ASSESSMENT COVERSHEET

Attach this coversheet as the cover for your submission. All sections must be completed.

Section A: Submission Details

Programme : BAET AVIONICS
CourseCode & Name : AAB20503/ AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
Course Lecturer(s) :
Submission Title : ASSIGNMENT 2
Deadline : Day 20 Month 2 Year 2018 Time
Penalties :  5% will be deducted per day to a maximum of four (4) working days, after
which the submission will not be accepted.
 Plagiarised work is an Academic Offence in University Rules & Regulations
and will be penalised accordingly.

Section B: Academic Integrity

Tick (√) each box below if you agree:

√ I have read and understood the UniKL’s policy on Plagiarism in University Rules & Regulations.
√ This submission is my own, unless indicated with proper referencing.
√ This submission has not been previously submitted or published.
√ This submission follows the requirements stated in the course.

Section C: Submission Receipt

(must be filled in manually)

Office Receipt of Submission

Date & Time of
Student Name(s) Student ID(s)
Submission (stamp)

Student Receipt of Submission

This is your submission receipt, the only accepted evidence that you have submitted your work. After this
is stamped by the appointed staff& filled in, cut along the dotted lines above &retain this for your record.
Date & Time of Student ID(s)
Course Code Submission Title
Submission (stamp) & Signature(s)

Rubrics for Written Assignments

Revision 2 Page 1 of 26
 AAB20503
UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR
RUBRIC FOR ASSIGNMENT

COURSE CODE & NAME AAB20503/ AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

ASSIGNMENT TITLE ASSIGNMENT 2
STUDENT NAME MUHAMMAD FAIZ BIN AHMAD FAUZI
STUDENT ID 53213116217
CLASS 4 BAV 1
SEMESTER & YEAR JANUARY 2018

(1) Needs
Criteria (2) Satisfactory (3) Good (4) Excellent Points
improvement
Conceptual · Demonstrates · Demonstrates · Demonstrates · Demonstrates
understanding limited some considerable thorough and
understanding of understanding of understanding of insightful
information, ideas, information, ideas, information, understanding of
concepts, and concepts, and ideas, concepts, information, ideas,
themes themes and themes concepts, and
· No conceptual · Conceptual · Conceptual themes
framework evident framework not framework · Conceptual
· Attempts to use clearly established established framework clearly
supportive · Relevant · Relevant and and creatively
evidence supportive specific established
evidence included supportive · Creatively includes
evidence included relevant, specific
evidence
Application of · Shows limited · Shows some · Shows a good · Shows masterful
knowledge, understanding of understanding of understanding of understanding of
concepts and connections connections connections connections
skills between course between course between course between course
content, skills, and content, skills, and content, skills, content, skills, and
effective effective and effective effective
educational educational educational educational practice
practice practice practice
Communication · Communicates · Communicates · Communicates · Communicates
of knowledge information and information and information and information and
of related ideas with limited ideas with some ideas with ideas with a high
concepts and clarity clarity considerable degree of clarity and
· Communicates · Communicates clarity with confidence
problem- with a limited with some sense · Communicates · Communicates
solving sense of audience of audience and with a clear sense with a strong sense
procedures and purpose purpose of audience and of audience and
purpose purpose
Organization · Shows limited · Shows planning · Shows effective · Shows complex
planning · Some evidence planning planning
· Limited evidence of professional · Professionally · Professionally and
of professional presentation presented creatively presented
presentation
Sample D- D D+ C- C C+ B- B B+ A- A A+
Grading 50% 55% 59% 60% 65% 69% 70% 75% 79% 80% 90% 95-
100%

Revision 2 Page 2 of 26
 ASSIGNMENT 2
Number of Questions: 89
Question Format: Written Response
Instructions:

1. For this assignment you will follow all directions from your instructor.
2. Attempt all questions.
3. Ensure your name and student number is completed on the Assignment paper.
4. There is no time limit attached to this Assignment.

Revision 2 Page 3 of 26
 CONTENTS

Topic 1.1 Airframe – General Concepts

Topic 1.2 Airframe – Construction Concepts

Topic 2.1 Airframe – Fuselage

Topic 2.2 Airframe – Wings

Topic 2.3 Airframe – Stabilisers

Topic 2.4 Airframe – Flight Control Surfaces

Topic 2.5 Airframe – Nacelles/Pylons

Revision 2 Page 4 of 26
Topic 1.1

1. What are the following JAR regulations known as?

a) JAR-21
Certification Procedures for Aircraft and Related Products and Parts.

b) JAR-22
Sailplanes and Powered Sailplanes.

c) JAR-23
Normal, Utility, Aerobatic, and Commuter Category Aeroplanes.

d) JAR-25
Large Aeroplanes.

e) JAR-27
Small Rotorcraft.

f) JAR-29
Large Rotorcraft.

2. Name 5 requirements that are laid down in the above regulations?

General requirements, Flight requirements, Structure requirements, Design and Construction
requirement, and Powerplant requirements.

3. Which Section and Subpart of each regulation contains the structural strength
requirements for the aircraft type?
Section 1 – Subpart C – Structures.

4. Structural strength requirements are specified in terms of what? Explain what they
mean?
Structural strength requirements are specified in terms of limit loads and ultimate loads. Limit
loads are the maximum loads expected in service while ultimate loads are the limit loads
multiplied by prescribed factors of safety.

Revision 2 Page 5 of 26
5. Explain structural classifications?
There are 3 structural classifications which are primary, secondary and tertiary structure.
Primary structure is the portions of the aircraft structure which if it in flight, landing or taking off,
might cause structural collapse, loss of control, failure of motive power or injuries to the crew.
Secondary structure is the portions which would normally be regarded primary but have reserve
strength over design requirements. While tertiary structure is the portions that would not
endanger the safety of the aircraft or cause damage when they failed.

6. Explain what fail safe structure is and list some examples?

Fail safe structure is an aircraft structure that was designed to withstand structural loads for the
expected lifetime of the airframe. This means ensuring the aircraft structure as a whole has
sufficient strength to prevent complete structural failure when a component of that structure has
failed. A multi spar structure is an example of Fail Safe Structure, when a spar fails, the
adjacent spars will pick up the load.

7. Explain the 3 levels of Damage Tolerance?

Negligible damage is damage which allowed to exist or stay as it is, deemed not to have any
adverse effect on the aircraft airworthiness. Repairable damage is damage which cannot remain
as is, it may have an adverse effect in aircraft airworthiness. Unrepairable damage is damage
deemed to be too severe to leave as it is.

8. Explain the following terms in relation to zonal and station identification?

a) Datum
The ‘Datum’ is an imaginary vertical plane where all horizontal measurements are taken from
this point.

b) Fuselage Station Lines

Is the dimension along the length of the fuselage and are aft of the datum reference point. Its
vertical reference lines are located along the horizontal.

c) Buttock Lines
Is the horizontal reference lines that are used to identify components on the right and left side
of the aircraft. It is also parallel with the centre line of fuselage.

d) Water Lines
Uses horizontal reference planes to identify structure by vertical measurement. Zero water line
is the edge of the base reference plane. Positive or negative depends on location line zero.

e) Wing Stations
Parallel to centre line, or for swept wing, 90 degrees to the rear spar. Sometimes referred to as
wing buttock lines.

Revision 2 Page 6 of 26
 f) Clock Position
A position referencing system that often used by engineers of flight crew. It also used to report
faults on the aircraft or engine.
g) Major Zone
Identified by three digit numbers. Its standard series is from 100 to 800.

h) Major Sub Zone

Major sub zones are divided into further sub zones as an addition of a third non zero digit to
major sub zone number.

9. Explain the five types of stress?

Tension is a force that tend to pull an object apart. Compression is the resistance to an external
force that tries to push an object together. Shear stress is the force that when exerted on a
body, it tries to slice or slide it apart. Torsion is the stress applied to a material when it is twisted.
Lastly, bending is the stress in an object caused by the load being applied to one end while
the other is restrained.

10. Explain the following terms?

a) Strain
The deformation or physical change in a material that is caused by stress.

b) Hoop Stress
Stress in a pipe wall actin g circumferentially in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the pipe produced by the pressure inside the pipe.

c) Fatigue
The condition that exist in metal that causes it to lose some strength. It occurs when metal is
subjected to a series of stress reversals.

11. Why is aircraft drainage so important?

To prevent corrosion to the structural integrity of an airframe.

12. How are aircraft drained?

The lower fuselage of pressurized aircraft is drained by a system of drain path leading to valved
drain holes. The other aircraft have small drilled airholes in the aircraft skin.

Revision 2 Page 7 of 26
13. Explain the following systems installations?
a) Quick Disconnect Valves
Are a two piece fitting that are installed in hydraulic lines to prevent loss of fluid when removed.

b) Ground Locking Pins

Installed into holes specifically placed in the landing gear to prevent retraction during ground
and maintenance operations.

c) Jack Pads
Installed on landing gear to allow jacking one wheel at a time for quick maintenance or wheel
change.

d) Turnlock Fasteners
Used on aircraft for quick and easy removal of access panels for inspection and servicing
purpose.

e) Electrical Connectors
Installed on wiring that is frequently disconnected.

14. How can aircraft disperse charge through its airframe?

The charge must pass through the structure of the aircraft, and must exit, minimising
damage to structure, electronic equipment or human occupants. Bonding straps between
structural components are essential as it minimise lightning damage where structure is joined
or hinged and supply ground path for electrical equipment.

Revision 2 Page 8 of 26
Topic 1.2
1. Define the following items
a) Stressed Skin Fuselage
One that has an external skin with a minimum of internal structure. The skin is formed from thin

aluminium alloy sheets by using hydro-pressed drop hammers or stretch presses.

b) Former / Frame
Are a frame of wood or metal which gives the fuselage or wing its shape and the skin are

attached to the outside.

c) Stringer
It gives the Fuselage its longitudinal strengths. They connect the frames (formers) and are

joined to the skin.

d) Longeron
To give an aircraft capability to carry heavy loads longitudinally. It is added to a structure as the

main longitudinally load carrying member.

e) Bulkhead
Used as structural partitions to divide the fuselage or wings into bays or compartments, and

provide additional strength as well as giving the fuselage shape.

f) Air-Frame
All of the structural components joined together make the Air-Frame.

g) Doubler
A piece of metal used to strengthen skin structure where a component is attached.

h) Strut
Where structure has a tendency to push in on itself, structural members called Struts are used.

It is able to do this as it opposes compression forces.

i) Tie
When forces are working in the opposite to compression (tension), Ties are required to stop the

structure from pulling apart.

j) Beam
Are a long structural member in any structure that support/carry loads in bending and shear.

Revision 2 Page 9 of 26
2. How do Blow Out panels work?
Blow out panels or decompression doors are placed in these locations to prevent the cabin floor

from collapsing during rapid decompression.

3. What is a Rip-Stop doubler used for:

To reinforce the structure due to excess stress concentrations.

4. Why do some propeller aircraft have reinforcing skins on the fuselage at the line of prop
rotation.?
To prevent penetration from prop ice.

5. What features must floor structure have?

The floor structure of an aircraft consists of a network of longerons and floor beams.

6. What are the 2 methods of fabric skinning?

Composite skinning and fabric covering.

7. How is fabric skin given strength and rigidity?

The fabric is given strength and rigidity by applying a finishing solvent known as Dope.

8. Name 2 methods of composite skinning?

Multiple layers of fibre are impregnated and glued together with a resin matrix, to form a thick

fibre skin. And bonding a thinner fibre or metal skin to a honeycomb core.

9. Explain the following including advantages and disadvantages?

a) Riveting
Riveting is the process of installing structural fasteners to tie structure together. The

disadvantage of riveting is that each type requires its own specialist tools to install them.

Revision 2 Page 10 of 26
 b) Bolting
The process of assembling parts together with bolts, washers and nuts

or bolts in to anchor nuts. A torque wrench may be required to set the correct tension of the

installed bolt.

c) Bonding
Some joints on newer aircraft are made with composite materials that are held together by

adhesives. The components also need to be extremely clean for the adhesives/resins to stick.

10. Which rivets require access to both sides of the component for installation?
Hi-Lock fasteners.

11. Which aircraft assembly techniques can be used in combinations?

Riveting and Bonding.

12. When are the fuselage, wings and empennage aligned?

At the time of manufacture.

13. What may indicate that structural misalignment may be present?

Unusual flight characteristics, wrinkled or buckled skin.

14. How is aircraft symmetry determined?

By measuring the distances between chalk lines marked on the floor.

15. If the aft fuselage is distorted, what else will be wrong with the aircraft?
If aft fuselage structure is distorted, the vertical stabiliser will almost certainly be

misaligned.

Revision 2 Page 11 of 26
16. What is a tapered rigging board used for?
Ensure airframe is level both laterally and longitudinally.

Topic 2.1
1. Describe a Pratt Truss?
Their wooden longerons are the main longitudinal structural members. The wooden struts

support and hold longerons apart. Has 2 piano wire stays (drag/anti drag wires) cross each bay,

or space between struts. Lastly, the struts only carry compressive loads, while stays only carry

tension loads.

2. Describe a Warren Truss?

It is constructed from welded steel tubing. The longerons are separated by diagonal members

that carry both compressive and tensile loads. But both Pratt and Warren truss aircraft fuselage

can be covered with a non load carrying skin to aid in aerodynamic smoothness.

3. Describe a Monocoque Fuselage?

The upper and lower skins are thin sheet aluminium alloy formed into compound curved shapes

with a drop hammer or a hydro press. Their skins are riveted to the frames (formers) and

bulkheads. The edges of the skins are bent to form a lip that gives the skin rigidity and then

riveted to the former rings which are pressed from thin sheet aluminium in a hydro press.

4. Describe a Semi-Monocoque Fuselage?

Are stronger than monocoque construction. Their substructure of formers, bulkheads, longerons

and stringers riveted to the stressed skin. The formers and bulkheads are made of sheet metal

in smaller aircraft while bulkheads in larger aircraft are made extruded aluminium. The stringers

are made of extruded aluminium alloy, usually have a bulb on one side for added strength to

resist bending loads.

5. What are light aircraft doors constructed from?

Light aircraft doors are constructed of the same materials used for the other major components.

Revision 2 Page 12 of 26
6. What are large aircraft doors constructed from?
They consist of a framework of aluminium alloy which is riveted to a heavy outer skin formed to

the contour of the fuselage.

7. Explain a 2 pieces stair door?

A two-piece door has a top half, which is hinged at the top of the door frame. The top half is

opened first and locked into position. The bottom half is lowered and becomes entrance stairs.

8. Explain the locking mechanisms of pressurised doors?

Once a door is closed and the aircraft is pressurised, a blade seal contacts the door and

completes the seal. All openings on Aircraft had to be sealed. Passenger and cargo doors on

pressurised aircraft are often sealed with rubber blade seals.

9. Explain a vertical retracting door?

It is either counter-balanced or spring loaded for easy operation. The door opened inward

direction. Boeing 767 door slides up inside the ceiling.

10. Explain aircraft cargo doors?

They are locked by a series of hooks on the bottom edge and locking pins up the sides of the

door which are activated off the open/close handle. Cargo Doors on smaller aircraft do not

require the same locking requirements as do larger pressurized aircraft. They are usually a

hinged outward swinging door, with a rubber seal around the mating surface.

11. Explain Pressure Seals and their use?

Pressure seals are used at each location in which a control cable penetrates the structure of a

pressure vessel. These seals are filled with grease, which allows the cable to move freely, yet

prevent the leaking of pressurised air. These seals are filled with grease, which allows the cable

to move freely, and yet prevent the leaking of pressurised air.

Revision 2 Page 13 of 26
12. Explain Fairleads and their use?
Fairleads is an electrical wiring that is wrapped in tape, and then filled with sealant. Sealant is

applied to both sides of the fairlead including covering fasteners. Electrical connectors are also

used to pass wiring through pressure bulkheads.

13. What are the characteristics of cellulose acetate and acrylic plastics?
Cellulose acetate is dimensionally unstable and turns yellow after it has been installed for a

period of time and was primarily used in the past. For this reason it is rarely used today, and is

not considered an acceptable substitute for acrylic. Meanwhile, acrylic is a synthetic resin. It can

be recognised by applying a small amount of acetone on it, it will turn white but will not soften.

Or when it burns, it has a steady clear flame without smoke, and has a somewhat pleasant

smell.

14. Explain forming and machining of acrylic plastics?

Acrylic plastics become soft and pliable when heated, allowing them to be moulded to almost

any shape. They are heated with infrared heat lamps or in a forced air oven. Windscreens are

generally formed in a mould similar to this mould for a KTX-2 fighter.

15. Explain acrylic plastic repairs carried out to windscreens and windows?
Temporary repairs are carried out on light aircraft components to return them to a good enough

condition, so as the aircraft can be flown until the component can be replaced or repaired

correctly. For examples, lace the crack with safety wire or clamp the crack together with

machine screws, nuts, and washers.

16. Name the 4 items of a window construction?

Window ring pan, outer pane, outer seal, and inner pane.

Revision 2 Page 14 of 26
17. Explain the following landing gear?
Conventional
Consists of 2 main wheels attached to the airframe forward of the centre of gravity, with a small

tail-skid or wheel at the back providing the 3rd support. Tail wheel keeps the propeller further

above the ground.

Tricycle
Consists of a wheel on the front of the aircraft and 2 wheels behind the centre of gravity.

18. How are retractable undercarriages attached to the airframe, and what advantage do
they have over fixed?
Wing mounted fixed undercarriage is usually bolted to the wing main spar by a solid mount.

Whether the undercarriage system is small or large, it will have a compression resistant shock

absorbing system, to aid in smooth landing.

19. What is the most common shock absorbing component used in undercarriage systems?
Oleo Strut.

Revision 2 Page 15 of 26
Topic 2.2
1. Name the 2 configurations of wing attachment?
Cantilever wings and Strut-braced wings.

2. Name the structural components of a wing?

The spars and stringers running spanwise and ribs running chordwise. It also had fabric,

plywood or sheet metal skins. The leading edges manufactured from metal or composites.

3. Explain monospar and multispar construction?

The wings with one spar are termed ‘monospar’, while most aircraft have two or more spars

are called ‘multispar’.

4. Which structural part gives the wing its cambered profile:

The shaped ribs gave the wing cambered profile.

5. How are loads transmitted through the wing?

Loads on the wing skins are transmitted to the spars via the ribs.

6. Explain the following wing members?

Compression Strut
A heavy structural member, often in the form of a steel tube, used to hold the spars of a

Pratt truss airplane wing apart. A compression strut opposes the compressive loads between

the spars arising from the tensile loads produced by the drag and antidrug wires.

Drag Wires
Criss-crossed tension wires between the spars to form a truss to resist forces acting on the wing

in the direction of the wing chord.

Revision 2 Page 16 of 26
7. Explain angle of incidence and dihedral angle?
Angle of incidence is the angle between the chord of the wing and the longitudinal axis of the

fuselage. While dihedral angle is angle between two intersecting planes.

8. What is skin milling and where is it used?

The subtractive manufacturing process of using baths of temperature-regulated etching

chemicals to remove material to create an object with the desired shape. It is mostly used on

metals, though other materials are increasingly important.

9. Explain the use of winglets?

When aircraft are flying, its wings have a tendency to flex upwards. It prevents compression

stress in upper skin, tension stress in lower skin, and torsion stress on wing attachment points.

10. Explain the 3 types of aircraft fuel tanks?

Rigid tanks are generally made of sheet alloy or stainless steel, either welded or riveted. Newer

aircraft use integral tanks because of the large weight saving from rigid tanks. This is allowed by

the availability of fuel resistant sealants which are used to seal part of the aircraft structure

during assembly. Lastly, flexible tanks are reinforced rubberized bag placed in a non fuel-tight

compartment. Designed to structurally carry the weight of the fuel.

11. How are undercarriage systems connected to the wing?

Many aircraft utilise the forward and rear spar for undercarriage trunnion attachment.

12. Name the primary flight controls of an aircraft and where they are attached?
Rudder attached at the vertical stabiliser, ailerons at the horizontal stabiliser, and lastly elevator

at horizontal stabiliser too.

Revision 2 Page 17 of 26
13. Name the auxiliary flight controls of an aircraft and where they are attached?
Flaps at the inboard trailing edge or the wings, trim tabs and balance tabs are at the trailing

edge of primary flight control surfaces, spoilers at the upper or trailing edge of wing, and lastly

slots are at the outer leading edge of wing forward of ailerons.

Topic 2.3
1. Explain the structural members of stabilisers?
The spars and stringers running spanwise and ribs running chordwise, fabric, plywood or sheet

metal skins, and leading edges manufactured from metal or composites.

2. What type of horizontal stabiliser configuration do most aircraft have?

Most aircraft have a cantilever type horizontal stab.

3. Which structural part gives a stabiliser its cambered profile?

Ribs are shaped to give the stabiliser cambered profile.

4. How are loads transmitted through a stabiliser?

T-tails present structural challenges since loads on the horizontal stabilizer must be transmitted

through the vertical tail.

5. Explain the different types of horizontal stabilisers, and how they are mounted on the
aircraft?
Flaps are mounted on the inboard trailing edge of wings, spoilers are mounted at the upper or

trailing edge of wings, slats at the mid to outboard leading edge of the wing, and lastly the slots

are at the outer leading edge of wing forward of ailerons.

Revision 2 Page 18 of 26
6. Why are some vertical stabs deliberately offset at manufacture?
Some aircraft have vertical stabs that have been deliberately offset during manufacture to

counteract the effect of propeller torque.

7. Why are some horizontal stabs mounted at the top of a vertical stab?
Reduces the force needed to move a primary control surface and to assists or provides the

force for moving a primary flight control.

8. Why are some horizontal stabs manufactured with a cambered lower skin?
Some aircraft are manufactured with a deliberate nose down tendency. To counteract that for

straight and level flight the horizontal stabiliser is manufactured with a cambered lower skin.

9. What aircraft structure are stabiliser mounts usually associated with and why?
On pressurised aircraft, stabiliser mounts are usually associated with the same structure as the

rear pressure bulkhead as this structure provides the strongest load path.

10. What is meant by a variable incidence tailplane?

Pivoting stabiliser can sometimes be called a variable incidence tailplane.

Revision 2 Page 19 of 26
Topic 2.4
1. Explain the manufacture and structural components of large flight controls?

2. Explain components and method of attachment for the following?

a) Aileron

b) Rudder

c) Elevators

d) Flaps

e) Slats

Revision 2 Page 20 of 26
 f) Leading Edge Flaps

g) Spoilers

3. Explain the following flaps?

a) Plain

b) Split

c) Slotted

d) Fowler

Revision 2 Page 21 of 26
 e) Krueger

f) Variable Camber

4. Explain the reason for Aerodynamic Balancing?

5. Explain the following Aerodynamic Balancing devices?

a) Horn Balance

b) Balance Panel

c) Trim Tab

Revision 2 Page 22 of 26
 d) Balance Tab

e) Anti-Servo Tab

f) Servo Tab

g) Spring Tab

h) Ground Adjustable Tab

6 Explain the reason for Mass/Static Balancing?

Revision 2 Page 23 of 26
7. How is Mass/Static Balancing carried out?

8. Explain the formulae for Mass/Static Balancing?

Topic 2.5
1. Explain the use for a Nacelle?

2. Explain the use for a Pylon?

Revision 2 Page 24 of 26
3. What is the purpose of cowl flaps on reciprocating engine nacelles?

4. What is the purpose of Auxiliary air doors on turbine engine nacelles?

5. What is the purpose of thrust reversers on turbine engine nacelles?

6. How are engine mounts for gas turbine engines manufactured?

7. Engines mounted on the front of aircraft are constructed from what?

8. How are engine vibrations negated on aircraft?

Revision 2 Page 25 of 26
9. Explain the use for a Firewall?

10. What are Firewalls constructed of?

Revision 2 Page 26 of 26