LECTURE 8 FAULT SYSTEMS

= Fault Tips
Hw
Hw = Hangingwall
LECTURE PLAN Fw = Footwall Fw

1) INTRODUCTION
2) NORMAL FAULT SYSTEMS Fault displacements die out both

3) STRIKE-SLIP SYSTEMS up-down and along-strike of the fault

Geometry of the top
of the pink layer in
4) THRUST SYSTEMS En
echelon
three-dimensions

transfer
zone

1) INTRODUCTION
End-on
transfer zone

UPLIFT
Single faults in isolation are unable to accommodate large SUBSIDENCE
displacements which commonly occur within plates or along Faults are generally about 30 to 300 times longer than

plate boundaries. Displacements are accommodated by fault Back to

systems under these circumstances.
2) NORMAL FAULT SYSTEMS
Normal fault systems are generally segmented along strike.
The terminations of segments are termed transfer zones (also
accommodation zones and relay zones). Transfer zones
their displacement (a fault with 0.1 to 1 km of
displacement is about 30 km long). So individual faults
can accommodate little strain. They work together as
text fault systems to produce larger intra-continental strains.
Shaded relief image of the western
U.S.A. illustrating the structure of the
Basin and Range extensional
province (inside the dashed line). The
ridges and basins shown in the area
are controlled by normal faults. Note
how the ranges die out along strike
reflecting the lowering of topography
as the end of each fault is reached.
Individually each fault accommodates
only a small amount of heave
(horizontal extension), but together,
the large number of normal faults
accommodate tens of kilometres of
San
extension. Zoom in to look at the
detail of en echelon and end on fault
geometries.
Francisco

accommodate the deformation between offset fault segments.

Back to
text
Segments may be arranged en echelon, or with an end-on Los Angeles

geometry.
Pacific Ocean

Fault displacements decrease along fault segments towards

the transfer zones. Thus, both footwall uplift and hanging-wall
Course Homepage Contact Staff
subsidence decrease into transfer zones.
Lecture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Practical 1 2 3 4 5 6 71 8 9 10
Spatial variation in fault displacements can be seen on
stratigraphic separation diagrams where the elevation of the
footwall cut-off of a particular stratigraphic horizon is plotted
Footwall cutoff of
graphically against distance along the fault. top Mesozoic 1000 m
500 m
Stratigraphic
separation S.L.
Recently, it has been recognised that there exist number of Hangingwall cutoff diagram -500 m
of top Mesozoic -1000 m
transfer zone morphologies and dimensions.
10 km
SOUTH ALKYONIDES NORMAL FAULT, GREECE
a) Transfer zone dimensions
Back to
text

Interbasin transfer zones- link individual half grabens along

strike to form a rift zone. Individual half-graben are between 50
and 150km in length. Intrabasin transfer zones- are located
along the margins of individual half-graben and mark the Low topography at the
lateral termination of a

terminations of individual fault segments or even sub-divide Lateral termination of

a hanging-wall basin
at a transverse
footwall mountain range

individual segments. They are spaced c.15-30 km. bed-rock ridge

Mountain-range
shaped like a half-dome

b) Transfer zone geometries

Basin shaped like
a half-spoon

i) polarity changing transfer zones exist where faults dip in Back to

text

opposite directions (i.e. antithetic orientation). Interbasin ridges Modern lakes and marine waters

form where a horst exist between two normal faults of opposed Fan/deltas with steep depositional

Syn-rift
slopes and limited lateral extent along fault segments Modern drainage

dip direction separated by a transfer zone. Mosaic zones form Sheet-like fan/deltas of large-lateral extent
entering basin through persistent segment boundaries
Drainage divide

where a graben exists between two normal faults of opposed Older syn-rift stratigraphy
Syn-rift/pre-rift contact
Pre-rift stratigraphy dipping basinwards
dip direction separated by a transfer zone.
Back to
text

ii) non-polarity changing transfer zones exist where the faults

dip in the same direction. The faults may be linked by a a zone
a flexure known as relay ramps or by strike-slip faults known
as transfer faults. Start of this Lecture
 Interbasin Transfer Zones
NPCTZ = Non-polarity changing transfer zone
Depocentre PCTZ = polarity changing transfer zone

PCTZ
(Mosaic Zone)
PCTZ
(Interbasin Depocentre
Depocentre Ridge)

Intrabasin Transfer Zoe

NPCTZ Depocentre
(Relay Ramp)

Cartoon showing
segmentation in a rift.

Segmentation of the East

Segmentation of the East
African Rift
African Rift
Graben Graben

Interbasin Ridge
Interbasin Ridge

Graben Graben

Non-polarity changing Non-polarity changing

Polarity transfer zone Polarity
transfer zone
Changing (relay ramp) Changing
(relay ramp)
transfer zone transfer zone
(Mosaic Zone) (Mosaic Zone)

Non-polarity changing Non-polarity changing

transfer zone transfer zone
(relay ramp) Polarity
(relay ramp) Polarity
Changing
Changing
transfer zone
transfer zone
(Mosaic Zone)
(Mosaic Zone)

Back to Back to
overview overview
 A former Birkbeck student, Angela Walker, investigated how strain is transferred
between neighbouring faults by studying the south flank of Kilaeua volcano, Hawaii. She
Hawaii is a volcanic
mapped the offsets across the faults using a digital elevation model made by the Space
island on a hotspot Shuttle using a radar (SRTM data). She plotted profiles of vertical offset across the indi-
trail. vidual faults and then added throws across strike between individual faults. She showed
that the greatest offset occurred where GPS velocities are greatest. Strain is transferred
between faults (e.g. between faults 1 and 9 to make a “flat” portion on the cumulative
profile.
Hawaii
34000

R = Relay Zones Digitised fault map (a)

32000
PT = Palaeo-tips
= points of fault linkage
30000

PT

Latitude (metres)
28000 PT R
PT PT
Back to R
PT
overview 26000 PT R
R R R Back to
R
PT overview
24000 R R
R GPS Station
22000
145000 R Points where x,y and z data
were collected along the
140000

faults
(c)
Kilauea
KILAUEA
36000
CRATER N
AHUP NUPM
KOSM HALP 20000

Caldera
KPTM
MANE
GOPM HOLE 141000 146000 151000 156000 161000 166000 171000
PGF1 Longitude (metres)
900
Elevations of footwall and hangingwall cut-offs (b)
PGF6
32000
PGF2 800
PGF5
PGF3
PGF4
KAEP 700

Elevation (metres)
GPS velocities
1997 to 2005
600
5km 3cm/yr
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
141000 146000 151000 156000 161000 166000 171000
Longitude (metres)
450
400 Individual and cumulative throws across the faults (c)
350
Throw (metres)

300

Faults cause extension of the south flank

Pacific Ocean 250 Back to
due to a combination of magma Back to 200 overview
150
pressure and gravity. overview 100
50
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Length along the fault system (metres)
Fault 1 Fault 2 Fault 3 Fault 4 Fault 5 Fault 6 Fault 7 Fault 8 Fault 9 Fault10a Fault 10
Fault 11 Fault 12 Fault 13a Fault 13b Fault 14 Fault 15 Fault 15a Fault 16 Fault 17 Fault 17a Fault 18
Fault 19a Fault 19b Fault 20 Fault 21a Fault 21b cumulative
 (A) (B) ount
ains

3) STRIKE-SLIP SYSTEMS N
Dasht-e Bayaz Sa nta M
oni
ca M

Inglewood Field
N

Playa del Rey

Potrero Field
Field

San
Rosecrons Fields 10 km

ta M
El Segundo Field

Straight segments of strike-slip faults comprise en echelon

Dominquez Field

onic
a Ba
1000 m Torrance Field

y
Long Beach Field

Pal

riedel shears and P shears. Anatomising fault strands are Hil os Ver Seal Beach Field
(C) Mediterranean Sea Location ls des
N Wilmington Field
Huntington Beach Field
San P
edro

characteristic of strike slip systems because no bedding G. Of

Aqaba
Dead sea Oil-fields,
Bay Huntington Beach
Tidelands Pool
San Joaquin Hills

anisotropies can pre-determine fault trajectories. 50 km

showing fold axis

(D) (E) (F)

160
N 80 Coyote Creek
160 Fault

Major bends along strike-slip faults are produce extensional or HFZ Glynnwye Lake

0
24
N N

24

16
+

0
400

contractional strains within the rocks surrounding the fault. 100 m 0.5 km 2 km
80

Releasing bends are associated with extensional strains
(extend bedding) whilst restraining bends are associated with
contractional strains (shorten bedding).
(A) Incipient extensional duplex at a bend in the Dasht-e Bayaz 1968 earthquake surface rupture (after
Back to Tchalenko & Ambraseys 1970). (B) The Inglewood Fault, California, showing en-echelon folds, many
text of which form hydrocarbon traps (after Moody & Hill 1956). (C) The Dead Sea pull-apart basin, Israel
and Jordan, also showing en-echelon folds and thrusts (after Wilcox et al. 1973). (D) Synthetic and
antithetic Riedel shears at the eastern end of the Dasht-e Bayaz fault zone, Iran (after Wilcox et al.
1973). (E) The Glynnwye Basin, New Zealand, a pull-apart basin on the active right-lateral Hope Fault
Zone (HFZ) (after Mann et al. 1983). (F) Uplift at a restraining offset of the Coyote Creek Fault,
California, with present elevations in feet (after Woodcock & Fischer 1986).

P shears and R shears may converge downwards onto a (G) N (H) N

single strike-slip shear zone in the basement. This structure is u

d u
d
u
d
d u
u
d u
d
EAFZ
Lake Hazar
EAFZ

5 km

termed a flower structure. Cross-sections across extensional 16 km

mafic dyke

(J) 30 km

duplexes may reveal negative flower structures whilst positive (I) 10 km

N
San Joaquin Valley
ault
pe F
flower structures exist in contractional duplexes. Pull-apart N
ine
Fa
ult
Ho

Coalinga

Coo
Alp

k
basins form in the lee of releasing bends.

Stra
irau San Andreas Fault
Wa ere
Wellington

it
t
Awa
Location
Hope F
. Salinas Valley

New
Zealand Christchurch

Releasing bends along strike-slip faults may be the site of (K)

f Ma
lacca
N (L) N
ght o
Strai
extensional duplexes (thin the strike-slip zone).Restraining 20 k m

bends may be the site of contractional duplexes (thicken the Back to Barisan Mountains Billings
Fault
text Indian Ocean 200 km

strike-slip zone). (G) The Cottage Grove fault zone, Illinois, showing en-echelon normal faults, parallel mafic dykes and
reversal of vertical separation on through-going fault zone. u - up, d - down (after Wilcox et al. 1973).
(H) Lake Hazar, Turkey, a pull-apart basin on the active left-lateral East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ)

Areas where faults die out along strike and are offset from
neighbouring faults are known as fault jogs. Extensional fault
jogs can be associated with pull-apart basins, whilst
contractional jogs are zones where compressional structures
develop.
(after Mann et al. 1983). (I) Major splay at the termination of the Hope Fault towards the Alpine Fault,
New Zealand. A conspicuous marker the Pounamou Fm. (shown in grey) is offset by the splays (after
Freund 1974). (J) The San Andreas Fault in central California, showing "in-line" folds and borehole
elongation directions (bars with circles) (after Mount & Suppe 1987). (K) En-echelon folds, some
forming hydrocarbon traps, northeast of the Barisan Mountains Fault, Sumatra (after Wilcox et al. 1973).
(L) Lake Basin Fault Zone, Montana, showing en-echelon normal faults along an interpreted left-lateral
strike-slip zone (after Wilcox et al. 1973).
Start of this Lecture
A former Birkbeck student, Robin Pilcher, mapped a strike-slip WNW JIDDAT AL HARASIS
0 10 20 km

system in the Sultanate of Oman. The fault was active in the

ESE
Sea Level MB
CPh
MB Kh
-1000m COh Regional Cross-Section 2

late Cretaceous and offsets older Pre-Cambrian sediments. A

COh basement
Bu
-2000m
Sh Kh
-3000m

-4000m

detailed map is shown on the next page.

KHUFAI ANTICLINE
SE
NW

Spot Satellite Image showing the

Sea Level Ak Kh MB Bu
Sh
MB
Kh
-1000m CPh Regional Cross-Section 3
Kh basement
COh Bu Sh
-2000m
SAIWAN-NAFUN FAULT
Back to

main structures in the Huqf Uplift

-3000m
text

ESE 0 10 20 km
WNW WADI NAFUN COAST
Sea Level
Ak Kh
-500m
Sh
Kh Sh Regional Cross-Section 4
CPh MB
MB
-1000m

SAIWAN-NAFUN FAULT
REGIONAL CROSS-SECTIONS
WNW WADI JURF DUQM
500m
ESE Cross-sections from BRGM map sheets NF 40-11

Buah
Sea Level Ktw
Ak MB
Kh (Roger et al. 1992), NF 40-15 (Dubreuilh et al. 1992),
-500m
and NE 40-03/07 (Platel et al. 1992).
CPh
Regional Cross-Section 5
-1000m COh Sh Cross-sections are located on the main map

Strike-slip
paper copymap with the following symbol :

Dome
-1500m Kh

fault
530000 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
2350000

N
KEY
234

Quaternary
233

Tertiary - Fars & Hadhramaut Gps.

232

End Cret. (Camp-Maas) - Aruma Gp.

231

Cret. (Neoc-Cen) - Wasia/Thamam Gps.

230 Sirab fault
Jurassic - Sahtan Gp.
229
Saiwan-
Nafun
Late Permian - Akhdar Gp.
228
fault
Carbon. - Early Permian - Haushi Gp.

Khufai
227
Cambrian - Ordovician - Haima Gp.
226
Infracambrian - Buah Fm.
225

Anticline
Infracambrian - Shuram Fm.
ARABIAN SEA
224
Infracambrian - Khufai Fm.
223
Infracambrian - Abu Mahara Gp.
222
Crystalline Basement
221
fault
220 major fold axis
0 10 20 30km
219

218
Ra's Duqm
217
Back to
text
216

215

Simplified geological map of the Huqf Uplift (after BRGM / Ministry of Petroleum & Minerals, 1992) showing the
stratigraphic groups exposed in the Huqf and the main structural elements (see paper enclosure for a more detailed
map).
 510000 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 600000 61 62 63 64 65
2350000 2350000
Mf

Mf Mf
Mf
Wadi MAHATTA HUMAID AREA DATA BOX
Halfayn Mf
Mf
Mf

220 km
Mf
Sand Wadi
Sub-recent to Recent Ktw
dunes Hathat
Piedmont and Alluvial

Sinaw
234 Sediments Sa
MB 234
Mf

Mf
Re N=155 N =34
Cros gional Ktw
Ancient Wadi
N=6
Rose diagram showing
s-sec CPh Fold axes related to left-lateral Poles to bedding ( ) and
tion Sa Alluvium the orientations of left-lateral
1 motions on a minor north-south Joints ( ) at the northern
strike-slip fault in Area 1 end of Area 2. (black) and right-lateral (red)
Mf
Ak Riedel shears in Area 3.
233 COh
233
Mf
COh
Sa Sabkha
m

Ancient
Muscat 465 k

Ktw
fluvial MB
Mf deposits Ancient to Recent
K1a Mahatta Wadi Alluvium
Humaid N=60 N=160 N=22
232 Haushi
Sand dunes
MB 232 Poles to bedding in Area 1 Poles to bedding ( ) and Poles to normal faults ( )
+ Joints ( ) at the southern and plunge of fold axes ( )
Region
5 km

end of Area 2. in Area 4.

Cross-s al Al Jobah Granodiorite
ection Sa
ESE
a h 58

CPh (basement)
2 WNW A'
Sand dunes A
Salal

d
t o a ba ndonl e WNW-ESE Cross section across the syncline in
231 leadin g wel 231
trackoil exploration
SAYH Ak COh
10m
Area 2. The fault trends NNE, and has a left-lateral/
reverse sense of oblique movement
Sabkha 10m
AL Mf Ak
5

2300000
HAYMA K1a
Sabkha
Sh

Tb 2300000 BUAH AREA DATA-BOX

CPh
MB
Kh
Sa
MB
CPh Hayy Sand-dunes
Fuwat Ash
Ak Sha'm Piedmont
deposits
Kh
229 229
15 N=21 N=40 N=6 N=54
Sand dunes 20
K1a CPh 10 Mfg Poles to thrusts, associated Poles to synthetic left- Fold axes associated with Apparent left-lateral faults on
Kh with movement on the lateral Riedel shears in movement on the Saiwan- the western flank of the Buah
K1a Sabkha Saiwan-Nafun fault, on the the Buah area. Nafun fault in the Buah area. Anticline.
Bu Kh
Sabkha eastern flank of the Buah
10 l
M inja Anticline.
228 Sabkha Sabkha Al Filim
Mfg
228
Poles to bedding at the southern end of
Sh Sabkha
Desalination the Buah Anticline, with best fit great circle.
5 8 10 plant and fish Fold axis plunges at 32° towards 190.
25
Ktw factory
8 Kh
10 Sh 10
10 15 N=52 N=16
10 Apparent right-lateral faults on
10 Ghubbat Hashish
227 K1a Ktw 5 Tb 15
10
Mfg 227 the western flank of the Buah
Mf COh 5 Mfg Anticline.
Bu A
10 Bu (West) Bu A'
10 Bu
Am (East)
Sh
Ak 5 Khaluf West to East cross-section across the Saiwan-
8 15 Ra's Abana Kh Sh
10 Bu Nafun Fault Zone at the southern end of the
H

COh Tb 8 Bu
MB Buah Anticline.
25 Ra's ash Shajarat Sh Kh
Barr al Hikman
AQA

226 Sabkha sand Desalination 226

Sh 5
Bu 8
dunes plant and fish
nt

CPh 5 15
pme

Bu 5 factory Sabkha Palaeocurrent directions measured

Ra's Al Hasi at the base of the Amin Formation,
Esca

6 8
sand Ghubbat
TAB

directly above the Huqf/Haima

K1a Buah 10 8 Bintawt
Ktw Rumaylah Supergroup unconformity on the
290 15 8 Ra's Zaywai west of the Buah Anticline.
Sh
R 280 8 5 Ra's Bintawt
Cro egional
35 sand 8
225 ss-s Ak 255 Ra's al Mishayu 225 N=15 N=16 N=18
ectio Sabkha
n3 CPh
COh
8

080
piedmont
deposits
Bintawt ARABIAN South Central North

Bu Sh

Sabkha
005
Bu SEA KHUFAI AREA DATA-BOX
K1a Kh
224 Aeolian Salutiat A'
Kh (East)
Ak 300 sand veneer
35
50 PEh
KEY A
(West) Sh Kh Cross-section across the Saiwan-Nafun fault Zone
20
Bu
STRATIGRAPHY MB MB in the north of the Khufai Anticline
10 45
Kh Quaternary
Ghuabbat
6 10 025 5 Sabkha deposits
Sirab to Recent -
ent

CPh 10 MB (a) (b)

200 2
Sirab Active sand-dunes and sand-mounts
Escapm

Khufai Bu
223 Anticline 10 Tb Undifferentiated sand veneer, piedmont deposits and wadi gravels
44
40 9
23 50 Ra's al Ghubbah Miocene - Fars Group.
Sabkha 40 14 Mf
Ak 40 Bu Tb
30 Bu 15
14 25
40 10 Wadi PEh Palaeocene-Eocene- Hadhramaut Group. Tb Tertiary basalt intrusion N=12 N=8 N=45
Ktw 5 5
40 10 5 15 Shatahl N=16
Fold axes adjacent to the (a) Poles to a left-lateral strike-slip fault zone( ) and Poles to left-lateral Riedel shears in
15 Bu End Cret. (Camp-Maas) - Aruma Group.
222 Sh K1a Saiwan-Nafun fault. Folds poles to Riedel shears within the fault zone ( ). the north of Khufai ( ), the main fault
5 5 plunge gently to the NNE (b) Poles to a right-lateral strike-slip fault zone( ) and zone ( ) and one right-lateral Riedel
Bu Ra's al Aqit Cret. (Neoc-Cen) - Wasia/Thamama Groups. shear ( ).
Ktw and SSW poles to Riedel shears within the fault zone ( ).
K1a 10
Bu 15 15 5
Re 10
Bu
Sa Jurassic - Sahtan Group.
Cros gional 5
5
s-se Sh 15 15 5
ction Ak Sabkha Bu
Late Permian - Akhdar Group.
4 5
40 10 5 40 Ak
221 10

JIDDAT 10
5
10
8
CPh Carbon. - Early Permian - Haushi Group.
N=4
Mf 20 Kh Cambrian - Ordovician - Haima Supergroup. N=12 N=94 N=65
AL 10
5
5
Mukhaibah5
5
Sh
5 10 COh

Infracambrian - Buah Formation.

Poles to thrusts associated
with strike-slip on the
Poles to fractures in the
southern part of the Khufai
Poles to dykes (Tertiary)
in the south of the area.
Poles to normal faults
(Tertiary) in the south
35 Bu Saiwan-Nafun Fault. area. of the area.

2200000 HARASIS Ak
CPh
40
Kh
30 Wadi
20
15
5

50
5

Sh Infracambrian - Shuram Formation. B

(West) B'
70 30 40
30 Anqaw 10 HUQF SUPERGROUP Am
(East)
Sh 50
10 10 Bu
10 30
Kh Infracambrian - Khufai Formation Sh Kh MB Kh West-East Cross-section across the Khufai Anticline,
15 15 20 15
10 MB the Saiwan-Nafun Fault Zone, and a major Tertiary
15 basement
CPh 10 Infracambrian - Masirah Bay Formation normal fault, in the centre of the Khufai Anticline.
Ktw 30 50
MB
Ak
20 Hamar an Nafun + Crystaline Basement
219 10 50
10
30
Nafun
STRUCTURAL FEATURES + +
Palaeocurrent direction measured in the
Kh 5
Regi Wadi 10 10 Anticline axis with plunge Amin Formation directly overlying the
Cross onal Jurf
10
Syncline axis with plunge Huqf/Haima Supergroup unconformity,
-secti CPh 10
10
on 5 Fault (normal) 10
Bedding (inclined) to the west of the Khufai Anticline
10
50 Wadi Jurf
Fault (strike-slip) Bedding (1°-30°) (see Chapter 4).
4
PEh Unconformity Interpreted from N = 30 N = 40 N = 61
Bedding (30°-60°) satellite images. South Central North
MB 40 5 Ghubbat 025
Ktw Quwayrah Palaeocurrent direction Bedding (60°-90°)
218 20 Sh
Tertiary basalt dyke Bedding horizontal
N Mf
4
15

Kh
Fish factory MUKHAIBAH AREA DATA-BOX
50 K1a K1a
Ra's Duqm
5 B B'
30
Duqm OTHER SYMBOLS (NW) (SE)
NW-SE Cross-section across the central part
217 Kh Kh Sh
W E K1a
Piedmont
Wadi
3
PEh
30
PEh
Road (graded)
Road (surfaced) Area of detailed structural
Sh

MB
MB

MB
of the main Mukhaibah Anticline. The left-
hand fault is a major sunthetic Riedel shear
Desalination to the main Saiwan-Nafun Fault (right).
4
Iskalah
study (see data-boxes)
plant Escarpment/cliff

15 Village
Wadi
Fish factory/desalination plant Location of regional
216 Saw'ab 10
Kharmah
5 Ra's Khat cross-section
Pass
S Mf
PEh

0 10 20 30 km N=31 N=4 N=18

Ra's al Ani Right-lateral faults in the
Left-lateral faults in the Mukhaibah Fold axes in the Mukhaibah area.
2150000 area.
Mukhaibah area.
510000 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
B B'
(West) (East)
Bu Fq

Sa

Nu Ju
Sh
Qh
Bu
N=38 Jr

Bedding ( ) and fold axis in the West-East cross-section across the deformed Cretaceous sequence adjacent to the
JIDDAT AL HARASIS SAIWAN-NAFUN FAULT SIRAB FAULT EAST Cretaceous syncline; northern Saiwan-Nafun Fault Zone in the south of the Mukhaibah area.
WEST portion ( ), refolded southern
COh MB Regional Cross-Section 1 portion ( ).
Sea Level Mf
CPh
Ktw Kh
-500m COh
Sa
Ak
-1000m CPh

-1500m
WNW JIDDAT AL HARASIS
ESE
Sea Level MB
CPh
MB Kh
-1000m COh Regional Cross-Section 2
COh basement
Bu
-2000m
Sh Kh
-3000m

-4000m

KHUFAI ANTICLINE
SE
NW
Sea Level Ak Kh MB Bu
Sh
MB
Kh
-1000m CPh Regional Cross-Section 3 The Structural and Tectonic Evolution of the Huqf Uplift
Kh basement
-2000m
COh Bu Sh and Adjacent Areas, Oman
-3000m SAIWAN-NAFUN FAULT
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE HUQF UPLIFT
0
1:250,000
10 20 km
ESE
WNW WADI NAFUN COAST
Sea Level
Ak Kh
-500m
CPh
Sh
Kh Sh Regional Cross-Section 4 REGIONAL CROSS-SECTIONS ENCLOSURE 2
MB
MB
-1000m

SAIWAN-NAFUN FAULT
Cross-sections from BRGM map sheets NF 40-11
(Roger et al. 1992), NF 40-15 (Dubreuilh et al. 1992),
WADI JURF DUQM and NE 40-03/07 (Platel et al. 1992).
WNW
500m
ESE Modified from BRGM Geological Map sheets NF 40-11 (Roger et al. 1992),
Sea Level Ktw
Ak MB
Kh
Cross-sections are located on the map above with the NF 40-15 (Dubreuilh et al. 1992) and NE 40-03/07 (Platel et al. 1992) with
-500m following symbol : additional structural information added from field-studies (1993-1996).
CPh
Regional Cross-Section 5
-1000m COh Sh

-1500m Kh Key information for regions where detailed structural information was collected
is shown in data-boxes.
For key to formations, see key to map above.
Rotations about vertical axes occur during deformation in the
Blind Imbricate Fan
following manner:-
Left-lateral (Sinistral) fault sets rotate clockwise during tips Ground
deformation. surface

Right-lateral (dextral) fault sets rotate anti-clockwise during Back to

text
deformation.

4) THRUST SYSTEMS
Imbricate Fan
Foreland
Hinterland splays

a) Imbricate Fans
detachment

Displacements associated with a thrust may enter the rocks (decollement)

surrounding the thrust to form an new thrust. If the fault joins Branch point and branch line
between two splays
Formation of Imbricate Fans

Time 1

the older thrust then it is termed a splay. The line of Back to

intersection between two thrusts is called a branch lines. text
Time 2
New fault
Branch lines appear on 2-dimensional maps or sections as forms in
footwall

branch points. Where several splays join a sub-horizontal floor Back to

text
thrust, the structure is termed an imbricate fan.

If the thrusts do not reach the syn-orogenic erosion surface,

then the structures is termed a blind imbricate fan. Emergent Trailing imbricate fan

imbricate fans breach the syn-orogenic erosion surface.

Trailing fault has the largest displacement
Thrust systems verge towards the foreland. Thrust sheets
travel from the hinterland towards the foreland. Where the Leading imbricate fan

majority of displacement is on the foreland side of the

imbricate fan, then the structure is termed a leading imbricate
fans. A trailing imbricate fan has the majority of displacement Leading fault has the largest displacement

on the thrust closest to the hinterland. Back to

text

Start of this Lecture

Splays join floor thrusts along trailing branch lines. Splays can Undeformed

also join floor thrusts along lateral branch lines. Forelimb

thrusts emerge on the short steeply-dipping limb of folds whilst 1st stage
1
backlimb thrusts emerge on the longer, normal limb. Out of the
syncline thrusts emerge from the hinge region of footwall
synclines or from the hinge region of synclines which form 2nd stage
1 2
anticline-syncline pairs in the hanging-walls of thrusts.
Piggy-back sequences develop when splays break into the
Final deformed
footwall of the existing thrust, carrying the overlying structures 1 2 3

in piggy-back fashion Also termed a foreland propagating

sequence. Break-back sequences from where splays form in 3 Imbricate thrusts

Numbers indicate the sequence in which the thrusts formed.

the hanging-wall of existing thrusts. Thrusts which verge with Active faults shown in red; inactive faults shown in black. Thrust
sheets 1 and 2 are carried "piggy-back" on the lower and younger
the opposite sense to the majority of other thrusts in a system Back to thrust.

are known as back-thrusts. Pop-ups and triangle zones text

develop when back-thrusts occur close to foreland-directed

thrusts. HINTERLAND FORELAND

Reference
line
Undeformed bed (blue) with
b) Duplexes the trajectory of a thrust that
is about to form (dashed).
TIME 1

An active thrust has formed

Splays from a floor thrust may merge upwards into a single (red) and the next thrust
which will form is shown
dashed.

thrust surface which is termed a roof thrust. Where a floor TIME 2

thrust, splays and a roof thrust combine a duplex structure is The second thrust becomes
active (red) whilst a portion of
the first thrust becomes
formed. Volumes of rock which are surrounded thrusts (such inactive (green) and is
carried piggy-back. The next
thrust which will form is
as in a duplex e.g. floor thrust, splays and a roof thrust) are TIME 3 shown dashed.

termed horses. Splays in a duplex meet along leading branch The third thrust becomes
lines. active (red) whilst a portion of
the second thrust becomes
inactive (green) and is carried
TIME 4 piggy-back. The next thrust
which will form is shown
Roof Thrust
dashed.
Where horses dip towards the hinterland, and stratigraphy Splays

rse
Leading branch points

se Ho

generally youngs upwards (upward facing) the structure is Back to

H or Final duplex geometry (only
the faults are shown).

termed a hinterland dipping duplex. text Trailing branch points Floor Thrust

Start of this Lecture

Where displacements on the splays approaches the distance
between footwall ramps, trailing branch lines converge and an
antiformal stack is formed.

Where displacements on the splays exceeds the distance

between footwall ramps, a foreland dipping duplex is formed.

In some instances, the splays do not merge into the roof thrust,
but cut and displace it. This is not a true duplex and is termed
a breached roof duplex.

In some instances, the roof thrust develops after the splays

and truncates them. This is not a true duplex an the term Duplex within Carboniferous imestones on the Gower
Back to
overstep geometry is used. Peninsula, S. Wales. The duplex has been rotated by a
later fold. text

Where erosion cuts down through a thrust sheet so that the

footwall rocks can viewed in a hole through the hanging-wall,
the structure is termed a window. Remnants of thrusts sheets
isolated by erosion as structural outliers are termed klippen. Carpathians

Alps

Apennines

Lewisian Gneiss

Hellenides

Cambrian Sediments Back to

Mediterranean text
Sea

Shaded relief map of the central Mediterranean region. Northward motion of a promontory of Africa has caused collision and
production of fold and thrust belts in the Alps, Carpathians, Hellenides and Apennines. These regions contain imbricate fans
and duplexes. The triangles show the overriding (hangingwall) thrust sheets.

Duplex beneath the Glencoul Thrust Sheet, with imbricated Back to

Cambrian Sediments above the Sole Thrust and below the roof
thrust which is the Glencoul Thrust itself. Individual horses are
text Start of this Lecture
drawn schematically.
FURTHER READING AVAILABLE
FROM THE ELECTRONIC LIBRARY

O. Averbuch and J. -L. Mansy, 1998. The

`Basse-Normandie' duplex (Boulonnais, N
France): evidence for an out-of-sequence
thrusting overprint, Journal of Structural
Geology, 20, 33-42

Kevin J. Smart and William M.

DunneRaymond D. Krieg, 1997. Roof
sequence response to emplacement of the
Wills Mountain duplex: the roles of
forethrusting and scales of deformation,
Journal of Structural Geology, 19, 1443-1459

Juan Contreras and Max Suter, 1997. A

kinematic model for the formation of duplex
systems with a perfectly planar roof thrust,
Journal of Structural Geology, 19, 269-278
FURTHER READING AVAILABLE
FROM THE ELECTRONIC LIBRARY
Chris Mansfield and Joe Cartwright, 2001.
Fault growth by linkage: observations and
implications from analogue models, Journal
of Structural Geology, 23, 745-763
David A. Ferrill and Alan P. Morris, 2001.
Displacement gradient and deformation in
normal fault systems, Journal of Structural
Geology, 23, 619-638
Nigel C. Morewood and Gerald P. Roberts,
2001. Comparison of surface slip and focal
mechanism slip data along normal faults: an
example from the eastern Gulf of Corinth,
Greece, Journal of Structural Geology, 23,
473-487
Mary Goldsworthy and James Jackson, 2001.
Migration of activity within normal fault
systems: examples from the Quaternary of
mainland Greece, Journal of Structural
Geology, 23, 489-506
Valerio Acocella, Agust Gudmundsson and
Renato Funiciello, 2000.
Interaction and linkage of extension
fractures and normal faults: examples from
the rift zone of Iceland, Journal of Structural
Geology, 22, 1233-1246
Nigel C. Morewood and Gerald P. Roberts,
2000. The geometry, kinematics and rates of
deformation within an en échelon normal
fault segment boundary, central Italy,
Journal of Structural Geology, 22, 1027-1047
D. C. P. Peacock, S. P. Price, A. G. Whitham
and C. S. Pickles, 2000. The World's biggest
relay ramp: Hold With Hope, NE
Greenland, Journal of Structural Geology, 22,
843-850
FURTHER READING AVAILABLE
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Ahlgren, S. G. 2001. The nucleation and
evolution of Riedel shear zones as
deformation bands in porous sandstone,
Journal of Structural Geology, 23, 1203-1214
A. M. Casas, D. Gapais, T. Nalpas, K.
Besnard and T. Román-Berdiel, 2001.
Analogue models of transpressive systems,
Journal of Structural Geology, 23, 733-743
Steven E. Schulz and James P. Evans, 2000,
Mesoscopic structure of the Punchbowl
Fault, Southern California and the geologic
and geophysical structure of active strike-
slip faults, Journal of Structural Geology, 22,
913-930
Amgalan Bayasgalan, James Jackson, Jean-
François Ritz and Sebastien Carretier, 1999.
`Forebergs', flower structures, and the
development of large intra-continental
strike-slip faults: the Gurvan Bogd fault
system in Mongolia, Journal of Structural
Geology, 21, 1285-1302
Michael L. Curtis, 1999. Structural and
kinematic evolution of a Miocene to Recent
sinistral restraining bend: the Montejunto
massif, Portugal, Journal of Structural
Geology, 21, 39-53
P. G. Kelly and D. J. SandersonD. C. P.
Peacock, 1998, Linkage and evolution of
conjugate strike-slip fault zones in
limestones of Somerset and Northumbria,
Journal of Structural Geology, 20,
1477-1493
Claudia J. LewisJoann M. Stock, 1998. Late
Miocene to Recent transtensional tectonics
in the Sierra San Fermín, northeastern Baja
California, Mexico, Journal of Structural
Geology, 20, 1043-1063
FURTHER READING AVAILABLE
FROM THE ELECTRONIC LIBRARY
R. A. Price 2001. An evaluation of models for
the kinematic evolution of thrust and fold
belts: structural analysis of a transverse
fault zone in the Front Ranges of the
Canadian Rockies north of Banff, Alberta,
Journal of Structural Geology, 23, 1079-1088
Hemin A. Koyi and Antonio Teixell, 1999.
Where is the footwall flat? A cautionary
note on template constraints, Journal of
Structural Geology, 21, 373-377
Fernando NiñoHervé Philip and Jean Chéry,
1998. The role of bed-parallel slip in the
formation of blind thrust faults, Journal of
Structural Geology, 20, 503-516
John WickhamGeorge Moeckel, 1997.
Restoration of structural cross-sections,
Journal of Structural Geology, 19, 975-986
Enrico Tavarnelli, 1997. Structural evolution
of a foreland fold-and-thrust belt: the
Umbria-Marche Apennines, Italy, Journal of
Structural Geology, 19, 523-534
F. Mouthereau, O. Lacombe, B. Deffontaines,
J. Angelier and S. Brusset, 2001. Deformation
history of the southwestern Taiwan foreland
thrust belt: insights from tectono-
sedimentary analyses and balanced cross-
sections, Tectonophysics, 333, 293-318
E. O. Cristallini and V. A. Ramos, 2000.
Thick-skinned and thin-skinned thrusting in
the La Ramada fold and thrust belt: crustal
evolution of the High Andes of San Juan,
Argentina (32°SL), Tectonophysics, 317, 205-
235
Emanuel J. M. WillemseDavid C. P. Anatolian block, Tectonophysics, 2000, 322,
PeacockAtilla Aydin, 1997. Nucleation and 243-264
growth of strike-slip faults in limestones
from Somerset, U.K., Journal of Structural
Geology, 19, 1461-1477

An L.-J. and C. G. Sammis, 1996.

Development of strike-slip faults: shear
experiments in granular materials and clay
using a new technique, Journal of Structural
Geology, 18, 1061-1077

Michel CorsiniAlain VauchezRenaud Caby,

1996. Ductile duplexing at a bend of a
continental-scale strike-slip shear zone:
example from NE Brazil, Journal of
Structural Geology, 18, 385-394

Aykut Barka, H. Serdar Akyüz, Harvey A.

Cohen and Fred Watchorn, 2000. Tectonic
evolution of the Niksar and Tasova¯Erbaa
pull-apart basins, North Anatolian Fault
Zone: their significance for the motion of the
Haakon Fossen and Jonny Hesthammer, 2000.
Possible absence of small faults in the
Gullfaks Field, northern North Sea:
implications for downscaling of faults in
some porous sandstones, Journal of
Structural Geology, 22, 851-863
Anupma Gupta and Christopher H. Scholz,
2000. A model of normal fault interaction
based on observations and theory, Journal of
Structural Geology, 22, 865-879
Jan M. Vermilye and Christopher H. Scholz,
1999. Fault propagation and segmentation:
insight from the microstructural
examination of a small fault, Journal of
Structural Geology, 21,
1623-1636
Øyvind Steen and Arild Andresen, 1999.
Effects of lithology on geometry and scaling
of small faults in Triassic sandstones, East
Greenland, Journal of Structural Geology, 21,
1351-1368
James Jackson, 1999. Fault death: a
perspective from actively deforming regions,
Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 1003-1010
J. J. Walsh, J. Watterson, W. R. Bailey and C.
Childs , 1999. Fault relays, bends and
branch-lines, Journal of Structural Geology,
21, 1019-1026
David A. Ferrill, John A. Stamatakos and
Darrell Sims, Normal fault corrugation:
implications for growth and seismicity of
active normal faults, Journal of Structural
Geology, 21, 1027-1038
Stuart Hardy and Ken McClay, 1999.
Kinematic modelling of extensional fault-
propagation folding, Journal of Structural
Geology, 21, 695-702
Martin G. Miller, 1999. Active breaching of a
geometric segment boundary in the Sawatch
Range normal fault, Colorado, USA, Journal
of Structural Geology, 21, 769-776
Nigel C. Morewood and Gerald P. Roberts,
1999. Lateral propagation of the surface
trace of the South Alkyonides normal fault
segment, central Greece: its impact on
models of fault growth and
displacement¯length relationships, Journal of
Structural Geology, 21, 635-652
Christopher A. J. Wibberley, Jean-Pierre Petit
and Thierry Rives, 1999. Mechanics of high
displacement gradient faulting prior to
lithification, Journal of Structural Geology,
21, 251-257
Patience A. Cowie and Zoe K. Shipton, 1998,
Fault tip displacement gradients and process
zone dimensions, Journal of Structural
Geology, 20, 983-997
P. A. Cowie, 1998. A healing-reloading
feedback control on the growth rate of
seismogenic faults, Journal of Structural
Geology, 20, 1075-1087
Jian-Jun HouMu-Kang Han and Bao-Long
ChaiHeng-Yue Han, 1998. Geomorphological
observations of active faults in the epicentral
region of the Huaxian large earthquake in
1556 in Shaanxi Province, China, Journal of
Structural Geology, 20, 549-557
J. Watterson, A. Nicol and J. J. WalshD. Meier,
1998. Strains at the intersections of
synchronous conjugate normal faults,
Journal of Structural Geology, 20, 363-370
J. A. CartwrightC. S. Mansfield, 1998. Lateral
displacement variation and lateral tip
geometry of normal faults in the
Canyonlands National Park, Utah, Journal
of Structural Geology, 20, 3-19
Conrad Childs, Andrew Nicol, John J. Walsh
and Juan Watterson, 1996. Growth of
vertically segmented normal faults, Journal
of Structural Geology, 18, 1389-1397

Gerald P. Roberts, 1996. Variation in fault-

slip directions along active and segmented
normal fault systems, Journal of Structural
Geology, 18, 835-845

A. Nicol, J. J. Walsh, J. Watterson and P. A.

Gillespie, 1996. Fault size distributions -- are
they really power-law?, Journal of Structural
Geology, 18, 191-197 Note all the other papers
in this issue!