IMPERIALISM
capitalist industries and also to
 Methods employed by one nation- state to gain
power over an area(s) and then to exercise
control over it.
 broad concept that describes various methods
employed by one country to gain control
(sometimes through territorial conquest) of
another country (or geographic area) and then
to exercise control
 ”imperium” – Roman
o first associated with domination and
political control over one or more
neighboring nations
 “ empire ” is derived from imperium
o describe political forms that had
characteristics of Roman rule, especially
the great power of the leader (the
Roman imperator or emperor) and the
huge chasm between the power of the
ruler and the ruled (Gibbon 1998)
 associated with rulership over vast geographic
spaces and the people who lived there
o this characteristic that leads to the
association between imperialism and
globalization
o many of the processes discussed in this
book under the heading of globalization
– trade, migration, communication, and
so on – existed between the imperial
power and the geographic areas that it
controlled
 (Germany, Italy, Belgium, Great Britain, France,
the United States) competed for control over
previously undeveloped geographic areas,
especially in Africa – 19th century; where
imperialism came into widespread
o Before that, Spain, Portugal and the
Netherlands had been other leading
imperialist nations.
 Imperialism: Highest Stage of Capitalism
o By V ladimir Lenin ( 1917/1939), the
first leader of the Soviet Union
o economic nature of capitalism leads
capitalistic economies, and the nation-
states that are dominated by such an
economic system, to seek out and
control distant geographic areas
 needed to provide resources for
create new markets for those
industries
 CAPITALIST ECONOMIC SYSTEM
TENDED TO EXPAND
IMPERIALISTICALLY
THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
 parasitic system and one that was part, and
reflected the decay, of capitalism.
 Empire (Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri’s)
o the often heavy - handed, nation -
based forms of imperialism described
above have been replaced by a far more
subtle and complex network of global
political/economic/cultural processes
that are exercising a new form of
control that is better captured in their
view by the idea of empire rather than
imperialism
o the decline of the importance of the
nation- state makes it difficult to
continue to talk in terms of imperialism
 leads to more “ decentered ”
view of globalization
 “new imperialism” = “capitalist imperialism”
(contradictory fusion of economics and politics)
 There are fundamental differences between the
two (political interest in territory and capitalist
interest in command, and use, of capital), but
the “ t wo logics intertwine in complex and
sometimes contradictory ways
COLONIALISM
 clearly related to imperialism (Williams and
Chrisman 1994) , and the terms are sometimes
used interchangeably, but colonialism has a
more specific meaning
 imperialism involves a control without the
creation of colonies; Colonialism generally
involves settlers as well as much more formal
mechanisms of political control than those of
imperialism
 imperialism means the practice, the theory, and
the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan
centre ruling a distant territory; ‘ colonialism ’ ,
which is almost always a consequence of
imperialism, is the implanting of settlements on
distant territory (Edward)
  imperialism is (following Lenin) more defi ned by
economic control (and exploitation), while
colonialism is more about political control.
 two great and more recent ages (colonialism
ancient history)
o first, beginning in the fifteenth century,
was led by European powers, especially
Spain and Portugal, and involved creating
colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas
o second, or modern, phase lasted roughly
between 1820 and the end of WW I. It
involved other European powers (most
importantly Great Britain, France, and
Germany), as well as the US and Japan
 decolonization
o process of revealing and dismantling
colonialist power in all its forms. This
includes dismantling the hidden aspects
of those institutional and cultural forces
that had maintained the colonialist power
and that remain even after political
independence is achieved
o succeed with greater frequency as the
twentieth century unfolded.
o followed by decolonization and the
achievement of political independence
 after the close of WW II, followed by a period of
neo – colonialism
o efforts at control over the former
colonies, and other nation - states, grew
much more indirect, subtle (e.g. through
cultural and educational institutions), and
focused on economic control and
exploitation.
 Post – colonialism - Developments that take
place in a former colony after the colonizing
power departs
 Orientalism - deals with this problem in the
context of both overt and more subtle negative
stereotypes developed in the West about those
who live in the East
DEVELOPMENT
 A “ project” primarily concerned with the
economic development of specifi c nation-
states not regarded as sufficiently developed
 can be seen as a historical stage (roughly the
1940s to the 1970s) that preceded the global age
(McMichael 2 008: 21).
 Import-substitution : Countries (usually in the
South) “encouraged” to develop their
industries: instead of producing for export, rely
on imports
o key aspect of development projects
 viewed as a “ project” that predated the project of
globalization
o primarily concerned with the economic
development of specific nations, usually
those that were not regarded as
sufficiently advanced economically.
 Foreign direct investment (FDI) :
o Investment by a fi rm in one nation-
state in a firm in another nation- state
with the intention of controlling it.
 foreign aid offered by developed countries to
those that were less developed
o This encompassed fi nancial assistance, as
well as aid in terms of food (for example,
the US shipping its excess wheat to
developing countries).
 dependency theory
o body of work critical of development
theory
o emphasizes the fact that the kinds of
programs discussed above led not so
much to the development of the nation -
states of the South, but more to a decline
o Development of the nation- states of
the South contributed to a decline in
their independence; to an increase in
their dependence on the North.
 Andre Gunder Frank ( 1969) argues that behind
the whole idea of development is the notion that
the present of less developed countries resembles
the past of the developed countries
o Thus, if the less developed countries
simply follow the same path taken by
developed countries, they too will
become developed
o However, the developed countries were
never in the same position as less
developed countries today; the
developed countries were undeveloped
while the less developed countries were
(and are) underdeveloped.
o Frank also rejects the idea that the
underdevelopment of a country is
traceable to sources internal to that
country
  argues that it is a product of the
capitalist system and of the
relationship between developed
and underdeveloped countries
within that system.
 he rejects the idea that the
solution to underdevelopment
lies in the diffusion of capital,
institutions, values, and so on
from the developed world
 World system theory
o Replaced Dependency Theory
o envisions a world divided mainly between
the core and the periphery with the
nation- states associated with the latter
being dependent on, and exploited by,
the core nation – states
AMERICANIZATION
 related to globalization, but is not identical, or
reducible, to it.
 globalisation is really another name for the
dominant role of the United States (Henry
Kissinger (1999))
 the import by non - Americans of products,
images, technologies, practices and behaviour
that are closely associated with
America/Americans. (Richard Kuisel (1993: 96))
 fears of Americanization, or at least of US
industries, declined and were replaced by other
ideas and fears, most of which were seen as
threatening to the US, as well.
o “ Japanization”
o “ Asian Tigers”
 Anti - Americanism as a Global Process
 not a homogeneous phenomenon, even if the
word itself conveys a sense of a kind of general
criticism that is expressed similarly in much of the
world
 There are distinct forms, causes, and expressions
of anti- Americanism; in other words there are
anti- A mericanism s rather than an overarching
anti – Americanism
 encompass everything from casual and superfi cial
criticism of the US to a deep - seated and widely
shared animosity
 prejudice because it prejudges America,
Americans, and American action, it offers a one- s
ided view of things American, and its view of
America is undifferentiated
o To overcome such a prejudice, and to
develop a far better critique of America,
that critique must be “ based on details
and evidence, rather than broad
prejudices and stereotypes; from analysis,
not knee - jerk rejection ”
 O ’ Connor argues that this prejudice, like all
others, (1) needs to be challenged and
confronted; (2) needs to be seen as making clear
the need for a more differentiated view of the US;
and (3) needs to be viewed as being in opposition
to intelligent thought
o the challenge is how to engage with
America without letting anti- American
prejudices overwhelm critique
 O’ C onnor argues that to take anti- Americanism
seriously, it must be based on intelligent critique
well grounded in facts rather than based on
prejudice against the US.
NEO - LIBERALISM
 Liberal commitment to individual liberty, a
belief in the free market and opposition to
state intervention in it.
 Liberalism came to be called neo-liberalism
(Fourcade- Gourinchas and Babb 2002 : 533 – 79)
as a result of developments in the 1930s
 Neo- liberalism’ s intellectual leaders were
economists, especially Friedrich von Hayek and
Ludwig von Mises. An organization devoted to
liberal ideas – the Mont Pelerin Society (MPS) –
was created in 1947
 A key development in the history of neo-
liberalism was the election of Salvador Allende as
President of Chile in 1970
o Marxist and the US, especially through
the CIA, sponsored a coup engineered
by the Chilean military (with CIA
assistance) in September, 1973
o Allende was killed in the coup and he was
replaced by the general who led it,
Augusto Pinochet, who soon became
President of Chile.
o “ shock doctrine ” = neo-liberal ideas
 involved the view that a total
overhaul of an economy required
a shock (like the Chilean coup);
and the economic policies put in
place were designed to change
the economy dramatically and, at
 least in theory, to breathe life
into it.
 basic free market premises of
this economic doctrine were
derived from Friedman ’ s
teachings and writings (especially
Capitalism and Freedom [2002] )
 privatization of industry, the
deregulation of the economy,
and reductions in a nation ’ s
spending on social welfare
programs
 Early in their administrations
both leaders undertook shock
therapy by, for example, taking
on, and defeating, powerful labor
unions
 Such shocks were then
used as a basis for
radically overhauling
their economies by
applying the neo - liberal
ideas of the Chicago
School.
 A decade later, the collapse of the Soviet Union
seemingly left few alternatives to neo- liberalism
 shortly after the collapse of communism, Russia
and other countries once in its orbit (e.g. Poland)
came in for shock therapy and the institution, at
least in part, of a free market economy.
 Structural adjustment : Conditions of economic
“ restructuring” imposed by organizations such
as the World Bank and the IMF on borrowing
nation – states
 referred to as the “ Washington Consensus” (Serra
and Stiglitz 2008 ) because of its linkage to the
political and economic position of the US and the
physical location of such organizations in that
nation’ s capital (John Williamson)
 Neo - liberalism has recently been called into
question in the developed world because of the
meltdown in the global economy in late 2007
o The US government was led to intervene
in the market in various ways, including
engineering a 2008 takeover of the
investment fi rm Bear Stearns by J.P.
Morgan
o Such intervention would be anathema to
Milton Friedman who long argued for the
need to allow the markets to work out
such difficulties on their own
 Neo - Liberalism: Basic Ideas
 William Easterly is opposed to any form of
collectivism and state planning because it inhibits,
if not destroys, freedom.
o freedom, especially economic freedom, is
highly correlated with economic success
o permits the decentralized search for
success that is the hallmark of free
markets
 reasons why economic freedom is related to
economic success and why central planning has
been an economic failure:
1. extremely difficult to know in advance
what will succeed and what will fail
2. markets offer continuous feedback on
what is succeeding and failing; central
planners lack such feedback
3. economic freedom leads to the ruthless
reallocation of resources to that which is
succeeding; central planners often have
vested interests that prevent such a
reallocation.
4. economic freedom permits large and
rapid increases in scale by financial
markets and corporate organizations;
central planners lack the flexibility to
make large - scale changes rapidly
5. individuals and corporations are willing to
take great risks; central planners are risk -
averse because of their personal
vulnerability if things go wrong
 Great faith is placed in the free market and its
rationality
 market needs to be allowed to operate free of any
impediments, especially those imposed by the
nation - state and other political entities.
 The Neo -Liberal State
 Many of the ideas associated with the neo- liberal
economy apply to the closely linked concept of
the neo- liberal state
 state in general is to be subordinated to the
economy.
 In the neo - liberal state the focus is on those who
gain from capital accumulation (the capitalists)
 social democratic state the emphasis is on the
well - being of all, especially through maintaining
something approximating full employment.
 Free markets and free trade are linked to a
democratic political system.
 commitment to low taxes and to tax cuts
(especially for the wealthy) where taxes are
deemed too high and too burdensome
o Low taxes and tax cuts are believed to
stimulate the economy by encouraging
people to earn more and ultimately to
invest and to spend more.
 Tax cuts for business and industry are also
encouraged, with the idea that businesses would
use the tax savings to invest more in their
operations and infrastructure, thereby generating
more business, income, and profits.
o Higher profits would “ trickle down” and
benefit most people in society
 Spending on welfare should be minimized and the
safety net for the poor should be minimized.
o Such spending and such a welfare system
are seen as hurting economic growth and
even as harming the poor
o designed to reduce government
expenditures and thereby to allow the
government to cut taxes and/or to invest
in more “ productive” undertakings
 Limited government : No government can do
things as well as the market and a government
should not intervene in it.
o no government or government agency
can do things as well as the market (the
failure of the Soviet Union is seen as
proof of that).
 leaves a government that is, at least theoretically,
less able, or unable, to intervene in the market
 less expensive government, one that would need
to collect less in taxes
 would put more money in the hands of the public,
especially the wealthier members of society who,
in recent years, have benefi ted most from tax
cuts
 state must not only be limited, but its job is to
cooperate with open global markets.
 neo- liberal state is very interested in privatizing
various sectors (e.g. “ transportation,
telecommunications, oil and other natural
resources, utilities, social housing, education ”
[Harvey 2006 : 25]) in order to open up these
areas for business and profit- making
o seeks to be sure that those sectors that
cannot be privatized are “ cost effective ”
and “ accountable. ”
 reduce barriers to the free movement of capital
across national borders and to the creation of new
global markets
 neo- liberal state extols the virtues of free
competition
 neo- liberalism has not made the state or
particular institutions of the state (such as the
courts) irrelevant
 Critiquing Neo -Liberalism: Karl Polanyi
 Among the problems with neo- liberalism as a
theory is the fact that it assumes that everyone in
the world wants very narrow and specific types of
economic well - being (to be well- off
economically, if not rich) and political freedom
(democracy). There are great cultural differences
in the ways in which well- b eing (to not have to
work very hard) and freedom (to be unfettered by
the state even if it is not democratically chosen)
are defined
 Another problem lies in the fact that the theory
conceals or obscures the social and material
interests of those who push such an economic
system with its associated technological, legal,
and institutional systems
o not being pursued because everyone in
the world wants them or will benefi t
from them, but because some, usually in
the North, are greatly advantaged by
them and therefore push them.

 Contemporary Criticisms of Neo -Liberalism
NEO -MARXIAN THEORIES
 Transnational Capitalism
 Empire
CHAPTER SUMMARY