ānvīkṣikī

The Science of Inquiry

vidya – Science

atmavidya – the science of the soul

hetu–vidya – the science of critical analysis, logic and reason

As atmavidya is described in various philosophical studies, hetu–vidya was formally organized by Gautama
Rsi’s Nyaya–sutra. We will study hetu–vidya in its relation and subordination to the Vedic version.

The goal of this study is to train preachers to analyze and successfully present Srila Prabhupada’s teachings in a
logical and systematic manner. The students will become familiarized with the Vedic system of hermeneutics or
discerning the meaning of Vedic texts as is practiced within the Mimamsa schools. This will help the student in
understanding shastra and presenting the Vedic version to others in a convincing manner. In this regard we
present a quote where our founder acharya, His Divine Grace Srila Prabhupada, speaks of the importance of
Vaisnavas using Mimamsa to establish the correct understanding of shastra:
 Literary Structure of Vedas
“There are four chapters (adhyäyas) in the Vedänta–sütra, and there are four divisions (pädas) in each chapter.
Therefore the Vedänta–sütra may be referred to as ñoòaça–päda, or sixteen divisions of aphorisms. The theme
of each and every division is fully described in terms of five different subject matters (adhikaraëas), which are
technically called pratijïä, hetu, udäharaëa, upanaya and nigamana. Every theme must necessarily be explained
with reference to pratijïä, or a solemn declaration of the purpose of the treatise. The solemn declaration given in
the beginning of the Vedänta–sütra is athäto brahma jijïäsä, which indicates that this book was written with the
solemn declaration to inquire about the Absolute Truth. Similarly, reasons must be expressed (hetu), examples
must be given in terms of various facts (udäharaëa), the theme must gradually be brought nearer for
understanding (upanaya), and finally it must be supported by authoritative quotations from the Vedic çästras
(nigamana).”

ādhyāya – Chapter
pāda – Sub–chapter
adhikaraṇa – Topic
sūtra – Code

Saìgati – Scriptural agreement

Saìgati means agreement with the principal proposition of the work/scripture by the other parts of the
work/śāstra, and the connection between the various sections. In other words, Saìgati or consistency shows that
there is no conflict in what proceeds and what follows. Saìgati is of three sorts:

sastra–saìgati – consistency within the work

äòhyäya–saìgati – consistency within the section
päda–saìgati – consistency within the sub–section

For example, as stated by Çréla Prabhupäda, Brahman is the main theme of Vedänta–sütra. Therefore, an
interpretation of any passage, in order to fulfill the condition of Çästra–saìgati, must not go away from the subject
matter of Brahman. Secondarily, each Äòhyäya (section) has a particular topic of its own and a passage must be
interpreted consistently with the topic of that Äòhyäya. Similarly, there must be consistency within the points
of the sub–sections—Päda saìgati.
Besides these three saìgatis, there must be a logical relationship between the Adhikaraëas themselves. One
Adhikaraëa leads to another through some particular association of ideas. In a Päda, there are many Adhikaraëas
and they are not put together haphazardly. The saìgati, which binds one Adhikaraëa with another, is of six sorts:

äkñepa – objection
dåñöänta – illustration
pratidåñöänta – counter–illustration
prasaìga – incidental illustration
utpatti – introduction
apaväda – exception
 tatparya–liṇgas – Indicators for Ascertaining the Purport Of A Text
Tätparya Liìgas are used for analyzing the ascertainment, purport or meaning conveyed in scripture. This
approach is used mainly for our own benefit and is therefore referred to as svärtha anumäna, as opposed to the
Païcäìga–nyäya which is known as parärtha–anumäna or method used for convincing others.
These indicators are described in the following verse:

upakrama–upasaàhärau abhyäso ’pürvatä phalam / arthavädopappati ca liìgam tätparya–nirnaye //

The beginning and end, repetition, uniqueness, result, praise and illustrations are the six–fold indicators in
ascertaining the purport of a text.

upakramopasaàhärau—the beginning and the end

abhyäsaù—repetition
apürvatä—uniqueness
phalam—result
arthaväda–praise
upapatti—illustrations
Establishing Educational Objectives in Vedic Scriptures

Following the time–honored Vedic practice used for the development of teaching instruction, a work/book
discourse should begin with an appropriate auspicious invocation, maìgaläcaraëa. The maìgaläcaraëa, consisting
of one or more verses, is of three varieties (or any combination):

namas–kriyätmaka– paying obeisances to one’s teacher(s), worshipable deity, or both

āçér–vädätmaka – praying to the Lord for His blessings, bestowing blessings upon the readers, or exclaiming
“All glories to the Lord!”
vastu–nirdeçätmaka – summarizing the subject matter of the book

The maìgaläcaraëa will then go on to describe four essential elements of the work, called anubandha–
catuñöaya, as described by Sri Kumärila Bhaööa in his Sloka–vartikka:

adhikäré ca sambandho viñayäç ca prayojanam / äväsyam eva vaktavyaà çäträdau tu catuñöayam //

The introduction of a work must delineate four items:

viñayä – the subject itself

sambandha – connection between the book and its subject
adhikäré – qualifications of the person who may study the book
prayojana – what the reader will gain by reading the book and following the path it prescribes

The purpose of delineating these four items is to create an interest in the mind of the reader or student, as Sri
Kumärila Bhaööa states in his Sloka–varttika (1.1.17):

siddhärtham jïätä–sambandham çrotum pravartate / sästradau tena vaktavyaù sambandha sa prayojanaù //

Only after knowing the relation of the book with the subject matter (sambandha), and the purpose to be
achieved (prayojana), is one inspired to study a book. Therefore, sambandha and prayojana must be stated at the
opening.

As different qualifications are needed in achieving different goals, it is important to first establish the
qualifications needed to study (adhikäré) and the means of evaluation. By making clear the relationship
(sambandha) between the book, the subject matter, the qualified student, and the goal, continuity and sequence
is provided for the student to integrate what might otherwise appear as isolated learning experiences. One must
see that the learning experiences of the subject (viñayä), bring about the attainment of the purpose (prayojana)
the study seeks to attain.
 Mémäàsä Analysis

The mémäàsä çästra describes a method of analysis of the Vedic mantras. In the Vedas there are various
topics and methods of analyzing them involve raising doubts regarding the meaning of a particular mantra. A
viewpoint which attempts to explain the meaning of a mantra is then presented logically. The next step consists
of pointing out the fallacies in the logic given, and then the true meaning of the mantra is established.
Mémäàsä, is twofold: Pürva–mémäàsä, which analyzes the karma–kāṇda section of Vedas, Saṁhitās and
Brahmanas; and Uttara–mémäàsä, which analyzes jñāna–kāṇda section of Vedas, the Āraṇyakas and Upaniñads.
The prefixes pürva and uttara refer to the former and latter portions of the Vedas, respectively. Without any
prefix, the word mémäàsä is synonymous with Pürva–mémäàsä.
For every Vedic branch of knowledge, there are three supporting types of literature: sütra, bhäñya, and
varttika. Sütra refers to the aphoristic style of writing an original work.Since sütras are brief in nature, they are
supported by bhäñya, or commentaries that explain the meaning of the original text in detail. The varttika is a
work, which analyzes the original text and bhäñya, explaining aspects of the subject matter which are not
explicitly addressed. Listed below are three verses which define sütra, bhäñya, and varttika, respectively.
The sütra literature is a class by itself. At the time when committing things to memory was considered
supremely important, this method suited admirably.
In the Väyu and Skanda Puräëas, the following verse explains a sütra:

alpäkñaram asandigdhaà sära–vat viçvato–mukham / astobham anavadyaà ca sütraà sütra–vido viduù //

That which is brief, unambiguous, meaningful, non–contradicting, non–exaggerating and free from any
defect (grammatical or repetitive or both) is a sütra, according to those who are adept in sütra literature.
(Quoted in Adi 7.106, purport)
The main characteristic of a sütra are the following:

alpäkñaram – consisting of minimum of number of letters

asandigdhaà – without doubt as regards the meaning
sära–vat – must contain the essence of the subject
viçvato–mukham – and yet, reflect all aspects of the same

The following verse explains a bhäñya:

sütrartho varnyate yatra vakyaih sütra–nukaribhih / svapädani ca varnyante bhäñyam bhäñyavido viduh //

The knowers of bhäñya know bhäñya to be that in which the meaning of sütras are explained with words in
keeping with the sütra order. In addition, it explains the usage of its own words where necessary.
The main characteristic of a bhäñya are the following:

sütrartho varnyate — explaines the meaning of aphorisms

sütranukaribhih — keeps with the order of the aphorisms
svapädani ca varnyante – explains the usage of its own words

The following verse explains a varttika:

uktanuktaduruktanam cinta yatra pravarttate / tam gantham varttikam prahuh varttikajnah vicaksanah //

The experts who know varttika define it as a work wherein there is an analysis of what was said, not said and
improperly said in any original work.

The main characteristic of a sütra are the following:

ukta – analysis of what has been said

anukta – analysis of what has not been said
duruktanam – analysis of what has been inadequately said
 Bodhana-śāstra
Principles of Pedagogy (traditionally called Bodhana Śāstra) play an important role in the sustenance and
development of the traditional knowledge system. It refers to the constituents of learning and the way any subject
is taught, learnt and developed.
Each subject has a source text that explains its essential principles. It is understood and taught with the help of a
number of ancillary texts that interpret and explain the original text. The educating and learning system also
involves development of the subject through diversity in the ancillary texts.

Contents

1 Aspects of Learning
2 Teaching a Kāvya
3 Elements of Interpretation/Explanation
3.1 Bhāṣya
3.2 Vārtika
3.3 Kārika
3.4 Prakaraṇa

Aspects of Learning

anubandha catuṣṭaya – Four Constituents of Learning

1. viṣaya: The subject being learnt, taught or hypothesized. It is also called pratipādyam.
2. adhikāri: The learner, and (adhikāra) his/her qualification for learning the subject.
3. prayojana: The purpose of learning the subject.
4. sambandha: (a) The relation between Viṣaya and Prayojana; (b) The relation between Adhikāri and Prayojana
-- how a qualified person achieves his objective.
Teaching a Kāvya
ṣaḍanga-kavya - Six limbs of Teaching a Kāvya

1. pariccheda: Breaking up the composite words and explaining the sandhis, samāsas, etc., in the śloka
2. artha: Explaining the meaning of words in the śloka
3. ākānkṣa: Explaining the relation of words with each other starting with kriyā pada, to bring out the meaning
of a śloka.
4. śabda, samāsa: Vibhakti pratyayas of words in their eka, dvi, bahu vachana forms is shown.
5. vyākhyāna: Śloka is commented upon with the help of five limbs
6. bhāva: Explaining the entire import of śloka thus derived from the above steps.

vyākhyāna pañca lakṣaṇa – Five Characteristics of Exposition

1. padaccheda - word-division
2. padārthokti - stating the meaning of the words
3. vigraha - analysis of grammatical compounds
4. vākya yojana - construing the sentences
5. ākṣepa samādhāna - solving objections
Commentaries on Patanjali’s Mahābhāṣya
Elements of Interpretation/Explanation

Broadly, there are two kinds of texts taught -- Sūtra and Kāvya. The original texts expounding the essential
principles of a subject is generally in sūtra form, though śloka or prose forms are also found. Kāvya, as the name
suggests, is poetry and is in śloka form. The general principles of teaching apply to both the types of texts.

There are various kinds of interpreting works/texts for a source text, used to understand, learn and teach the same.
They are:
Bhāṣya
Vārtika
Kārika
Prakaraṇa
Vṛtti
Paddhati
Samīkṣa
Ṭīka
Tupṭīka
Viveka
Vyākhya

Of these, bhāṣya, vārtika, kārika and prakaraṇa are important.

Bhāṣya

Bhāṣya is the primary commentary of a text. The general definition of bhāṣya is:

sūtrārtho varṇyate yatra padaih sūtrānusāribhiḥ / sva padāni ca varṇyante bhāṣyam bhāṣya vido viduḥ //

It means Bhāṣya is the work in which the meaning of the sūtra is explained wordwise, and the meaning of each
word is given and explained. Each word/sūtra may be explained using a śloka. Thus one may substitute the word
śloka for sūtra to get the bhāṣya for a text.

The more specific definition of a bhāṣya is that it explains a sūtra or śloka with the help of pada, vākya, and
pramāṇa.

1. pada: Word meanings are explained with the help of vyākaraṇa or Śabdakośa(rūḍhi)
2. vākya: The context of sentence in the text and context in the particular subject (Śāstra) is explained. Words
have different meaning in different subjects: for instance, guṇa means character in literature; it means bow-string
in archery; and so on.
3. pramāṇa: The basis for an interpretation. It is also the source for validating/verifying/refuting the interpretation.
Each school and Śāstra recognizes a set of valid pramāṇās through which one can verify the validity of a
proposition/hypothesis. Perception (pratyakṣa) and inference (anumāna) are examples of Pramāṇa.

Examples: Most of the major works have a bhāṣya.

1. The Bhāṣya for Veda is given by Sāyaṇa.

2. Bhāṣya to Panini’s Astadhyayi is Patanjali’s Mahābhāṣya.
3. Mīmāmsa Sūtras are given Bhāṣya by Śabara Muni
4. Vedānta Sūtras have multiple Bhāṣyas, by Śankara, Rāmānuja, Madhva and others

Vārtika

Vārtika is the secondary commentary of a text. Typically it is done after a Bhāṣya. Vārtika is defined as:

uktānukta duruktārtha chinākaritu vārtikam //

It means Vārtika is the text that explains Ukta, Anukta and Durukta.

ukta: Elucidating whatever is said in the original in a brief manner.

anukta: Explaining whatever is said indirectly in the original. This is also called upabrāhmaṇam.
durukta: Correcting/explaining whatever is left unsaid by oversight or said incompletely.

Examples:

1. Vārtika of Mīmāmsa Sūtras is given by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa in two forms – Mīmāmsa śloka Vārtika and Tantra
Vārtika
1. Vārtikas for Yoga and Sānkhya is given by Vijnāna Bhikṣu
1. Vārtika for Vedānta Sūtras is given by Nārāyaṇa Saraswati

Kārika

Kārika is another kind of compendium/commentary that explains a text in concise statements called kārikas.

Examples:
1. Gaudapāda gave Kārika to Mānḍūkya Upaniṣad
1. Īśvara Kṛṣṇa gave Kārika to Sānkhya

Prakaraṇa

Literally, prakaraṇa means category. Prakaraṇa aims more at structuring and arranging the subject matter than
expounding it. It is defined as:

upakramopasamhāra vabhyāso apūrvatāphalam / ardhavādopapatteca lingam tātaparya nirṇayet //

It means the tātparya or import of a text is explained in a Prakaraṇa in six parts:

1. upakrama and upasamhāra: Introducing the subject and concluding it.

2. abhyāsa: Emphasising the important aspects repeatedly.
3. apūrvata: Indicating the subtle aspects while explaining the subject.
4. phala: The objective or propose in learning a subject.
5. artha vāda: Eulogizing the subject matter and refuting counter arguments
6. upapatti: yukti (tenability) and sāmanjasya (rationale of the subject)

Examples:

1. Viveka Cūḍāmaṇi of Śankara is a prakaraṇa text on Vedānta

2. The compendium of Gāyatrī Vidya is called Gāyatrī Prakaraṇa
 pañcāṇga–nyāya – Fivefold Syllogism of Logic
The following verse commonly found in the commentaries on Vedanta and Mimamsa çästra describes the
five–fold elements that constitute the method of analysis of Vedic mantras:

viñayo viçayaçcaiva pürvapakñas–tathottaram / nirëayaç ceti païcäìgam sästre ‘dhikaraëam småtam //

In a text, an adhikaraëa refers to a topic which consists of five elements: the subject matter, doubts,
an opponent’s interpretation of meaning, an alternate viewpoint and ascertaining the final meaning.

The terms commonly used in the scriptures for the five syllogistic aspects, païcäìga nyäya, of an topic,
adhikaraëa are:

viñayaù—the subject matter – wherein the Vedic mantra in question is presented

saàçaya —doubts raised – regarding the various possible meanings of the mantra
pürva pakñaù—opponent’s interpretation – of the meaning, which is logically presented
uttaram—alternate viewpoint – which points out the fallacies in the logic of the opponents
nirëayah—ascertaining – the final meaning of the mantra
additional

1. Viñayä – thesis or pratijïä

2. Saàçaya – doubt or hetu reasons
3. Pürva pakña – antithesis/prima faci or udäharaëa or examples
4. Uttaram – alternate viewpoint or upanaya or further explanations
5. Nirëaya – synthesis / correct conclusion or siddhänta / nigamana or supporting quotations from
scriptures

These elements of pañcāṅga–nyāya can also be categorized according to vastu–trayī as follows:

Sambandha 1. Viṣaya (subject) or pratijñā (thesis)
2. Saṁśaya (doubt) or hetu (reasons)
Abhidheya 3. Pūrvapakṣa (antithesis) or udāharaṇa (examples)
4. Uttaram (alternate viewpoint) or upanaya (further explanations)
Prayojana 5. Nirṇaya (synthesis/correct conclusion) or siddhānta/nigamana (supporting quotations from
scriptures)