perceived
by touch.
- Air temperature affects the weather in a
huge way as it affects the air’s ability to
absorb water vapor. More water vapor in
the air means the air can become warmer
and this will ultimately cause weather
conditions such as thunderstorms and
hurricanes. The way in which cold and
warm air interacts is what makes us get
different weather conditions.
- Air temperatures have the influence in
creating the type of precipitation that
results from water-vapor exchanges
between earth and atmosphere.
- The earth has several ways how to obtained
and transfer heat energy through
conduction, convection and radiation.
 HUMIDITY- refers to the amount of
water vapor in the air. It also measures
the amount of water the air can hold
(relative humidity).
- The maximum amount of water in the air
depends on the temperature of the air.
Warm air can hold more moisture than cold
air. Air is saturated if it contains all the
water it can hold at that temperature which
means no more water vapor maybe added
to the air.
 CLOUDS- are form of condensation
best described as visible aggregates of
minute droplets of water or tiny
crystals of ice. Clouds help regulate
Earth's temperature. They bring life-
giving rain to different regions.
- It is classified according to form and height.
- According to form :
*cirrus- from cirro, meaning curly or
fibrous. They are high, white and thin. They
can occur as patches or as delicate veil-like
sheets or fibers that often have a feathery
appearance.
*cumulus- from cumulo, indicating heaped
or piled. It is consists of globular, individual
cloud masses.
*stratus- from strato, suggesting sheets or
layers that usually covers the entire sky.
- According to height:
*High clouds- delicate wispy clouds that are
located at altitudes above 20,000 feet or more and
composed of ice crystals, because at such altitudes
temperatures are perpetually below freezing.
Examples: cirrus- feather-like clouds, cirrocumulus-
like patches of cotton/thin sheet-like clouds that
covers the entire sky, cirrostratus- whitish layer of
cloud often producing halo around the sun.
*Middle clouds-the base of these clouds is
ranging from 6, 500 to 20, 000 feet.
Examples: altocumulus- gray or white patches of
clouds having usually a rounded appearance,
altostratus- gray or bluish layer of clouds composed
of ice crystals and water droplets.
*Low clouds- ranging from the surface of
about 6,500 feet.
Examples: stratus- low, sheet like clouds,
stratocumulus-large, rounded clouds, nimbostratus-
low, shapeless rain clouds.
*Clouds with vertical development-
ranging from 1600 feet to 35, 000 feet
Examples: cumulus-thick, pumpkin shape clouds
often separated from one another, cumulonimbus-
thunder spread clouds with cauliflower like tops. It
can produce torrential rain, vivid lightning and
thunder.
 WIND- is a moving air caused by
differences in air pressure due to
uneven heating of the earth’s surface
by the sun.
- Without wind, weather could not exist.
Wind is the vehicle by which water vapor
and temperature variations are moved from
one area of the globe to another.
- Monsoon winds (summer
monsoon/southwest monsoon and winter
monsoon/northeast monsoon) also affect
the weather.
- Most of the weather disturbances are also
caused by wind like sandstorms or dust
storms, tornadoes, storms and typhoons.
 PRECIPITATION- any form of liquid or
solid water particles that fall from the
atmosphere and reached the surface of
the earth. It is caused when a mass of
warm, moist air hits a mass of cold air.
- It may be in the form of rain, drizzle, snow,
snow grains, sleet, hail, glaze (freezing rain).
CLIMATE- sum of all the statistical weather
information that helps describe a place or
region.
KOPPEN CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
 Humid tropical/Megathermal climate-
winterless climate, all months having a
mean temperature above 18 degrees
Celsius
 Dry climate/Arid and Semi-Arid
climate- where evaporation exceeds
precipitation
 Humid middle-latitude/ Mesothermal
climate- mild winters, the average
temperature of the coldest month is
below 18 degrees Celsius but above -3
degrees Celsius
 Continental/ Microthermal climate-
severe winters, the average
temperature of the coldest month is
below -3 degrees Celsius and warmest
monthly mean exceeds 10 degrees
Celsius
 Polar climate- summerless climate, the
average temperature of the warmest
month is below 10 degrees Celsius
LITHOSPHERE- is derived from the word "sphere,"
combined with the Greek word "lithos" which means
rock. The lithosphere is the solid outer section of
Earth which includes Earth's crust (the "skin" of rock
on the outer layer of planet Earth), as well as the
underlying cool, dense, and fairly rigid upper part of
the upper mantle. The lithosphere extends from the
surface of Earth to a depth of about 44-62 mi (70-
100 km).
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
- Two types of crust :
CRUST- the thin, outermost layer of the earth. It
accounts for about 0.6% of the planet’s volume.
- It is consists mainly of oxygen, silicon,
potassium, iron and magnesium.
- The crust is thinner under the oceans (6-11
km thick); this is where new crust is formed.
Continental crust is about 25-90 km thick.
- The crust and underlying mantle is
fragmented into a mosaic of individual
- It is composed mostly of oxides and sulfides
segments called PLATES→continental
drift→ diastrophism (deformation of the
- The upper mantle is rigid and is part of the
Earth’s crust).
- The location where two plates meet is
called PLATE BOUNDARY.
- Types of plate boundaries :
 Transform boundaries- occur when
two plates slide or glide past each
other. It is either sinistral or dextral.
 Divergent boundaries- where two
plates slide apart from each other
 Convergent boundaries- occur when
two plates slide toward each other to
form either a subduction zone or
continental collision.
 Continental crust- made up of Felsic
rocks (granite)→light colored minerals
(quartz, biotite, k-feldspar)→with
↑silica but ↓ Fe and Mg
 Oceanic crust- made up of Mafic and
ultramafic rocks (basalt)→ dark-colored
minerals (olivine, clinopyroxene,
orthopyroxene, amphibole)→ with
↓silica but ↑ Fe and Mg
MANTLE- lying below the crust that
constitutes more than 80% of the earth’s
volume.
of magnesium, iron and silicon.
lithosphere (together with the crust). The
lower mantle flows slowly, at a rate of a few
centimeters per year. The asthenosphere is
a part of the upper mantle that exhibits
plastic properties. It is located below the
lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle),
between about 100 and 250 kilometers
deep.
 - Peridotite, a rock made up primarily of the
minerals olivine and pyroxene, is the chief
constituent of the Earth’s upper mantle.
- MOHOROVICIC discontinuity- the sharp
boundary between the crust and mantle
- GUTENBERG discontinuity- the sharp
boundary between mantle and core
CORE- Below the mantle is the core. It makes up
nearly one third the mass of the earth. It is
approximately 7000km in diameter and located at
the earth’s center. The Earth's core is actually made
up of two distinct parts:
 Inner core- 1, 250 km-thick, solid,
composed of iron mixed with nickel
and cobalt
 Outer core- 2,200 km-thick, liquid,
composed mainly of iron. As the Earth
rotates, the liquid outer core spins,
creating the Earth's magnetic field.
ROCKS- are naturally occurring solid aggregate of
one or more minerals.
 Igneous rocks- formed from the cooling
and solidification of magma that has
not been changed since its formation.
- Plutonic igneous rocks- results when
magma cools and crystallizes slowly within
the Earth’s crust. Ex: granite, gabbro
- Volcanic igneous rocks- when magma pours
into the earth’s surface during a volcanic
eruption is called Lava that cools to form
rocks. Ex: rhyolite, obsidian, basalt
 Sedimentary rocks- are types of rock
that are formed by the deposition of
material at the Earth's surface and
within bodies of water.
- Clastic sedimentary rocks- formed from
fragments of other rocks. Ex: shale ( from
silt particles), sandstone (sand grains),
conglomerate ( rounded pebbles)
- Chemical sedimentary rock- formed from
mineral grains that fall out of a solution by
evaporation or chemical action.
Ex : limestone( made primarily from calcium
carbonate), selenite (made up of calcium
sulfate), halite (rocksalt)
- Organic sedimentary rocks- formed from
remains of any organism. Ex: coal
(anthracite, bituminous, lignite), amber-
fossilized tree resin
 Metamorphic rocks- that has been
greatly altered from its previous
condition through the combination
actions of heat and pressure. Examples:
slate, marble, quartzite
MINERALS- are naturally occurring solid,
crystalline substances with physical and
chemical properties. There are over 2,000
minerals; only a few are necessary to identify
most rocks. Oxygen (O2) and silicon in
combination with aluminum, iron, calcium,
sodium, potassium, and magnesium account for
the minerals that make up about 95% of the
earth's crust. These minerals are called silicates.
Minerals can be divided into several categories:
 Silicious minerals- minerals that
contain silicon like quartz, micas, talc
 Non-metallic minerals-
noncombustible solid rocks or minerals
used in industry and construction in
natural form or after mechanical,
thermal, or chemical processing or for
the extraction of nonmetallic elements
or their compounds. Minerals that have
no metallic luster and break easily. Ex:
sulfur pyrite, quartzite, diorite
 Metal ore minerals- A mineral or an
aggregate of minerals from which a
valuable constituent, especially a
 metal, can be profitably mined or  DENSITY- refers to the weight of the atoms
extracted. Ex: copper ores, galena, in a mineral and how closely they are
sphalerite arranged.

 Gem minerals- is a piece of mineral  HARDNESS- measure of how tightly the

crystal, which, in cut and polished form,
is used to make jewelry or other
adornments. Ex: diamond, topaz, ruby
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 COLOR- is the easiest physical property
to describe, however it can also be the
most difficult property to make a
mineral identification. Some minerals
always have the same color, such as
gold, whereas some minerals, such as
quartz, fluorite, and calcite, come in all
colors.
atoms in a mineral are bonded together.
The property of hardness has historically
been measured according to the Mohs
scale, which was created in 1824 by the
Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs.
Mohs based his system for measuring and
describing the hardness of a sample upon
the definition of hardness as resistance to
scratching. In order to define his scale,
Mohs assembled a set of common
reference minerals of varying hardness’s
and labeled these in order of increasing
hardness from 1 to 10.

1. Talc
 LUSTER- refers to the way a minerals
2. Gypsum
reflects light. It could be metallic luster
3. Calcite
or non-metallic luster.
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
- Metallic luster- opaque. Ex. pyrite, galena,
6. Orthoclase
magnetite
7. Quartz
- Non-metallic luster-translucent. Types:
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
*vitreous- looks like broken glass like quartz
10. Diamond
and tourmaline

 FRACTURE- refers to the way a mineral

*resinous- looks like resin. Ex: sphalerite
breaks on uneven surface.
*pearly- minerals with pearl-like luster. Ex:
talc

*greasy- look like they have a thin layer of

oil. Ex: graphite

*silky- minerals that look like fibers of silk,

ex: gypsum and malachite

*adamantine- brilliant luster, ex: diamond