EXERCISE-2: LOCATION OF PERIPHERAL LYMPHNODES

Learning objectives

 External and easy indicators of diseases by their size difference are the peripheral
lymph nodes. Where are they?

Importance

 They are useful in diagnosis of certain diseases (eg. Theileria) by palpating

enlarged lymphnodes since they are superficially located

 Important in meat inspection point of view to test the quality of meat for
consumption

 If a particular lymphnode is inflammed the dependent parts drained by particular

lymph node is considered unfit for consumption, since the inflamed glands
suggest the presence of infection
 LOCATION OF PERIPHERAL LYMPHNODES

Location

 Parotid lymph node : Over posterior portion of the masseter muscle partly under
cover of the parotid salivary gland

 Mandibular lymph node : Present at the lower part of the mandibular salivary
gland under cover of insertion of sternomandibularis muscle

 Prescapular lymph node (Suprascapular lymph node) : Situated at the anterior

border of the supraspinatus about few cms above the shoulder joint under cover
of omotransversarius

 Prefemoral lymph node (Precrural / Suprapatellar) : Located infront and under

cover of tensor fascia latae about a hands breadth above the patella

 Superficial inguinal / Supramammary lymph node

o Male : Situated at the neck of the scrotum

o Female :Situated on the posterior border of mammary gland

 TOPOGRAPHIC ANATOMY - INTRODUCTION

 To know about the relationship and differences about the systematic and
topographical anatomy - a must for a clinician and surgeon

EXERCISE-5: LOCATION AND CONTOURS OF VISCERAL

ORGANS

Learning objectives

 To know about the location and contours of visceral organs in the thoracic,
abdominal and pelvic cavities.

 To gain knowledge about the thoracic cavity and its structures like anterior,
middle and posterior mediastinum.

BOUNDARIES OF THE BODY CAVITY

Body Cavities and Membranes in Mare (View image)

Thoracic Cavity

 Dorsally : Bodies of thoracic vertebrae, ligaments and muscles

 Laterally : Ribs, costal cartilages and intercostal muscles

 Ventrally : Sternum and transverse thoracis muscle

 Posteriorly : Diaphragm

Boundaries of thoracic inlet

 Dorsally : Body of 1st thoracic vertebra

 Laterally : 1st pair of ribs

 Ventrally: Manubrium sterni

 BOUNDARIES OF THE BODY CAVITY - ABDOMINAL CAVITY

Abdominal cavity

 Dorsally : Bodies and transverse process of lumbar vertebrae, Crura of

diaphragm, sublumbar muscles

 Laterally : Oblique and transverse abdominal muscles, ilia, iliacus muscle, parts
of caudal ribs, cartilages of asternal ribs below the attachment of diaphragm

 Ventrally : Rectus abdominis muscle, aponeurosis of oblique and transverse

muscles and Xiphoid cartilage

 Anteriorly : Diaphragm

 Posteriorly : Continuous with pelvic cavity

Openings of the abdominal cavity

  Hiatus oesophagi

 Hiatus aorticus

 Foramen vena cava

 Two inguinal canals

 Umbilical opening (closed in adults) and

 Pelvic cavity

BOUNDARIES OF THE BODY CAVITY - PELVIC CAVITY

Pelvic Cavity

 Dorsally : Sacrum and first 3 coccygeal vertebrae

 Laterally : Parts of ilia, sacrosciatic ligament

 Ventrally : Pubis and ischium

Outlet

 Dorsally : 3rd coccygeal vertebra

 Laterally : Caudal edge of sacrosciatic ligament and semimembranosus

 Ventrally : Ischial arch

Inlet

 Base of sacrum above, brim of pubis below, iliopectineal line laterally

THORACIC CAVITY AND ITS STRUCTURES

Illustration

 The double walled pleural partition dividing the thoracic cavity into two pleural
cavities is called mediastinum
 For convenience it is divided into,

o Anterior mediastinum

o Middle mediastinum and

o Posterior mediastinum
 ANTERIOR MEDIASTINUM

 Left and right brachial arteries at the level of 3rd and 1st rib respectively

 Common brachiocephalic trunk, brachiocephalic artery, bicarotid trunk, right

and left vagus and recurrent laryngeal nerves, thymus (thoracic part), phrenic
nerves, oesophagus, anterior venacava, thoracic duct and trachea are observed

MIDDLE MEDIASTINUM

 Vagus, heart, aortic arch, bronchi at the level of the 5th rib, apical bronchus at the
level of 3rd rib

 Pulmonary artery and veins, oesophagus, thoracic duct, origin of left recurrent
laryngeal nerve (at the level of base of heart), phrenic nerves are observed

POSTERIOR MEDIASTINUM

 Thoracic aorta, oesophagus posterior mediastinal lymphnode which when swells

compresses the vagus nerve resulting in dysphagia, vena hemiazygous, thoracic
duct, left phrenic nerve, dorsal and ventral vagal trunks are seen

 Observe the lungs that are projected into pleural cavities from middle
mediastinal space left lung with three lobes (apical, cardiac and diaphragmatic)
and right lung with 4th lobes (additional mediastinal or intermediate lobe)

 The mediastinal lobe along with right phrenic nerve and posterior venacava are
enclosed in caval fold

EXERCISE

 Observe asymmetrical position of heart which is in partial contact with left chest
wall between 3rd to 5th intercostal space through cardiac notch seen between
apical and cardiac lobes of lung which is more prominent on left side
  Observe costal pleura, endothoracic facia, vertebral pleura, sternal pleura,
diaphragmatic pleura and mediastinal pleura. Observe the space between
diaphragm and vertebral column through which infection spreads from thoracic
cavity to abdominal cavity

EXERCISE-6: ABDOMINAL CAVITY AND ITS CONTENTS IN OX

Learning objectives

 To know about the details of left and right abdominal cavities and its organs like
rumen, reticulum, abomasum, omasum, liver, spleen, pancreas, intestine and
kidney

 To get to know about the pelvic cavity and its structures like rectum, anus,
urinary bladder, urethra and genital organs of both sexes

 To knbow about the clinically important events like auscultation, percussion and
palpation

Click here and note the image,

 Various parts of body - Lateral view (Lung removed)

 Lapro anatomy

 Deep cervical muscles, major joints, in situ viscera and udder of the cow - Left
lateral view

 External maxillary artery - Horse

 Urogenital, liver, heart - Right lateral view

PELVIC CAVITY AND ITS CONTENTS

 The pelvic cavity consists rectum, anus, urinary bladder, pelvic part of urethra

 In addition to above structures the following structures are present

o In males : Seminal vesicles, prostate and cowper’s gland

o In females : Cervix and vagina and most of the non-pregnant uterus

 Pelvic contents cranial view (View image)

 Pelvic inlet cranial view (View image)

AUSCULTATION
  To determine the functional state of the heart, lungs and other organs

Auscultation

 The sounds produced by the functional motility of organs of thoracic cavity and
intra - abdominal portion of the digestive tract are detected by using instruments
like stethescope

PERCUSSION

 Hearing of sounds produced artificially by using fingers or instruments over the

area of observation.

 Area of auscultation and percussion for heart is 4th and 5th intercostal space on
left side, since heart is asymmetrical in position and in contact with left chest wall
here

 For, a triangular area is marked and the boundaries of the triangle are,

o Posterior angle of scapula anteriorly

o Olecranon process of ulna below

o 11th intercostal space behind

Cardiac Puncture

 Cardiac puncture for obtaining blood or the injection of drugs is usually done on
the right side in the 4th or 5th intercostal space a few centimeters above the
sternum, at about the level of olecranon

 The thin walled right ventricle is accessible here in the notch between the right
cranial and middle lobes of the lung

 Left ventricular blood is accessible through the interventricular septum

 Puncture on the right side also avoids the large paraconal interventricular branch
of the left coronary artery
 PALPATION

 Left paralumbar fossa ( hunger hollow ) is an ideal space for observing the
motility of rumen

 Reticulum cannot be palpated. It is in contact with the left abdominal wall at the
ventral ends of the 6th and 7th intercostal spaces

 In traumatic reticulitis pain may be produced by deep pressure here or in the left
xiphoid region

 Omasum is enclosed by the rib but can be palpated through the wall of the rumen
during rumenotomy

 The fundus of the abomasum is in the xiphoid region, the body lies on the
midline. The site for puncture of the abomasum to sample its contents is on the
midline

 Palpation of liver in ox at the cranial angle of the right paralumbar fossa is

possible, only if liver is enlarged

 Foetal movements may be observed through the abdominal wall in advanced

pregnancy on either side in the mare and on the right side in the cow as right
horn pregnancy is more common in ruminants

LOCATION OF PALPABLE ARTERIES

 They are important in recording the pulse rate of the animal which play a major
role in the disease investigation

 The different arteries palpated in different animals are detailed as below

o Cattle

 Ventral coccygeal artery

 Facial artery

o Horse

 External maxillary artery

  Median artery

o Sheep and Goat

 Femoral artery

o Pig, Dog and Cat

 Femoral artery

Location

 Ventral coccygeal artery can be felt on the ventral aspect of the base of the tail. It
is located between sacrococcygeus ventralis muscles

 External maxillary artery can be felt on the medial surface of the vertical ramus
of the mandible

 Facial artery is along anterior border of the masseter along with vein and
Stenson’s duct behind

 Median artery is on the upper part of forearm along medial border of radius

 Femoral artery is on the medial aspect of the thigh in femoral canal.

Click here and note the

 External maxillary artery - Horse

 Reading pulse in the tail of ruminants

 EXERCISE-7: STUDY OF DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Learning objectives

 To give a recap on various structures of different systems in the head and thoracic
region

 To augment the understanding on anatomy of afore said regions

 To have a clarity on clinically important structures encountered in the surgical

procedures of hind limb

 To revise the anatomical structures of the fore limb in the light of surgico - medial
view

 To get a clear picture on various external locations of visceras in the abdominal

cavity and inguinal canal
 HEAD REGION

 Superficial dissection of head (View image)

 Medium dissection of head (View image)

 Deep dissection of head (View image)

 The following structures can be appreciated in this region

 Masticatory muscles: Masseter, temporalis, digastricus, pterygoideus medialis

and pterygoideus lateralis

 Facial muscles

o Muscles of lips, nostrils and cheek : Zygomaticus, levator labii superioris

proprius, depressor labii superioris proprius, dilator naris lateralis, levator
nasolabialis, malaris, buccinator and depressor labii inferioris

o Muscles of Eyelid : Orbicularis oculi, depressor palpebrae inferioris,

frontalis, levator palpebrae superioris (with in the orbit)

o Muscles of Ear : 6 groups of muscles,

 Depressors,

 Elevators,

 Adductors,

 Abductors,

 Rotators and

 Tensors

 Appreciate pinna, its base and its apex. Annular cartilage, and
scutiform cartilage

 Parotid salivary gland and parotid lymphnode, cornual nervem auriculopalpebral

nerve, ventral buccal nerve, dorsal buccal nerve, Stenson’s duct, facial artery and
vein, infraorbital nerve and vessels, mental nerve and vessels
  Upper and lower eyelids, 3rd eyelid, cornea and sclera of eyeball and muzzle (bare
area of upper lip between two nostrils which is clinically important and kept
moist by secretions of nasolabial glands normally)

 Horn - cornual process of frontal bone, corium and shell. Observe cornual artery
which is the branch of superficial temporal artery

 Mandibular salivary gland related to ramus of mandible and mandibular

lymphnode at its lower part

Click here to note the "Deep cervical muscles, major joints, in situ viscera and udder of
the cow - Left lateral view"
 NECK REGION

Illustration

Ventral aspect

 Observe sternocephalicus consisting of sternomandibularis and

sternomastoideus and sternothyrohyoideus consisting of thyroid and hyoid
bands, omohyoideus, scalenus consisting of scalenus dorsalis and scalenus
ventralis, rectus capitis ventralis major, minor and lateralis, intertransversales
colli and longus colli

 Observe roots of phrenic nerve related to scalenus ventralis

 Jugular furrow: Its upper boundary is formed by lower part of

brachiocephalicus, lower boundary is formed by sternomandibularis and medial
boundary is formed by sternomastoideus

 Carotid sheath showing common carotid artery, vagosympathetic trunk and

recurrent laryngeal nerves on right side while on left side recurrent laryngeal
nerve is not in carotid sheath but travels along ventral aspect of oesophagus

 Trachea, oesophagus, thyroid, cervical portion of thymus

 Ventral branch of spinal accessory nerve supplying sternocephalicus, branches of

cervical spinal nerves and roots of brachial plexus

Lateral cervical group

 First layer
 o Trapezius, (observe termination of spinal accessory nerve under this
muscle) and brachiocephalicus

 Second Layer

o Omotransversarius (initial portion of spinal accessory nerve can be

observed between brachiocephalicus and omotransversarius)
Rhomboideus and serratus cervicis

 Third Layer

o Spleneus

 Fourth Layer

o Longissimus capitis et atlantis, complexus (chief extensor muscle of head

and neck), multifidus cervicis, obliques capitis anterior and posterior,
rectus capitis dorsalis major and minor

 Ligamentum nuchae with its dorsal funicular (paired) and ventral lamellar
portion (anterior – paired and posterior parts)
 THORAX

Illustration

 The following muscles are appreciated in the thorax region

o Long thoracic nerve

o Some muscles of shoulder girdle like serratus ventralis, superficial and

deep perctorals. Rhomboideus, trapezius, latissimus dorsi

o Some neck muscles like sternocephalicus, sternothyrohyoideus

o Respiratory muscles

o Diaphragm and its tendinous and muscular parts, external and internal
intercostals, rectus thoracis, levator costarum, retractor costae,
transverses thoracis (on floor of thoracic cavity over sternum).Tendinous
center of diaphragm is the common site for herniation of abdominal
organs.

Click here to view the

 Superficial dissection - Thoraco lumbar region

 Thoracic and Abdominal contents - I

 Thoracic and Abdominal contents - II

 EXERCISE

 See relations of diaphragm with heart, lungs, reticulum, liver and rumen

HIND LIMB - PELVIC REGION

 Appreciate rectococcygeus, coccygeus, retractor ani, pudic nerve psoas major and
minor, sacrococcygeus ventralis, internal iliac artery its branches, large common
trunk, short common trunk, vesicogenital artery and its terminal branches,
internal pudic artery supplying penis in male and posterior parts of genital
organs in female and posterior gluteal artery

 Appreciate formation of lumbosacral plexus, anterior portion and posterior

portion

 Anterior portion consists of iliopsoas, femoral and obturator nerves. Posterior

portion consists of anterior gluteal, sciatic and posterior nerves

HIND LIMB - HIP AND THIGH REGION

Illustration - I and Illustration - II

 Lateral aspect : Tensor fascia latae, biceps femoris, gluteus medius (gluteus
accessories – a shining part), gluteus profundus, prefemoral lymph node under
cover of tensor fascia latae, sacrosciatic ligament, greater sciatic foramen, lesser
sciatic foramen

 Anterior gluteal nerve, sciatic nerve, anterior and posterior gluteal arteries,
ischiatic lymphnode under cover of biceps femoris muscular canal carrying sciatic
nerve which is bounded laterally by biceps femoris and semitendinosus, medially
by semimembranosus and adductor

 Appreciate branches of sciatic nerve i.e., slender muscular branch, short

muscular branch, large muscular branch, posterior cutaneous nerve and peroneal
nerve

 Observe anterior group muscles – quadriceps femoris (vastus medialis, vastus

lateralis, rectus femoris and vastus intermedius)

 Medial aspect : The muscles are in 3 layers

o 1st Layer : Sartorius, gracilis (most medial muscle of the thigh)

o 2nd Layer : Pectineus, adductor, semimembranosus.

o 3rd Layer : Obturator externus & internus, gemellus and quadratus femoris
  Femoral canal : is a muscular canal bounded in front by the sartorius, behind by
pectineus, laterally by the iliopsoas and vastus medialis and medially by the
gracilis

 Upper opening of the canal is the femoral ring bounded in front by the Poupart’s
ligament

 This canal lodges the femoral artery, vein, saphenous artery, vein and nerve

 This canal terminates below the lower part of the insertion of the pectineus

 Appreciate external iliac artery and its branches i.e., circumflex iliac and common
trunk (shows prepubic and posterior abdominal branches)

Click here to view the

 Thigh Lateral - Superficially dissected view

 Thigh Lateral - Deep dissected

 HIND LIMB - LEG REGION

Click here to view the Dissected leg - lateral view

  Dorsolateral aspect : Appreciate 3 straight ligaments of patella which are
clinically important i.e., medial, middle and lateral, which are attached to the
tibial tuberosity

 Appreciate muscles complex, tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, lateral digital

extensor, peroneal nerve and its branches, superficial and deep peroneal and
continuation of anterior tibial artery

 Plantar aspect : Appreciate tibial nerve and its branches, medial and lateral
plantar nerves, posterior cutaneous nerve of leg, appreciate popliteal artery and
its branches, anterior tibial and posterior tibial arteries, muscles superficial layer,
soleus, gastrocnemius, deep layer and superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor
(3 divisions – long digital flexor, tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis) and popliteus

 Tendoachillis is formed by gastrocnemius, superficial digital flexor,

semitendinosus and biceps femoris

 In front of this appreciate recurrent tarsal vein formed by dorsal metatarsal vein
and lateral plantar metararsal veins

HIND LIMB - HOCK METATARSAL AND DIGITAL REGION

Hock region

 Dorsal aspect: Observe continuation of superficial and deep peritoneal nerves

and continuation of anterior tibial artery as dorsal metatarsal artery

 Plantar aspect: Appreciate tarsal canal formed by plantar tarsal and plantar
annular ligaments, medial and lateral plantar nerves

Metatarsal region

 Dorsal aspect: Superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor and suspensory
ligament like in forelimb

 Lower part consists of lateral and medial plantar abaxial digital nerves, lateral
and medial plantar metatarsal arteries

Digital region

 Dorsal aspect: Tendons of extensors, dorsal common digital nerves and proper
digital nerves, dorsal common digital artery and proper digital arteries, synovial
sheaths, lateral and medial dorsal abaxial digital nerves
  Plantar aspect: Tendons of flexors, synovial sheaths, medial and lateral plantar
abaxial digital nerves, plantar common digital nerve and proper digital nerves,
plantar common digital artery from distal plantar arch and proper digital arteries

FORE LIMB - SHOULDER GIRDLE AND SHOULDER REGION

Shoulder girdle region

 Observe brachiocephalicus (the origin and insertion can act as vice versa),
omotransversarius (observe prescapular lymphnode under cover of this muscle),
trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus ventralis with serratus cervicis and thoracis
divisions, which is suspending the trunk between two fore limbs, and superficial
and deep pectorals.

Shoulder region

 Medial aspect

o Subscapularis, teres major (axillary lymphnode is present at the lower part

of this muscle) and coracobrachialis

o Observe brachial artery and loop, brachial vein, suprascapular artery,

subscapular artery and its branches, brachial plexus and its branches to
different muscles of the shoulder

 Lateral aspect

o Observe the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, deltoideus, teres minor and

termination of posterior circumflex artery of humerus, axillary and
suprascapular nerves

o Observe various tendons and muscles covering the shoulder joint on all
sides since no special ligaments are present which minimizes dislocation

Click here to view the

 Dissected shoulder - Lateral view

 Dissected shoulder - Medial vew

 FORE LIMB - ARM AND FORE ARM REGION

 Arm region
 o Observe biceps brachii, medial, lateral and long heads of triceps,
anconeus, brachialis, brachial artery, collateral ulnar and collateral radial
arteries, median nerve, ulnar nerve, radial nerve and its branches to
triceps, musculocutaneous branch of median nerve

 Fore arm region

o Dorsolateral aspect : Observe extensor carpi radialis, medial digital

extensor, common digital, extensor, lateral digital extensor, extensor carpi
obliqus, ulnaris lateralis (flexor) and radial nerve and collateral radial
artery supplying to all extensors, dorsal interosseus artery under
periosteum in radioulnar groove

o Volar aspect (Posteriomedial) : Observe pronator teres, flexor carpi

radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor
(radial, humeral, ulnar heads), median artery, median nerve and their
branches to the most of the flexors, radial artery, ulnar artery, ulnar nerve,
posterior cutaneous nerve of the fore arm

Click here to view the

 Dissected forearm - Lateral view

 Dissected forearm - Medial view

 FORE LIMB - CARPAL, METACARPAL AND DIGITAL REGION

Carpal region

 Carpal canal bounded infront by volar capsular ligament and volar annular
ligament behind

 Through this canal deep division of the superficial digital flexor, deep digital
flexor, median nerve and ulnar artery pass
Metacarpal region

 Dorsal aspect: Tendons of medial, common and lateral digital extensors and
radial nerve and its continuation as dorsal common digital nerve in lower part

 Volar aspect: Appreciate tendons of superficial and deep digital flexors,

suspensory ligament with anterior division (6 bands), posterior division (two
bands) continuation of ulnar artery as volar common digital artery.

Digital region

 Dorsal aspect: Tendons of medial, lateral and common digital extensors, synovial
sheaths, medial and lateral abaxial digital nerves, dorsal common digital nerve
and proper digital nerves

 Volar aspect: Superficial and deep digital flexor tendons, synovial sheath, volar
common digital nerve and proper digital nerves, volar common digital artery and
proper digital arteries

PARALUMBAR FOSSA

 Non bony wall of abdomen (flank) and paralumbar fossa which is a part of flank
and is clinically important

 Boundaries of paralumbar fossa are

o Superiorly : Longissimus dorsi muscle,

o Anteriorly : Posterior border of last rib,

o Inferiorly : Obliqus abdominis internus muscle

Clinical importance of the Paralumbar fossa

 For conducting rumenotomy, to reel ruminal movements, to palpate rumen and

conduct laparatomy on left side

 On right side it is a site for enterotomy and caecal biopsy

 Observe different layers of abdominal wall i.e., skin, cutaneous muscle, tunica
flava abdominis, obliqus abdominis externus and internus, rectus abdominis
(only in floor), transverses abdominis and parietal peritoneum
Click here to view the

 Dissected lateral flank view

 Superficial dissection - flank

 Transverse section of abdominal cavity

INGUINAL CANAL

Boundary

 Anterior wall is formed by posterior part of internal obliqus muscle.

Posterolateral wall is formed by portion of aponeurosis of the external oblique
muscle

 Internal inguinal ring is formed by free borders of the internal obliqus muscle
anteriorly and upper border of the inguinal ligament posteriorly

 External inguinal ring is in the aponeurosis of the external obliqus muscle of the
abdomen

Structures that pass through the canal

 External pudic artery and vein, inguinal nerves and lymph vessels

 Additional structures in male : Spermatic cord consisting of internal spermatic

artery, vein, nerve (anterior part) and vas deferens (posterior part), cremaster
externus muscle and tunica vaginalis

Clinical importance

 Inguinal hernia is often seen in some animals wherein intestines herniated

through inguinal canal

NERVE BLOCKS AND NEURECTOMIES

Nerve blocks
  Temporary blocking of pathways for passage of impulses by injecting local
anaesthetic solution resulting in desensitization and paresis in the region
controlled by the nerve

Neurectomy

 Neurectomy is the division and removal of a piece of nerve

Indications

 To remove pain and to improve usefulness of the animal

 Lameness due to chronic conditions

 Splints, ringbone, navicular disease, laminitis (horse)

PARAVERTEBRAL NERVE BLOCK

Illustration

 The nerve supply to the flank region is by thirteenth thoracic and first and second
lumbar spinal nerves

 Each nerve has dorsal and ventral branches. The dorsal branch supplies to the muscles of
the loin

 The ventral branch supplies to the skin, abdominal muscles and peritoneum

 In addition to ventral cutaneous of these 3rd lumbar spinal nerve also supplies to the
flank region.

Site

 The last thoracic nerve is blocked about 5 to 6 cm lateral to the mid dorsal line at a point
behind the level of the last rib

 The sites for blocking the first three lumbar nerves are 5 to 6 cm lateral to mid dorsal line
and behind the transverse process of first three lumbar vertebrae respectively
 EPIDURAL ANAESTHESIA

Illustration

 Epidural space is located between the spinal canal and the spinal duramater. This space
is filled with fat and areolar tissue. In the ox, the spinal cord ends in the region of the last
lumbar vertebra, but the meningeal sac goes to the 3rd / 4th sacral segments. In dogs, the
spinal cord terminates around 6 / 7th lumbar vertebrae

Indications

 Surgery of hind limbs and posterior regions of the body for surgical manipulations of
penis in bull and correction of prolapses of uterus and vagina in cow

Site
  Sacrococcygeal site : between sacrum and first coccygeal vertebrae

 Intercoccygeal sit e: between first and second coccygeal vertebrae

Click here to view the

 Lumbo sacral epidural nerve block - Ox

 Epidural in Lumbo sacral site - Ox

PUDIC NERVE BLOCK

 Pudic nerve is the continuation of the ventral branch of the 3rd sacral nerve with a
variable contribution from 2nd and 4th sacral spinal nerves

 It can be best judged by palpating per rectum the internal pudic artery on the
latero-ventral aspect of the pelvic cavity just cranial to the lesser sciatic foramen
  The artery is usually one inch below the nerve

Indications

 Surgical interference with the penis and prepuce.

Site

 The ischiorectal fossa of either side (the depression between the anal orifice and
the ischial tuberocity).

EXERCISE-9: NERVE BLOCKS AND NEUROCTOMIES IN

FORE AND HIND LIMB

Learning objectives

 To have an idea about he pathology of the nerve paralysis of limbs

 To have an idea on the site, indications and uses of various nerve blocks in the
fore limb and hind limb

NERVE BLOCK AND NEURECTOMIES IN FORE LIMB

Illustration-I and Illustration-II

Median nerve block and neurectomy

 The median nerve passes below the elbow beneath the pronator teres

 It then runs down along the forearm between the radius and flexor carpi radialis muscle

 Median nerve supplies pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, superficial digital flexor,
humeral and radial heads of deep digital flexor muscles

 Site : Below the medial tuberosity of the radius at the groove between caudal border of
the radius and flexor carpi radialis muscle

Ulnar nerve block and neurectomy

 At the lower one third of the forearm this nerve lies relatively superficial between the
flexor carpi ulnaris and ulnaris lateralis muscle
  Ulnar nerve supplies the flexor carpi ulnaris, superficial digital flexor and ulnar head of
deep digital flexor

 Site : A few inches above accessory carpal

Volar nerve block and neurectomy

 The volar or metacarpal nerves are terminal branches of the median nerve

 The lateral volar nerve merges with the deep branch of the ulnar nerve

 The medial volar nerve is accompanied by the medial volar metarcarpal artery, the
lateral volar nerve is accompanied by the lateral volar metacarpal artery

 Each volar metacarpal nerve continues as respective volar abaxial digital nerve where as
volar common digital nerve is formed by union of middle branches of median nerve

Site

 High volar block : 5 to 7 cm above the fetlock in the depression between suspensory
ligament and deep flexor tendon both on medial and lateral aspects

 Low volar block : Midway between the fetlock and coronet in between deep digital flexor
and superficial digital flexor both on medial and lateral aspects

Click here and note the

 Nerve blocks in forelimb - Ox

 Nerve blocks in Manus - Lateral

 Nerve blocks in Manus - Dorsal

 Nerve blocks in Manus - Medial

 Nerve blocks - Distal forelimb - Volar

 NERVE BLOCK AND NEURECTOMY IN HIND LIMB

Illustration-I and Illustration-II

Tibial nerve block and neurectomy

 The tibial nerve is continuation of the sciatic nerve

 In the proximal third of the leg the nerve is under the cover of the medial head of the
gastrocnemius and lies along he medial aspect of the superficial digital flexor

 Tibial nerve supplies branches to the muscles of the plantar aspect of the leg region

 Site : On the medial aspect of the leg about a hands breadth above the point of hock and
½” infront of the tendoachillis

Peroneal nerve block and neurectomy

 The peroneal nerve is a branch of sciatic nerve and passes over the lateral head of
gastrocnemius downwards and forwards and divides into superficial and deep peroneal
branches

 The nerve gives branches to all the dorsolateral group muscles of leg

 Site : Two inches below and behind the lateral condyle of the tibia in the groove between
peroneus longus and lateral digital extensor muscles

Plantar nerve block and neurectomy

 Plantar nerve in the hind limb are the terminal branches of the tibial nerve. Each plantar
nerve is accompanied by plantar metatarsal vein of that side

 Site : Same as volar nerve block in forelimb

Click here to view the image

 Nerve blocks in pes - Lateral

 Nerve blocks in pes - Dorsal

 Nerve blocks in pes - Medial

 Nerve blocks in pes - Posterior

 Nerve block thigh

 NERVE BLOCKS IN HEAD REGION

 The nerve blocks done in head regions are as follows, (View image)

o Cornual nerve block

o Mandibular nerve block

o Mental nerve block

o Maxillary nerve block

o Infraorbital nerve block

o Supraorbital (frontal) nerve block

o Orbital nerve block

o Auriculopalpebral nerve block

 ORNUAL NERVE BLOCK

Illustration in ox - I, Illustration in ox - II and Illustration in goat

 Cornual nerve is a sensory nerve supplying to the horn core and skin around its base

 It is a branch of Lacrimal nerve which is a division of the ophthalmic branch of

Trigeminal nerve

 The cornual nerve emerges behind the orbit and ascends along frontal crest and placed
relatively superficial in the upper third covered by skin and the thin layer of frontalis
  The caudal part of the nerve is having close association with the superficial temporal
artery

 Indications : Amputation of horn in conditions like horn cancer, fracture of horn

 Site : Close to frontal crest of the frontal bone about one inch below the base of the horn

Click here to view the

 Anatomy of Cornual nerve block in Calf

 Innervation to the horn in Ox

 Anatomy for Cornual nerve block in Goat

 MANDIBULAR NERVE BLOCK

 The mandibular nerve is a branch of trigeminal and enters the mandibular

foramen on the medial aspect of vertical ramus of the mandible and emerges
through mental foramen, on the lateral aspect of the mandible

 During its course sensory branches are given off to teeth and gums of lower jaw

 Indications: To desensitize the cheek teeth, alveoli and gums of lower jaw

 Site: At the mandibular foramen on the medial aspect of the vertical ramus
 MENTAL NERVE BLOCK

 The mandibular nerve gains exit at the mental foramen on the lateral aspect of
the horizontal ramus of the mandible

 Indications: To desensitize the lower lip

 Site: At the mental foramen on the lateral aspect of the horizontal ramus of the
mandible near body

MAXILLARY NERVE BLOCK

 The maxillary nerve which is a branch of the trigeminal nerve, is sensory in

nature and emerges through the foramen orbitorotundum, passes forwards in the
pterygopalatine fossa and enters into infraorbital canal through maxillary
foramen

 The maxillary nerve gives branches to the teeth of upper jaw

 Indications: To desensitize the teeth, alveoli and gums of upper jaw

 Site: The maxillary foramen to be reached by inoculation needle through the site
2-3 cm below the external canthus of the eye and between the posterior border of
the malar bone and coronoid process of mandible

INFRAORBITAL NERVE BLOCK

 Infraorbital nerve is the continuation of maxillary nerve and emerges out through
infraorbital foramen

 Indications: Surgical interference with the upper lip and nostrils

 Site: The infraorbital foramen is reached through above the level of the upper 3 rd
cheek tooth

SUPRAORBITAL NERVE BLOCK

 Supraorbital nerve is one of the terminal branches of the ophthalmic division of
the fifth cranial nerve

 It is accompanied by the supraorbital artery and is sensory to the upper eyelid

 Indications: To desensitize the upper eyelid

 Site: At the root of the supraorbital process

ORBITAL NERVE BLOCK

 Ophthalmic and maxillary branches of trigeminal nerve are sensory in nature and
emerge out from the cranium through foramen orbitorotundum

 The ophthalmic nerve supplies branches to the eye ball proper, eyelids,
conjunctiva, lacrimal sac and third eyelid, while zygomatic branch of maxillary
nerve supplies to skin of lower eyelid

 Indications: Evisceration of the eyeball, orbital abscesses, malignant diseases of

eye

 Site: Foramen orbitorotundum through behind the middle of the supraorbital

process in the temporal fossa

ORBITAL NERVE BLOCK

 Ophthalmic and maxillary branches of trigeminal nerve are sensory in nature and
emerge out from the cranium through foramen orbitorotundum

 The ophthalmic nerve supplies branches to the eye ball proper, eyelids,
conjunctiva, lacrimal sac and third eyelid, while zygomatic branch of maxillary
nerve supplies to skin of lower eyelid

 Indications: Evisceration of the eyeball, orbital abscesses, malignant diseases of

eye

 Site: Foramen orbitorotundum through behind the middle of the supraorbital

process in the temporal fossa

ORBITAL NERVE BLOCK

 Ophthalmic and maxillary branches of trigeminal nerve are sensory in nature and
emerge out from the cranium through foramen orbitorotundum

 The ophthalmic nerve supplies branches to the eye ball proper, eyelids,
conjunctiva, lacrimal sac and third eyelid, while zygomatic branch of maxillary
nerve supplies to skin of lower eyelid

 Indications: Evisceration of the eyeball, orbital abscesses, malignant diseases of

eye

 Site: Foramen orbitorotundum through behind the middle of the supraorbital

process in the temporal fossa

AURICULOPALPEBRAL NERVE BLOCK

Illustration

 Auriculopalpebral nerve supplies to the orbicularis oculi muscle

 It is the branch of facial nerve and motor to eyelids and auricular (ear) muscles

 Indications: Surgical affections related to eyelids

 Site: At the level of zygomatic arch

 USES OF RADIOGRAPHY IN VETERINARY PRACTICE

Click here to view the animation

 As a diagnostic aid

 To select methods or techniques of treatment Eg. Fracture repair

 To detect previously undetected lesions

 To determine the age of the animal

 To examine postmortem materials

 For non-destructive examination of archeological specimens

 As a teaching aid in the anatomy

 In veterinary science and research, eg. Osteomedullography to evaluate bone healing

CONTRAST MEDIUM

 Positive contrast medium

o It increases the radiodensity of tissues in relation to surrounding tissues

o Examples:

 Barium sulphate: used in alimentary tract as suspension or paste

through oral route

 It is insoluble powder takes more time for excretion

 Water soluble iodine preparation: most commonly used largest

single group of contrast medium eg. Sodium meglumine salts

 Cholycystapaques: water soluble organic iodine preparation, used

for outlining biliary system, gall bladder. Used as I/V and also
orally, eg. Sodium iopodate
  Oily and viscous preparation: Immiscible with water, slowly
eliminated from body, less irritant, used in myelography,
hysterosalphingography, eg. Propyl iodine

 Negative contrast medium

o Decreases the radiodensity of tissues

o Examples : Air, CO2, O2, Nitrogen

VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS - IMPORTANT TIPS

 Before viewing the radiograph the knowledge of gross anatomy is must

 Radiograph should be viewed on a good, evenly lit viewing box, in a semi

darkened room

 The detail may often be more clearly seen when looking at the file from the side
than from the front

 It is advisable to wait until the film is dry before finalizing a diagnosis

 Start examining system wise, don’t jump into conclusion. The following order can
be used,

o Joints

o G.I. tract

o Respiratory system

o Genital system

o Liver

o Spleen

 Good radiological interpretation must not only be based on visual evidence but
on the data from comprehensive physical and clinical examination of the patient

 Bones and metals give white contrast

 Air gives black contrast

  Soft tissue gives contrast in between the bones and air

EXTIRPATION OF EYEBALL

Click here to view the anatomy of eye

Indications

 Neoplastic growth of eye ball and adjacent tissues

 Supportive destruction of the eye

 Penetrating wounds associated with evacuation of ocular contents and causing

irreparable injury to the eye

Structures Involved (View image)

 Eye is protected by upper and lower eyelids, bulbar, and palpebral conjuctiva and in its
middle by the complete orbital ring. Behind the eyeball, fascia bulbi, fat and ocular
muscle

 Three tunics of eye

 Third eyelid (membrane nictitans) at anteromedial angle

 Orbicularis oculi and levator palpebrae superioris muscle (control movement of eyelids)

 Four straight (dorsal, ventral, lateral and medial rectus muscle), 2 oblique (medial and
lateral oblique muscle) and a retractor oculi muscle

 Optic nerve.

 Lacrimal gland

 Arteries of vascular tunic come from ciliary branches of the external ophthalmic artery

 Eyelids and conjunctiva are supplied by facial artery, venous drainage by satellite veins

 Sensory innervation – branches of ophthalmic and maxillary nerves

 Motor innervation of eye ball muscles – facial, oculomotor and sympathetic nerves

Anesthesia

 Auriculo-palpebral and retrobulbar nerve block or infiltration of local anesthetic solution

into upper and lower eyelids and deeper tissues at the site of incision
ENUCLEATION OF EYEBALL
  It refers to the surgical removal of eyeball from the orbit leaving the eye muscles
and other contents intact

 The eye ball is situated in the bony orbit formed by the frontal, lacrimal and
malar bones

 During an evisceration the contents of the eye and the cornea are removed, but
the sclera or outer covering of the eye, remains

 During an enucleation the entire eyeball is removed

Indications

 Penetrating wounds associated with evacuation of ocular contents and causing

irreparable injury to the eye

 Orbital abscess

 Malignant tumors

 Intraocular foreign bodies which cannot be removed and which cause irritation

Structures involved – as in evisceration of eyeball

AMPUTATION OF TAIL

 Indications

o To improve the appearance

o Irrepairable injury

o Malignant tumors of the tail

o Tail gangrene

 Surgical Anatomy

o Skin.

o Subcutaneous tissue
 o The paired muscles of the tail are enclosed in the strong coccygeal fascia
which is loosely attached at the root of the tail

o Sacrococcygeus dorsalis, ventralis and lateralis

o Intertransversales cauda

o Rectococcygeus

o Coccygeus

 Artery : Middle and lateral coccygeal artery

 Nerve : Coccygeal nerve

EXERCISE

 Dissect the coccygeal muscles and find the course of middle and lateral coccygeal
arteries, and coccygeal nerve
 EXERCISE-11: COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF MALE AND
FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS

Learning objectives
  To have a clear picture on andrology in the light of surgico-clinical anatomy

 To know about the salient features of anatomy of most important system for
veterinarians - the female reproductive system

MALE GENITAL ORGANS - SCROTUM, TESTICLES AND VAS

DEFERENS

Click and view the image of "Male genitalia of fowl"

Scrotum

 It is a diverticulum of the abdomen

 Bulls : Present in front of inguinal region and lodges the testicles and its appendages. It
is oval in form and slightly compressed

 Stallion : It is in the inguinal region. It is globular in shape

 Dog : Behind the inguinal region, skin of scrotum is pigmented

 Cock : Absent

Testicles Schematic diagram of testis and scrotum

 Bull : Two, oval, slightly compressed. Long axis is vertical. Epididymis is on posterior
border with head, body and tail

 Stallion : Smaller but globular, long axis is parallel to the long axis of body. The
epididymis is on the dorsal border

 Dog : Small and oval, suspended in oblique direction. Epididymis is along the dorsal
border

 Cock : The two bean shaped testicles lie ventral to the anterior lobes of kidneys in body
cavity. Epididymis does not show 3 parts

Ductus deferens

 Bull : It has initial coiled portion followed by straight portion which forms posterior part
of spermatic cord and it shows enlargement – ampulla near urethra. Ductus deferens
and seminal vesicles open separately on colliculus seminalis

 Stallion : Seminal vesicles and ductus deferens open on a common ejaculatory orifice
  Dog : Ampullae are narrow

 Cock : Ductus deferens is extremely tortuous and opens into urodeum lateral to the
opening of the ureter

ACCESSORY GENITAL ORGANS - SEMINAL VESICLE,

PROSTATE AND COWPER'S GLAND

 Male accessory sex glands in bull

 Male accessory sex glands in stallion

 Male accessory sex glands in dog

 Male accessory sex glands in boar

Seminal vesicles

 Bulls : Two compact organs with lobulated surface present on posterodorsal part of
bladder. Ducts open on either side of the opening of ductus deferens at the colliculus
seminalis

 Stallion : They are elongated pyriform sacs consisting of body and neck. Ducts open
along with ductus deferens

 Dog and Cock : Absent

Prostate gland

 Bull : It has musculo glandular portion (body) present on the dorsal face of the neck of
the bladder and pars disseminate in the wall of urethra. Ducts open into the urethra
behind the colliculus seminalis in two rows

 Stallion : It is large and consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus. There are 15 to 20
ducts opening on either side of the opening of the ejaculatory orifice. Pars disseminate is
absent and shows median furrow dividing it into two lobes

 Dog : It is very large and globular in shape. It surrounds the neck of the bladder. Pars
disseminate is less extensive. Ducts are numerous

 Cock : Absent

Cowper’s gland

 Bull : Two in number, present on either side of the pelvic part of the urethra near ischial
arch. Each has a single duct which opens into the urethra
 Stallion : Larger 6-8 ducts are present

 Dog and Cock : Absent

URETHRA
 Long mucous tube extending from neck of the bladder to the tip of the glans
penis. So, it shows pelvic and extra pelvic portions

o Bull: Colliculus seminalis is about 5 cm behind the internal urethral orifice

o Stallion: Colliculus seminalis is present on either side of the common

ejaculatory orifice

o Dog: The bulb of the urethra is well developed

o Cock: Absent

PENIS AND PREPUCE

 Bull

o It measures about 90 cm

o It consists of 3 parts: root, body and glans. Body forms ‘S’ shaped curve
(sigmoid flexure) behind the scrotum

o Retractor penis muscle is attached to second bend of sigmoid flexure

o Glans penis, the free end of the organ is pointed and twisted.

o Penis is fibrous type

 Stallion

o Length is 50 cm. It undergoes 50% increase during erection. There is no

sigmoid flexure

o Erectile tissue is more, so it is vascular type

o Base of the glans forms a prominent margin known as corona glandis

 Dog

o Os penis is present in glans penis. Ventrally this bone is grooved for the
lodgement of the urethra. There is no sigmoid flexure

 Cock
 o It is in the form of two raised folds on floor of proctodeum

Prepuce

 It is a tubular structure covering the anterior part of the penis. It consists of

external and internal (penile) layers

 The internal layer is loosely attached to the body and closely attached to the
glans. Preputial orifice is the opening of the prepuce

 It is about 5 cm behind the umbilicus. Appreciate protractor and retractor

prepuce muscles

 Stallion: Prepuce is a double invagination of the skin

 Dog : As in bull

 Cock : Absent

FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS - UTERUS, VAGINA AND VULVA

View the image of "Female reproductive organs - fowl"

Uterus

 Uterus is a musculomembranous sac continuous with the oviduct in front and vagina
behind

 It has two horns body and cervix (neck)

 Cow

o Body of entire uterus is present in abdominal cavity. Junction with fallopian tube
is not abrupt

o Horns are about 35-40 cm long

o The muc0s membrane of body and horns present a number of cotyledons which
are oval prominences

o Cervix has no glands and is about 10 cm long. Its mucous membrane forms folds

 Mare
 o Body is situated partly in abdomen and partly in pelvic cavity

o Horns are 25cm long, mucous membrane has no cotyledons

o The junction of oviduct and horns is abrupt

o Cervix is about 5-7.5 cm long

 Bitch

o Body is very short 2-3 cm long

o Horns are very long (12-15 cm) and present in ‘V’ shaped form

o Gravid uterus extends upto the stomach and liver

Vagina

 Tubular passage extending from the neck of the uterus to the vulva

 Cow

o It is about 25-30 cm long. In the ventral wall of the vagina between muscular and
mucosal coats two canals of Gartners are present

o The urethra before opening into the vestibule shows suburethral diverticulum

o Clinically it is very important as most of the veterinarians deposit the semen by

mistake in this suburethral diverticulum during artificial insemination

o During catheterization of urethra also, catheter may end in this diverticulum

 Mare : Shorter, length is 15-20 cm, suburethral diverticulum is absent

 Bitch : Relatively long and narrow suburethral diverticulum is absent

Vulva

 Terminal part of the urogenital tract opening externally at the vulvar cleft below the
anus. Ventral ends of vulval lips are pointed

 Mare : Ventral ends of lips are rounded

 Bitch : Ventral ends are pointed and thick

 MAMMARY GLAND

Cow

 The four glands together are called udder

 Each gland constitutes a quarter

 Each teat has got one orifice. Sometimes in teat, sinus fibrous tissue mesh is
observed resulting in the hard milking. This condition is called spider teat which
can be relieved surgically

 Appreciate paired anterior (milk vein) and middle and unpaired posterior
mammary veins forming a venous circle around the base of the udder which is
helpful in assessing the milk yielding capacity of the animal
 TRACHEOTOMY

Click here and view the image for "Anatomy for Tracheotomy and Oesophagotomy"

Indications

 Obstruction in upper respiratory tract

 Paralysis of intrinsic muscles of the larynx

 Persistent epistaxis

Surgical Anatomy (View image)

 Trachea is superficial at about the junction of the upper and middle 3 rd of the neck

 It can be palpated as it is relatively superficial because of diverging sternocephalicus

muscles

 In this area, trachea on the mid line is covered by skin, subcutaneous connective tissue
and loose fascia between the two sternothyrohyoideus muscle

 Cartilagenous rings are enclosed and connected by fibroelastic membrane and constitute
the tracheal annular ligament

 Structures involved are,

o Skin

o Subcutaneous tissue

o Sternothyrohyoideus muscle

o Areolar tissue

o Artery: Branches of common carotid artery

o Nerve: Vagosympathetic nerves, recurrent laryngeal nerve

Site

 The site of tracheotomy is the midline on the ventral aspect of neck at the junction of the
upper and middle thirds of the tracheal length
 EXERCISE

 Examine the relationship of trachea with other structures and write the course of
trachea

 Palpate on the ventral / lateral aspect of neck

 Palpate point of divergence of the sternocephalicus muscle

OESOPHAGOTOMY

Indications

 Oesophageal obstruction (Choke)

 Wound of oesophagus

 Stenosis

Surgical Anatomy (View image)

  Oesophagus is mainly related at its origin to the carotid artery of both sides

 As it passes to the left side of the trachea, it is accompanied by longus colli and longus
capitis muscle dorsally, left carotid artery, vagosympathetic trunk, jugular vein, and
recurrent laryngeal nerve laterally

 Structures involved are,

o Skin

o Subcutaneous tissue, panniculus muscle

o Omohyoideus muscle which crosses the jugular furrow obliquely from below
upward and inward towards the median line

o Jugular vein

o Left carotid sheath consists of left common carotid artery, vagosympathetic trunk

o Recurrent laryngeal nerve at the ventral surface of the oesophagus

 Artery : Carotid, broncho-oesophageal and gastric arteries

 Nerve : Vagus, glossopharyngeal sympathetic nerves

Site

 Upper or lower border of left jugular furrow

 After incision through skin and subcutaneous tissue, omohyoideus muscle is separated
from upper and lower structures

LAPAROTOMY

LAPARO-ANATOMY

 Indications ( Laparo anatomy, Laparo anatomy 1)

o Operations on various abdominal and pelvic organs such as gastrotomy,

enterotomy, enterectomy, cystotomy, hysterectomy, spleenectomy, ovariotomy
etc

o Diagnosis of abdominal disease

 Sites
 o Left subcostal incision in gastrotomy and spleenectomy.

o High flank (paralumbar fossa) oblique/vertical incision in nephrectomy,

enterotomy (right side), rumenotomy (left side)

o Ventral abdominal incision:

 Cranial, caudal or middle midline : Incision through the linea alba

between the xiphoid cartilage of sternum and pubic symphysis for
caesarean operation. This site is preferred since it is least vascular

 Cranial, caudal or middle paramedian : Parallel to the linea alba along

the belly of rectus abdominis muscle for caesarean operation

 Cranial, caudal of middle lateral rectus (Pararectal) : parallel to rectus

abdominis muscle along its lateral border for caesarean operation

 Left paracostal, right para costal : for abomasotomy in ruminants on

right side

 Structures involved ( vary depends upon the site )

o Skin

o Subcutaneous fascia

o Cutaneous trunci muscle

o Deep fascia

o Internal abdominal oblique, external abdominal oblique, transversus abdominis

and rectus abdominis

o Linea alba and transverse fascia and peritoneum

 In high abdominal oblique incisions, all the above structures are cut except the rectus
abdominis

 While making incision for nephrectomy, retractor costae is also incised in between the
angle formed by last rib and transverse processes of lumbar vertebra in addition to the
above structures.

 In low oblique flank incision, the rectus abdominis muscle is also incised

 In mid ventral incisions, the aponeurosis of external, internal oblique and transverse
abdominis and rectus abdominis muscles are also encountered

 Artery: External pudental artery, cranial and caudal superficial epigastric arteries
 Nerve: Dorsolateral, ventromedial and ventrolateral branches 9-13 th thoracic and first 3
lumbar spinal nerves

EXERCISE

 Dissect and locate the structures involved during operation

RUMENOTOMY IN CATTLE / BUFFALO

Click here to view the presentation...

 Indications

o Persistent rumen impaction

o Foreign bodies in rumen and reticulum

o Frothy bloat

o Traumatic reticulitis

 Site

o Left flank or paralumbar fossa

o The rumen is generally opened for rumenotomy through the dorsal sac of the
rumen

o Left mid flank - vertical incision or near the last rib in case of large sized animal
in traumatic reticulitis case

 Structure involved are,

o Skin

o Subcutaneous fascia

o External and internal abdominal oblique and transverse abdominus

o Deep iliac fascia and subperitoneal fat

o Parietal layer of peritoneum

 o Rumen wall - the layers incised in wall of rumen from exterior to interior are
serosa, muscularis and mucosa

 While dividing the structures in this region, the 1st and 2nd lumbar nerves which run
perpendicular in direction are encountered

GASTROTOMY IN DOG

Indications

 Foreign bodies in the gastric end of the esophagus

 Malignant tumors

 Rupture or necrosis of stomach

 Gastric dilatation or volvulus

Site

 Cranial midventral (midline) incision behind the xiphoid cartilage or left

paracostal incision or parallel to left cranial midline

 Cranial midventral abdominal incision

o Structures involved are skin, fascia, linea alba, fat filled falciform ligament
extending from the xiphoid process in which cranial deep epigastric
vessels are encountered

 Left paracostal incision

o Instead of linea alba, the aponeurosis of external and internal abdominal

oblique muscles, rectus adbominis and aponeurotic part of transverse
abdominis muscles are to be incised

CYSTOTOMY IN BOVINES

Indications

 Removal of calculi, cancerous growth etc. from the bladder

  Catheterization of urinary bladder

Site

 Vertical posterior flank incision, ischiorectal fossa, prepubic paramedian incision

Structures involved

 Ischiorectal fossa approach

o Skin, superficial and deep fascia, coccygeus, retractor ani muscle,

sacrosciatic ligaments, perianal fat and urinary bladder

 Flank approach

o Skin, superficial and deep fascia, tensor fascia lata, external and internal
abdominal oblique, transverse abdominis muscle, parietal peritoneum and
urinary bladder

 Prepubic paramedian approach

o Skin, subcutaneous fascia, abdominal tunic and prepubic tendon, parietal

peritoneum and the urinary bladder

EXERCISE

 Explore the site and see the structures involved

 Study the perineal region, ligaments of urinary bladder

URETHROTOMY IN DOG

Indications

 Urethral calculi

 Obstruction or stenosis of urethra

Site
  Depending on the location of calculus, incision is done directly on the midline
over the urethra at,

o Post scrotal site: at the sigmoid flexure about 3 inches behind the scrotum

o Ischial site: close to ischial arch, it is two inches below the ischial arch
downwards along the median line

Structures involved

 Skin, fascia, fibers of the retractor penis (expose longitudinally), corpus

cavernosum, urethra, urethral lumen

EXERCISE

 Dissect the exact area and see the structures involved

CAESAREAN SECTION

Presentation for Surgical Anatomy in cow

Indications (Click here to view the animation)

 Obstructive dystocia

 Uterine inertia

Site

 Dog : Ventral abdominal midline behind the umbilicus

 Cow : Vertical or oblique left lower flank incision extending from 15 cm below the
external angle of ilium

Structures

 In left flank incision: Skin, cutaneous trunci muscle, subcutaneous fascia and a layer of
deep fascia

 External oblique, internal oblique and transverse abdominis muscles

 VASECTOMY/EPIDIDYMECTOMY IN BULL

 Indication

o To prevent ejaculation of semen

 Site

o Vasectomy – Posterior aspect of scrotum above each testicle

o Epididymectomy – Distal pole of scrotum

 Structures involved are,

o Vasectomy

 Skin.

 Subcutaneous tissue

 Tunica vaginalis

 Vas deferens enclosed in a fold of tunica vaginalis propria

o Epididymectomy

 Scrotum – skin

 Testicle

 Tunica dartos over the epididymis

CASTRATION

Indications

 To render the animal docile

 Malignant disease

Site
  Parallel to median raphae on the scrotum or circular incision in the tip of
scrotum or prescrotal region (dog)

Structures involved

 Wall of scrotum is composed of the following layers : Skin, dartos, scrotal fascia,
tunica vaginalis parietalis, a sac and external cremaster muscle is attached to the
lateral surface

 Testis lies in the scrotum. The tunica albuginea is covered by tunica vaginalis
visceralis

 The epididymis is attached to the dorsal border (dog) or posterior border (cattle)
of the testis and spermatic cord

 Blood supply – External pudic artery

 Nerve supply - Ventral branches of 2nd and 3rd lumbar nerves