PERGAMON Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755

Renewable energy potential as an alternative to fossil fuels

in Turkey
Volkan S° . Ediger a, Elc° in Kentel b
a
Turkish Petroleum Corp., Mustafa Kemal Mah. No. 2, 06520 Ankara, Turkey
b
NigÆde University, Aksaray Engineering Faculty, 68100 Aksaray, Turkey
Received 8 November 1997

Abstract

Clean, domestic and renewable energy is commonly accepted as the key for future life, not only for
Turkey but also for the world. All nations, regardless of their degree of development, are trying to
develop and apply technologies that will enable them to use renewable energy sources in the most
ecient ways. Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these
sources. Because of this and the fact that it has limited fossil fuel resources, a gradual shift from fossil
fuels to renewables seems to be serious and the sole alternative for the country. Turkey's renewable
energy source potential and their present use are here evaluated based on the available data. # 1999
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Renewable energy; Biomass; Hydropower; Geothermal; Solar; Wind; Turkey

1. Introduction

Turkey's geographic location has several advantages for extensive use of most of the
renewable energy sources (Fig. 1). It is on the humid and warm climatic belt, which includes
most of Europe, the near east and western Asia. A typical Mediterranean climate is
predominant at most of its coastal areas, whereas the climate at the interior part between the
mountains that are a part of the Alpine±Himalayan mountain belt is dry with typical steppe
vegetation. This is mainly because the country is surrounded by seas at three sides: the Black
sea at the north, the Marmara sea and Aegean sea to the west and the Mediterranean sea to
the south.
Clean, domestic and renewable energy is commonly accepted as the key for future life, not
only for Turkey but also for the world. This is primarily because renewable energy resources
have some advantages when compared to fossil fuels. These advantages can be grouped under
``environmental concerns'' and ``limited resources.''

0196-8904/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 9 6 - 8 9 0 4 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 1 2 2 - 8
744 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755

Fig. 1. Geographic location of Turkey. The stippled area depicts the humid and warm climatic belt extending
between Europe and western Asia.

SO2, NOx, CO2, particulate matter and other emissions cause critical environmental
problems, as they reach levels which allow long range or cross country transport of these
pollutants. Turkey receives signals from international sources, being among the rare countries
which have not reduced NOx and sul®de emissions in 1992 with respect to the 1980 s. It could
not sign the ``Climate Change Agreement'' because it had six power plants on the list of ``100
sources which cause highest sul®de emissions in Europe'' [1]. These environmental facts force
Turkey to take some measures covering clean fuel consumption, application of emission
control technologies and conservation of energy consumption on personal and community
bases.
Although Turkey has almost all kinds of energy resources, it is an energy importing country,
since these resources are limited [2]. More than half of the primary energy consumption in
Turkey is met by imports and the share of imports continues to increase each year. Therefore,
it seems that, if the country wants to supply its demand by domestic resources, being less
dependent on foreign resources, a shift from conventional energy resources (i.e. fossil fuels,
such as hard coal, lignite, oil and natural gas) to renewable energy resources must be realized
in a reasonable time period.
The total renewable energy production and consumption of Turkey are equal to each other,
varying between 9.0±11.0 million toe each for the 1986±1995 period (Fig. 2). Their share in
total energy production varies between 37.43±43.06% while in total consumption between
16.35±22.00% for the same period. Among the production of renewable energy sources,
biomass, which includes wood and dung, is the highest in 1994, reaching 7.957 million toe. The
second highest is hydro energy production which reached 3.057 million toe in 1995. The
production of geothermal and solar energy is negligible compared to biomass and hydro
power, varying from 43 to 190 thousand toe between 1986 and 1995. Wind energy almost does
not have any application yet.
Fig. 2. Renewable energy consumption of Turkey between 1986±1995. Data from [2].
V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755
745
746 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755

Table 1
Forest potential of Turkey. Data from [2, 3].

Resources Annual growth

(thousand m3) (thousand m3)

High productive (total) 847,032 25,605

Forest 88,300 4,813
Other woodlands 758,732 20,792
Low productive (total) 88,479 2,459
Forest 34,129 1,115
Other woodlands 54,350 1,344
Total 935,511 28,064

These are the reasons why the authors of this paper tried to determine objectively the
renewable energy potential of Turkey. For this purpose, all previous data are collected and
evaluated. Reserves and limited applications of each renewable energy resource, such as
biomass, hydro, geothermal, solar and wind, in the country will be explained in the following
sections separately.

2. Biomass energy

Biomass potential includes wood and other animal and plant wastes. However, the wood
fuel production is not as high as expected, since forests are rapidly being reduced in Turkey
due to overtimbering and deforestation (Table 1). The total forest potential of Turkey is
around 935 million m3 with an annual growth of about 28 million m3 (Table 1). The average
annual growth rate of the forests is about 3%. Around 90% of this potential includes high
productive forests and other woodlands, the others being low productive forests and other
woodlands. Energy forests seem to be the best solution, and it has been estimated that 5
million hectares of productive forest land is available to be used as energy forests in
Turkey [2, 3].

Table 2
Distribution of biogas potential of Turkey. Data from [4].

Biogass potential (m3/year)

Dung gas 3,302,851,412 m3/year

Cattle (43,102,800 tons dung) 1,422,392,400 m3/year
Sheep (28,303,100 tons dung) 1,641,579,800 m3/year
Poultry (3,062,554 tons dung) 238,879,212 m3/year
Land®ll gas 600,000,000 m3/year
Total biogas* 3,902,851,412 m3/year

*Provided that all dung is used for biogas production

 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755 747

Biogas, which is the fermentation product of animal dung, has a potential between 2.2±3.9
billion m3 per year, corresponding to 1±2 million toe provided that all dung is used for biogas
production [2, 4, 5]. Around 85% of the total biogas potential is from dung gas, and the
remainder is from land®ll gas (Table 2). The dung gas potential is obtained from 50% sheep,
43% cattle and 7% poultry. It is calculated that an average of 80±100 ton wet biomass (25±30
ton usable biomass) per hectare can be obtained in the Central Anatolian region [6].
The overall bioenergy potential of Turkey is estimated to be 17.2 million toe [7]. However,
this estimate is based on the recoverable energy potential from the main agricultural residues,
livestock farming wastes, forestry, wood processing residues and municipal wastes.
Biomass resources have been used essentially for cooking and heating purposes, especially in
rural areas in Turkey. The use of animal wastes as biofuel is limited, because they are mostly
used in agriculture as fertilizers. The only waste power plant of the country is in Adana, and
was built in 1991 [8]. Land®ll gas has been used only occasionally as an energy resource in
Turkey.

3. Hydro power

Annual rainfall in Turkey varies between 220 mm to 2500 mm with an average of about
643 mm, and most of the hydro power plants are in the regions receiving an average annual
rainfall of more than 500 mm (Fig. 3). Also, as can easily be observed from the map, most of
the hydro power plants are located away from the heavy demand centers of the Istanbul±
Ankara axis in the northwest of Turkey. Because of this geographic location of its generating

Fig. 3. Map depicting hydro power plants in operation in Turkey. Data from [9].
748 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755

Table 3
Hydro power potential of Turkey. Data from [2, 9].

Power Electricity
(mw) generation
(gwh/year)

Gross potential 49,427 433,000

Economically usable potential 34,736 125,000
Exploited potential (total in operation) 9,865 36,000
Dams and HEPPs* 9,349 33,518
Run-o€ river & canal HEPPs 516 2,482

*Hydro Electric Power Plants

potential, Turkey has a de®ciency of electricity in the west but has been able to export power
in the east.
According to recent studies, the economically usable potential of electricity generation of
Turkey is estimated as 125,000 GWh per year (Table 3). This ®gure corresponds to around
29% of the gross potential of electricity generation from hydro power. The total installed
hydro power capacity of Turkey reached 9,865 MW in 1995. This ®gure corresponds to around
28.5% of the economically usable power potential. About 95% of the already exploited
potential is from dams and hydroelectric power plants (HEPP), and the remainder is from run-
o€ river and canal HEPPs. In addition to the dams and run-o€ rivers and canals in operation,
several others are in various stages, such as under construction, ®nal design completed and
®nal design in progress (Table 4). The total installed capacity of them is 8,820 MW. Following
completion of their construction, the total amount of exploited potential will reach 18,685
MW, consisting of about 54% of the economically usable potential. The annual electricity
generation will then reach 63,969 GWh which will consist of about 51% of the economically
usable potential.

Table 4
Potentials of hydroplants under construction and at various stages. Data
from [9].

Installed Electricity
capacity generation
(mw) (gwh/year)

Dams (under construction) 3,092 9,809

Dams (®nal design completed) 4,284 12,898
Dams (®nal design in progress) 926 3,279
Run-o€ river & canal (under construction) 111 406
Run-o€ river & canal (®nal design completed) 284 1,101
Run-o€ river & canal (®nal design in progress) 123 476
Total 8,820 27,969
 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755 749

Fig. 4. Geothermal ®elds having temperatures greater than 1008C. Data from [2, 10±20].

4. Geothermal energy

Turkey is situated on the Alpine±Himalayan orogenic belt and the Miocene or younger
grabens are developed as the result of this orogeny. Wide spread volcanism, fumarole
hydrothermal alterations and the existence of more than 600 hot springs, some of which have
1008C and greater temperatures, indicate that Turkey has an important geothermal energy
potential (Fig. 4).
The overall geothermal potential of Turkey is about 38,000 MW (Table 5). Around 88% of
this potential is appropriate for thermal use (low enthalpy ®elds with temperature less than
2008C) and the remainder for electricity production (high enthalpy ®elds with temperature
more than 2008C). Only 7.2% of the low enthalpy ®elds and 4.4% of the high enthalpy ®elds
are proven, and the remainder is probable and possible reserve.
In spite of geothermal energy being a relatively new energy for Turkey, when compared with
other energy resources, it is utilized for various purposes, such as for electricity production,

Table 5
Geothermal potential of Turkey. Data from [2, 12, 13].

Proven Probable & possible

(mw) (mw)

Heat (<2008C, low enthalpy ®elds) 2,250 MWt 31,100 MWt

Electricity (>2008C, high enthalpy ®elds) 200 MWe 4,500 MWe
750 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755

space heating and touristic installations (Fig. 4). The only geothermal power plant of Turkey
was installed in the K|z|ldere (Denizli) ®eld in February 1984, sixteen years later than the
drilling of the ®rst borehole as a result of a project supported by UNDP in 1968 [2, 8, 10±
15, 21]. The installed capacity of this power plant is 20.4 MW. In addition, a factory with a
capacity of 40,000 tons/year is continuing to extract CO2 gas from the steam to meet the
demand of domestic industry. Greenhouses of approximately 5,000 m2 have been heated by
using waste water of the plant [10, 11].
Greenhouse and dwelling heating installations also exist in various locations in Turkey. For
example, the Balc° ova (IÇ zmir) geothermal ®eld (Fig. 4) has been used for the thermal installations
of Balc° ova and for some units of the 9 EyluÈl University [10, 12±14, 22]. 2,000 m2 of greenhouse
and 1,600 dwellings are heated by geothermal energy in GoÈnen-Bal|kesir [10, 13, 23]. Apart from
the utilizations given above, greenhouses of 1,000 m2 in C° anakkale [10], 6,900 m2 in Havran±
Bal|kesir [10], 3,000 m2 in Tekkehamam±Denizli [10], 6,000 m2 in Seferihisar±IÇ zmir [23],
10,000 m2 in SaraykoÈy±Denizli [23], 5,000 m2 in Germencik±Ayd|n [23], 1,750 m2 in S|nd|rgi±
Bal|kesir [23] and 22,705 m2 in Edremit±Bal|kesir [23] are heated by geothermal energy.

5. Solar energy

Solar energy, being the oldest energy source used by mankind, is the cleanest and most
abundant one among others. Turkey's geographical location is highly favorable for utilization
of solar energy (Fig. 1).
It is well known that climatic data can not be used for solar feasibility studies for the
determination of possible locations for power generation installations. To provide appropriate

Fig. 5. Map depicting distribution of sunshine duration and solar radiation in Turkey. Data from [24].
 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755 751

Table 6
Solar radiation and sunshine duration by regions of Turkey. Data
from [2, 3, 8, 24±30].

Solar radiation Sunshine duration

(cal/cm2.day) (hour/day)

Southeast Anatolia 344.8 8.2

Mediterranean 328.3 8.1
East Anatolia 322.4 7.3
Central Anatolia 310.3 7.2
Aegean 308.0 7.5
Marmara 275.9 6.6
Black Sea 264.5 5.4
Turkey Average 309.6 7.2

data, solar data acquisition systems were installed in ®ve di€erent locations of Turkey by the
Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIÇ EIÇ ). According to
solar radiation and sunshine duration distribution maps by this administration in 1983, solar
radiation and sunshine duration vary between about 240±395 cal/cm2 day and 4.5±8.5 h/day,
respectively (Fig. 5). The average solar radiation is 309.6 cal/cm2 day, and the average sunshine
duration is 7.2 h/day (Table 6). The southeast Anatolia region is the most favorable region for
solar energy use with an average solar radiation of 344.8 cal/cm2 day and sunshine duration of
8.2 h/day. The southern part of the Erzurum±Ankara line have more than the average solar
radiation (Fig. 5).
The gross solar potential of Turkey is calculated as 88 billion toe per year, of which 40%
can be used economically [2, 3, 25]. Three-fourths of the economically usable potential is
ecient for thermal use (26.4 billion toe per year) and the remainder for electricity production
(8.8 billion toe per year).
Since the technology necessary for its conversion into more practical energy forms for daily
use has not reached the economically feasible level, solar power applications are limited, both
in Turkey and in the world. For Turkey, the ®rst recorded data about solar energy use, which
was only 5,000 toe, was in 1986. It increased more than 10 times, reaching 52,000 toe in
1995 [2].
Among the three applications of solar energy (i.e. photovoltaic, thermoelectricity and
thermal), thermal is the most commonly used one for producing hot water in the south and
west of Turkey. A total of 19 million m2 of ¯at plate collectors are produced by about 40
di€erent companies in Turkey in 1995 [2, 31]. Some other applications, such as irrigation
pumps, lighting of various places and cathodic protection against corrosion, are negligible
when compared to applications for heating purposes [8, 32±34].

6. Wind energy

The most attractive regions for wind energy applications are the Marmara, Southeast
Anatolian and Aegean according to data by EiEi's wind energy data acquisition stations at
752 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755

Fig. 6. Regions where wind speed exceeds 3 m/s and wind density distribution of Turkey. Data from [35].

various locations (Fig. 6, Table 7). These regions are highly suitable for wind power
generation, since wind speeds exceed 3 m/s in most of these areas. Old wind mills found in the
Marmara and Aegean regions are good indicators of the wind energy potential for these
regions [37].
The highest wind speed values are given in the literature as 5.1±5.2 m/s in Bandirma [14, 36±
38], 6.3±7.0 m/s in Bozcaada [8, 14, 35, 40, 41], 6.4 m/s in Karaburun [36], 6.4 m/s in
Karabiga [36], 7.1 m/s in NurdagÆi [36], 7.3 m/s in S° enkoÈy [36]. The already recorded highest
wind densities are 152.6 watt/m2 in Band|rma [37, 38] and 108.9 watt/m2 in Antakya [37, 38].

Table 7
Wind potential by regions of Turkey. Data form [2, 3, 36±39].

Annual average Annual average

wind density wind speed
(watt/m2) (m/s)

Marmara 51.9 3.3

Southeast Anatolia 29.3 2.7
Aegean 23.5 2.6
Mediterranean 21.4 2.5
Black Sea 21.3 2.4
Central Anatolia 20.1 2.5
East Anatolia 13.2 2.1
Turkey Average 24.0 2.5
 V.S° . Ediger, E. Kentel / Energy Conversion & Management 40 (1999) 743±755 753

The gross wind energy potential of Turkey is more than 400 billion kWh, of which 124
billion kWh is technically feasible potential, and for some speci®c locations, the net economic
potential reaches about 14 billion kWh [38]. The world has approximately 2,500 MW installed
capacity, most of which is in the USA and Denmark [2, 42]. However, although some research
is continued by EiEi, Tubitak Marmara Research Institute, the Middle East Technical
University and some others, there has not been any comprehensive application. The only
electricity generator in use in Turkey is in C° es° me-IÇ zmir and it has 55 kWh energy [8, 38].

7. Concluding remarks

Using traditional sources and fossil fuels for energy results in smog on the local scale, acid
rain on a regional scale and an enhanced greenhouse e€ect on a global scale [43]. The negative
economic value of the damage which is estimated to be around $454 per capita should be
already an alarming signal for consumption of fossil fuels [44]. All nations, regardless of their
degree of development, are faced with improving a cleaner and, therefore, less contaminating
technology for the use of renewable energy sources [45]. Environmental concerns emerging in
the late 1980 s and high oil prices in the 1990 s are certain to stimulate new e€orts in shifting
the source of energy supply from exhaustible to renewable energy [46].
Due to some technological and economical consequences, renewable energy resources do not
have wide applications neither in the world nor in Turkey at present. Besides, with the existing
technology, it does not seem possible to supply the total demand of any country from
renewable sources [46, 47]. However, a step-wise (i.e. combined use) shift from fossil fuels to
renewable ones seems to be serious and the sole alternative also for Turkey, which considers
itself as an integrated part of the world system.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Turkish Petroleum Corporation and the NigÆde
University for permission to publish this paper. Appreciation is also due the Solar and Wind
Energy Departments of the Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development
Administration (EIÇ EIÇ ) for providing data, particularly related to the solar and wind energy
potential of Turkey.

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