CHOL A

Sacred Bronzes of Southern India

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 Introduction

CHOL A
Sacred Bronzes of Southern India
An imperial dynasty that emerged in the ninth century, the Cholas went on
to rule over much of southern India for the next four hundred years, during
which time they undertook an extensive programme of temple construction
that transformed the landscape of the region. Rich endowments funded
the ritual activities of these temples and bronze representations of Hindu
gods, especially those associated with Shiva and Vishnu, were specially
commissioned from master craftsmen for ritual worship in the new temples.
These figures, many of which are still the objects of devotion in temples
a thousand years after their creation, constitute one of the greatest bodies
of cast-bronze sculpture in world art. It is these objects that are the focus
of this exhibition.
Sackler Galleries
11 November 2006 – 25 February 2007

Hinduism
Hinduism, the religion of the Cholas, is a multifaceted religion that has
come to be specifically associated with India. Indeed the terms Hindu
and India both have origins in the Persian word for the river Indus.
Hindu literally means religion of the Indians.
India can be divided into four regions: the mountain chains of the
north including the Himalayas; the great southward-flowing river valleys
such as those formed by the sacred Indus and Ganges rivers; the high
central plateau of the Deccan; and the coastal plains of the far south which
is where the Cholas rose to prominence. Marked by regional differences,
there is a very strong emotional bond that ties Hinduism to the land of India.
Sanskrit, which became the lingua franca of Hinduism, is a language that
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE evolved through the presence of the Indo-Aryans who conquered northwest
EXHIBITION FOR TEACHERS India in the second millennium BC and is the language of ancient scripts.
AND STUDENTS This gives some idea of the complexity of Hindu, a religion which has evolved
from, and absorbed elements of, a wide range of influences over some four
Written by Adrian K. Locke millennia. Sanskrit, an Indo-Aryan language, belongs to the Indo-European
For the Education Department family of languages that includes Persian, Greek, Latin and most European
© Royal Academy of Arts languages. Sanskrit counts Gujarati, Hindi and Bengali as among its many
linguistic descendants.
The languages of the south of India, however, are not descended from
Sanskrit but form part of the independent Dravidian language group, which
boasts some 73 different languages. One of the most widely spoken and
purest of the Dravidian languages is Tamil, hence Tamil Nadu, a living classical
language over 2,000 years old. Tamil was the language of the Cholas and
was, therefore, used to compose the poetry of the saints and the founding
texts which can be found decorating temples. Dravidian can also be used
to refer to the region and people of South India.
Hindu belief is based on oral traditions from a wide range of influences
that were passed down over generations, although some of these were also
recorded in Sanskrit manuscripts. There is thought to be great continuity
in Indian religion that originates in the period referred to as the Vedic,
pre-Hindu India of the first and second millennia BC. The Vedas, which
FRONT COVER Detail of Cat. 13 Trident with Shiva
mean knowledge, are texts that date from this period and collectively this
as Vrishabhavana (Rider of the Bull) group of books is considered to be the foundation on which later Hindu
BACK COVER Cat. 14 Ganesha [reverse view ] activity is based. There are four Vedas, namely Rig Veda, Sama Veda,
Yayur Veda and Atharva Veda.
Designed by Isambard Thomas, London These are followed by two great Sanskrit epics of Hindu India called
Printed by Burlington the smriti or remembered literature. The first of these is the Mahabharata,

1
 which at more than 74,000 verses is one of the longest poems ever written.
Perhaps the best known part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita
which describes the events preceding the battle between the Pandyas and
the Kauravas, when the Pandya leader Arjuna turns to Krishna for spiritual
BAY OF advice. The second Sanskrit epic is the Ramayana which recounts the many
BENGAL
adventures of Rama, his wife Sita, his brother Lakshmana and the monkey
general Hanuman.
Pennar River Hinduism is primarily a devotional religion which means that the presence
of a god or gods is acknowledged by the individual. These gods are usually
worshipped in structures which can range from very simple man-made
The Chola territories in buildings to very elaborate stone-built temples. Sculpture, painting and
southern India, c.850–1250 ritual objects are used in the worship of these gods. Although the space
Cartography by Isambard Thomas
Map relief © 1995 Digital Wisdom Inc.
where the god is enshrined in a temple, referred to as the inner sanctum,
is not normally very large, the temple complex can be extensive. Part of the
reason for these large temple complexes is the need to provide space for
processions, essential components of temple activity and Hindu worship.
For the devotees, participating in processions and annual pilgrimages is
a very important aspect of their devotion, as it allows the individual the
opportunity to supplicate or offer thanks to the god or gods. The ability
to participate in these activities also allows the devotee to come into direct
er
Riv contact with the gods and allows the individual to make puja (offerings
alar
P
such as incense, fruit, milk and ghee-fuelled lamps) and, more significantly,

T
AS
darshan, in which the participant communicates with the deity through

CO
direct eye contact. Hindus also believe in the immortality of the soul and

EL
in reincarnation. Two central concepts of Hinduism are dharma, a complex

ND
term meaning among many things duty, and karma, which determines the

MA
quality of present and future lives.

RO
Pon
nai

CO
Riv There are three main gods in Hinduism: Shiva, Vishnu and Devi reflect
er
Hinduism’s abilities for multiplicity, variety and unity. The majority of Hindus
are either followers of Shiva or Vishnu. Temples, like the followers, devoted
to either one of these two principal deities are referred to as Shaivite
Kaveri River or Vaishnavite.

A short history of the Chola

Before the middle of the ninth century the Cholas were one of a number
of powerful independent cultural groups jockeying for position in southern
INDIAN India, the region today known as the state of Tamil Nadu. Their rivals were
Ve

OCEAN
tta

principally the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Cheras and, further to the north,
rR

the Chalukyas. Together these groups vied with each other for control
ive
r

over the rich fertile flood plains of southern India centred around the
sacred river Kaveri. Little is known about the early Cholas until the rise
of Vijayalaya (ruled ?848–871), whose exploits are known because they
were recorded in stone inscriptions and copper-plate foundation documents.
Cat. 1 [overleaf] Taking advantage of a conflict between the Pallava and the Pandya,
Shiva as Nataraja
Vijayalaya captured the town of Tanjavur where he established a royal court
(Lord of Dance)
Eleventh century and founded the dynastic line of the Cholas. Tanjavur became the imperial
Bronze Chola capital which was later moved to Gangaikondacholapuram. In
111.5 × 101.65 cm addition, Kanchipuram and Madurai both became established as important
The Cleveland Museum of Art, regional centres. The Chola dynasty ruled for a further four hundred years
Purchase from the J. H. Wade Fund,
1930.331 during which time they became extremely powerful politically, economically
Photo © The Cleveland Museum
of Art, Purchase from the J.H. Wade
and, significantly, culturally. Although their fortunes fluctuated over this
0 100 200 miles
Fund 1930.331 period, at their height the Cholas ruled over much of southern India,
0 100 200 300 kilometres
2 3
 Cosmic Dance of Shiva
as Lord of the Dance Nataraja
(symbol of the eternal
movement of the universe)

Drum damaru
A symbol of creation:
the universe was set
in motion by
the regular rhythm
of the dance. Also
combination of
male and female
Fire agni
attributes
Representing destruction
as well as energy in its
purest form but also creation

Abhaya position
blessing, protection,
reassurance

Gesture of
Ring of Fire prabha
an Elephant
Representing the cyclical,
gesture of
cosmic concept of
greatest strength
time, an endless cycle of
and power
creation and destruction

Raised foot
gesture of liberation

Demon Dwarf
Mushalagan
Representing
ignorance
 extending their control to include Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Indonesia earlier iconography associated with the Pallavas, the image was adopted
and north up the coast of the Bay of Bengal to the Godavari basin (in the and developed by the Chola monarchs, becoming established as a kind
modern state of Pradesh). of royal emblem.
Two early rulers, Aditya I (ruled 871–907) and Parantaka (ruled 907–947), State patronage of the arts, including temple construction, decoration
established the distinctive Chola architectural style in which elegant stone- and substantial endowments of gold and jewellery, clearly reflects the wealth
built temples boasted well proportioned exteriors with a fine balance of Chola society, further demonstrating the status of their political and
between carved detail and plain surfaces. Painted stone sculptures were economic power. In order to get a sense of the magnitude of the Cholas’s
then added. deliberate determination to demonstrate this authority, the Rajarajeshvara
The most celebrated rulers during this Medieval period (848–1070) were temple at Tanjavur (fig. 1) which was completed in 1010 was, at 216 feet,
Vijayayala, Rajaraja I (ruled 985–1014), who adopted an aggressive policy of the tallest building in India at the time. Its rich endowment included
territorial and maritime expansion, and his son Rajendra I (ruled 1012–1044), a huge gift of 60 bronzes of which 22 were given by King Rajaraja I.
who consolidated Chola power throughout the region. The great agricultural Hindu belief, like that of many religions, requires deities to fulfil public
wealth of the region combined with control of the seaboard gave the Cholas ‘I hold it a blasphemy to functions and preside over specific festivities as well as those particular to
access to the prosperous maritime trade routes which included those of the say that the Creator resides the temple in which they reside. To this end, small, portable images were
Tang dynasty in China, Jewish traders in Aden (Yemen), the Srivijaya empire in a temple from which created in bronze for use in processions. These were treated as physical
in the Malaysian archipelago and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. a particular class of His manifestations of the gods themselves and were ritually bathed, dressed and
devotees sharing the
Following the Medieval period the Cholas intermarried and formed faith in it are excluded.’
decorated with jewels and garlands of flowers inside the inner sanctum of
political alliances with the Chaluka dynasty to consolidate their regional MAHATMA GANDHI the temple, a place of restricted access. When processed in elaborate temple
position. The Chaluka-Chola period, lasted from 1070 to 1279, during carriages, these images became accessible to those individuals who were not
which time Kulottunga I (ruled 1070–1125), who oversaw an important Fig. 1 allowed into these restricted areas of the temple (fig. 2). Great festivities and
flourishing of the arts, is perhaps their most celebrated king. This period Rajarajeshvara Temple, celebrations accompanied
also witnessed the gradual decline of the Cholas, beginning with the loss Tanjavur these processions that serve
of Sri Lanka and the increasing threat of a revitalised Pandyan empire to 2006 both a social and a religious
Photo: John Millar
the south and the Hoysalas to the north. Following the death of Rajendra III function which continue to
(ruled 1246–1279), the already shrinking Chola empire was absorbed by this day (fig. 3). It is worth
the increasingly forceful Pandya monarchs. remembering that it was only
after a campaign by Mahatma
Gandhi (1869–1948) that the
Chola Patronage of the Arts inner sanctum of Hindu
Throughout their rule the Cholas were great patrons of the arts and temples was made accessible
oversaw an extensive programme of temple construction. In some cases to Indians of all castes in 1936.
this amounted to the reconstruction of earlier brick temples such as those
undertaken by Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, grandmother of Rajaraja I.
Considered one of the greatest patrons of the arts, Queen Sembiyan’s first Chola Bronzes
known temple donation is dated 941. She continued to patronise the arts The bronzes are made using
The swollen, prominent
until her death in 1006. mouth, with its wealth the lost wax process. Already
These stone-built temple complexes are externally richly decorated with of sensual expressions. established at the time the
depictions of Hindu gods. Poems and music were composed to accompany The tenderness of the Cholas rose to power, this
religious processions and, like dance, consequently prospered during this mouth and of the eyes ancient process was taken
are in harmony.
period. Each individual temple was endowed with great riches which took to new heights by artists and
Like a well of pleasure
the form of gold, jewellery, textiles and bronze sculptures as well as meeting the lips are surmounted bronze-smiths of the period. The process is an intricate one, imbued with
the cost of providing food, sandal wood paste, incense and lamps. The by the wonderfully noble Fig. 2 religious meaning. The various proscribed stages are laid down in an
Cholas also ruled that a proportion of income from communities should palpitating nostrils. Temple car being drawn unwritten law.
The mouth, with its in procession by devotees
go towards supporting temples which served to further underline their Beeswax mixed with dammar (resin of the shal tree, otherwise known as
damp delights, undulates Anonymous, by a Tanjore
commitment to, and the central importance of, religious worship. as sinuously as a snake: sallow-wood (Shorea robusta), the sacred tree under which Buddha lay down
artist
There is no question that as part of their patronage of Hindu religion the eyes are shut, rounded, c.1800, gouache, 16.75 × 12in
to die) is softened and used to create the desired image using a wooden
the Cholas elevated the art of bronze sculpture to new heights. Although closed by a seam of © The British Library chisel. Once complete, the wax model is hardened in cold water before being
the Pallavas worked with bronze, producing portable temple sculptures, eyelashes. encased in three layers of a finely ground clay. The mould is fired, melting the
AUGUSTE RODIN
the Cholas adapted and perfected the art, perhaps as a sign of their deep wax which drains out through specially positioned spouts. Molten bronze,
devotion to Hinduism and as a way of underlining their own specific and an alloy of copper and tin, is then poured in and fills the now empty mould.
easily distinguishable style. Perhaps the greatest example of this new style Once the bronze has been allowed to cool down the mould is broken open
is the celebrated representation of Shiva as Nataraja (nata = dance, raja = and any finishing touches are made to the piece. Since the clay mould is
king), seen by many as the quintessential image of the Chola. Based on an destroyed in order to remove the solid bronze sculpture each piece is unique.

6 7
 The bronzes were placed in the temples,
where they received ritual worship, which
included bathing, dressing and decoration
with jewels. It is important to recognise that
these bronzes were not representations of
the god or gods but were actual physical
embodiments of them and as such were
acknowledged as divine.
Today many of the bronzes have unusual
patinas (surface appearances) brought about
by ageing. The surfaces are often pitted and
discoloured which is in sharp contrast to the
often highly polished bronzes of those images
that are still worshipped in temples (fig. 4).
This is normally because many of the
sculptures were buried in order to escape
their being captured by invading Muslim
armies. Sometimes sculptures were hidden within temples in specially
constructed secret compartments. The most famous cache of Chola bronze
sculptures, discovered at Tiruvenkadu in the 1950s and now housed at the
Art Museum in Tanjavur , is considered to be the finest of all Chola bronzes.
Images which have seen long years of worship ordinarily have a very worn
surface due to the ritual bathing that they undergo in the temples. In order
to allow for the essential ritual of darshan to take place, the eyes are often
re-cut because they have become worn away through continuous lustration.
The gods stand on lotus pedestals known as the padmapitha or
padmasana. These indicate the origin of all life, including that of the gods,
and are among the most highly valued pedestals. The bronzes are rich with
iconographic detail including pose, hair styles, hand gestures, ornamentation
and attributes which are all imbued with meaning (see key on p7).
Shiva and his manifestations
The origins of Shiva have long since been lost in the mists of time although
it is certain that he cannot be traced back to any one single source. That
said, it is thought that a number of elements attached to Shiva appear to
originate with the Vedic wild god Rudra. Shiva is an unorthodox god,
who delights in stepping outside of the norms of human behaviour and
clearly relishes his outrageous conduct and moral ambivalence. With his
characteristic dreadlocks he is both beautiful and unpredictable and the
object of intense devotion. He is known as Mahadeva (Great God),
Nataraja (Lord of Dance), Mahakala (Great Black One) and Sundareshvara
(Beautiful Lord).
Shiva is essentially found in two forms; aniconic, that is symbolised
without aiming at resemblance, and iconic, in which the god is represented.
In respect to the aniconic form Shiva is represented as a linga, essentially
a phallic pillar, which in Shaivite temples is the central object of worship.
Lingas can vary in size and each temple will have many lingas. The female
equivalent of the linga is the yoni. Not surprisingly Shiva is representative
of fertility which is further enhanced with his association with snakes and
Nandi, his bull mount.
Shiva has a number of different manifestations in his iconic form, some of
which are included in this exhibition and indicated below. His main attributes
8 9
O Lord Shiva include the trishula (trident), the parashu (axe), which serves as the weapon
On that day when that conquers darkness and ignorance thus liberating man from the ties of
you looked at me,
worldly matters, mriga (antelope) which in south India reflects his status as
you enslaved me
in grace entered me Lord of Nature, agni (fire), symbolising destruction, a condition necessary for
and out of love melted the creation of new life, and damaru (drum), symbolising creation and also
my mind. referring to the god who resides in cremation grounds (the traditional Hindu
SAINT MANIKKAVACHAKAR
method of disposing of man’s earthly remains). (See key on p7)
Cat 3 Nataraja ‘Lord of Dance’ [see p16]
This is undoubtedly the most recognisable manifestation of Shiva and, as
Vidya Dehejia states in the exhibition catalogue, is ‘the quintessential deity
of the Tamil country of south India’. Here Shiva is depicted within the ring
of fire, the prabha, as both the creator and destroyer of the world, shown
through the drum and the flame which can be seen in his two rear hands.
His front hand left extends in a dance gesture and his front right hand is in
the abhaya position which indicates protection; this forms part of a dance
representative of the cyclical cosmic concept of time in India. Shiva can be
Fig. 3 seen standing on Mushalagan, the demon dwarf, who represents darkness
Temple car pulled through and ignorance to be overcome. Shiva is shown with a serpent around his
the Madras streets during
waist and flowing matted locks or dreadlocks (called jatamukuta), within
a festival
1930s which can be seen Ganga, the goddess of the Ganges, another of Shiva’s
Topographical photograph consorts. Once a celestial river, the gods granted that the river could flow
12.7 × 10.2 cm on earth for the benefit of man. In order to break the fall of her descent
Photo: Klein and Peyerl
© The British Library
Shiva agreed to catch her in his hair.
Is any one symbol dominant in this representation of Shiva
as Nataraja? Does the fact that Nataraja has four arms appear
to give him extra powers, both of representation and of dexterity?
This sculpture seems to convey a sense of liberation and freedom
Fig. 4 despite being encircled. How has the sculptor represented Shiva’s
Ritual worship of Shiva energy, expressiveness and carefreeness?
Nataraja and Parvati,
Rajarajeshvara Temple,
Tanjavur What role is the dwarf playing in the partnership with Shiva?
2006 Do you think the juxtaposition of the dwarf’s vanquished ignorance
Photo: John Millar and the supreme confidence of the god conveys a sense of harmony
or not? Why?
Tripuravijaya ‘Victor of the Three Cities’
It was said that in return for their worship Shiva granted three powerful
demons the right to live and rule over cities built of gold, silver and iron,
located respectively in the heavens, in the air and on earth. For over
a thousand years these demons resided in these cities increasing their
power. Believing themselves to be invincible, since they could only jointly be
destroyed by a single arrow, they terrorised the world. Fearing the power of
these demons, the gods and humans appealed to Shiva for help who, aided
by the gods, created a magical chariot and bow and arrow from the entire
universe, destroyed all three cities with a single arrow, thus defeating the
three demons. The bow and arrow on this sculpture (bana-dhanus) are lost.
Somaskanda ‘Shiva with Uma and Skanda’
This manifestation of Shiva seated on a platform with his consort Uma
(also known as Parvati) and their son Skanda (who, because he was so hot,
 was carried by Ganga and then the six Krittikas (Pleiades), who gave birth
to him) is considered to be his main manifest form. According to the Shaiva
Siddhanta philosophy, it is only when Shiva is in the company of Uma that
he can bestow grace upon an individual soul. This is the most popular
bronze, as it can be used as a substitute in ceremonies for specific
iconographies which the temple may not possess.
Vinaharamurti ‘Holder of the Vina (Lute)’
The vina is a seven-string instrument comprising a fret board with two
resonating hollow gourds at either end. Shiva’s front hands once played
a now missing instrument. His rear two hands hold an axe and an antelope.
Shiva plays the vina in his manifestation as Dakshinamurti, Dispenser
of Divine Wisdom.
Shrikantha ‘Lord of the Auspicious Neck’
This title refers to Shiva’s redeeming role as the imbiber of poison at the time
of the universal deluge of Hindu myth in which the earth and everything on
it including the divine nectar of immortality and the lethal halahala poison
were submerged. The story begins when Vishnu in his tortoise incarnation,
Kurma, was involved in the creation myth when, like milk is churned to make
butter, the cosmic ocean was agitated to secure the nectar and hence secure
immortality for the gods. In order to do this the mountain Mandara was set
on the back of Kurma and turned by the serpent Vasuki. The churning,
however, released the halahala poison from the bottom of the sea, thereby
threatening the world. Shiva was beseeched by the gods for his help and
he dove down into the waters, where he imbibed the poison, retaining it
in his throat and thereby allowing the nectar of immortality to rise and
save the world.
Cat. 13 Vrishabhavana ‘Rider of the Bull’ [see p24]
In this manifestation, Shiva is shown leaning on Nandi, his bull mount,
on the trishura (trident). The trident is Shiva’s most recognisable attribute.
Although it appears to be a weapon, the trident is actually imbued with
deep philosophical meaning. Rather than as a weapon of violence, it is seen
as a weapon of grace which is used to destroy the bonds that hold captive
the human soul. The prongs represent the three aspects of god as Creator,
Protector and Destroyer. The long shaft represents the axis of the universe.
As a whole, the trident can be seen, like a bolt of lightening, as a magic
means of destroying demons. The iconography of the trident varies from
the austere to the decorative, as seen in this example.
How does this representation of Shiva differ from the one on
pages 4 and 5?
Shiva is a very active god. Do you think this scene portrays a moment
of rest? What is the relationship between the god and the bull?
There are also a large number of deities and saints associated with Shiva.
Cat. 10 Parvati or Uma [see p17]
Shiva’s consort Parvati (referred to as Uma in the south of India), usually
portrayed as a woman of great physical beauty, is considered to be a child
10
of the Himalayas. Since Parvati has no great cult of her own, she is one of
the manifestations of the third great Indian Hindu deity, the Great Goddess
Devi, who has both benevolent and malevolent aspects and is accepted as
the fertile mother. Given both Shiva’s and Devi’s connection with fertility,
Parvati is often seen as the male and female aspects of the same cult and,
thereby, indivisible aspects of the same whole. Regarded as a goddess of
abundance, Parvati carries no weapons. Together, Shiva and Parvati
represent the ideals of human physical love. Her vahana (mount) is the lion.
How do the contours of the fabric around Parvati’s legs enhance
their form? Given that the sculpture is inanimate, what else do
the ripples of cloth suggest?
Examine the axis created by the figure. Which leg holds the
vertical line and how is Parvati’s sense of strength affected by this?
Note the curvy line along Parvati’s pelvis and waistline which
continues into her bracelet. What does this suggests about Parvati?
Skanda
God of battle Skanda, seen in the Somaskanda group, is the son of Shiva
and Parvati. Skanda’s vahana is the peacock, symbolic of immortality.
Cat. 14 Ganesha [see pp18 and 19]
The second son of Shiva and Parvati, Ganesha has an elephant head.
Referred to as the Remover of Obstacles, he is also known when angered
as the Placer of Obstacles. It is said that Parvati became pregnant while
washing dirt from her legs and gave birth to Ganesha in Shiva’s absence.
Shiva returned home to discover a handsome youth guarding the entrance
to Parvati’s bathroom where he was instructed to allow no-one to pass.
Not recognising his father and Shiva not knowing who this presumptuous
youth was, the two began to fight. During their struggle Shiva cut off
Ganesha’s human head. When Parvati found out what had happened,
she challenged Shiva who promised to bring the child back to life. He
ordered his followers to bring him the head of the first being they meet,
which happened to be an elephant. Restored to life, and as a form of
compensation for what had happened, Shiva entrusted Ganesha with the
leadership of his retinue of dwarves (the ganas), hence Ganesha ‘Lord of the
Ganas’. Ganesha is also custodian of doorways and thus is seen as Lord of
Beginnings. Ganesha is usually portrayed holding ankusha (elephant goad),
used to distinguish spiritual movements and direct them, a pasha (noose),
used to capture evil and ignorance, a bhikshapatra (bowl) representative
of the wandering aesetic or single laddu (type of Indian sweetmeat) and
a broken tusk which he removed in order to use it as a pen when asked
by the sage Vyasa to act as his scribe.
Although Ganesha’s body is rounded and elephantine, it is posed
in the same shape as Parvati’s on page 17. What effect does this
have on the representation of Ganesha?
Why do you think Ganesha is one of the most popular Hindu gods?
11
 Nandi the bull, the vahana of Shiva, is associated with Shiva because of
his strength and fertility. At Shiva temples, Nandi is placed between the
courtyard and the temple, where he marks the entrance and sits facing
the inner shrine where the linga is located.
There are a number of saints associated with Shiva. These are referred
to as the nayanmars and total sixty-three, not including the ninth-century
saint Manikkavachakar. These saints lived between the sixth and early
ninth centuries and helped make up a community of holy people who
travelled across the Tamil countryside as part of a popularising movement
called bhakti. These saints would stop at each temple to sing the glories
of the enshrined deity. Referring to themselves as adiyar or tontar, slaves
or servants of Shiva, they composed around seven hundred hymns known
collectively as Tevaram. Stone representations of all sixty-three nayanmars
are usually found in Shaivite temples.
Saint Sambandar (probably lived in the second half of the seventh century)
Sambandar often accompanied his Brahmin father to the temple in Sirkali.
One day the father left his son on the steps of the temple tank as he took
his ritual dip. Sambandar was hungry and began to cry. When his father
returned he found the child playing with a golden cup with milk running
down his chin. When the father asked his son where the milk came from,
Sambandar pointed to the temple tower where there was a representation
of Uma seated next to Shiva and began singing a song praising the divine
couple. Saint Sambandar is often shown holding a cup in one hand and
pointing with the other. As a lover of music and composer of verses he
is often depicted dancing.
Saint Chandesha (also known as Chandeshvara)
The young Chandesha, a cowherd, used to lustrate a mud linga that he
worshipped with milk. His father, concerned with this misuse of milk, came
out one day to see what his son was doing. Oblivious to his father’s presence
and his angry words, Chandesha remained deep in devotion to Shiva. His
father was so enraged by his behaviour that he kicked out at the mud linga
causing Chandesha to lash out with his staff knocking his father to the
ground. On witnessing this, Shiva and Uma appeared to Chandesha and
blessed him with a divine garland. Chandesha is usually shown with his
hands joined in a position of worship, anjali.
Cat. 17 Saint Karaikkal Ammaiyar (lived in the sixth century) [see p20]
A beautiful young woman called Punitavati and her husband
Paramadatta, a trader in Karaikkal, were both devotees of Shiva. One
day Paramadatta sent home two mangoes which he instructed were to
be served as part of his lunch. Before he returned home, Punitavati gave
one to a sage who appeared at their door begging for food. While having
his lunch, Paramadatta ate one of the mangoes and asked for the other.
At that moment Punitavati thought of Shiva and a mango appeared in
her hand, although it differed from the two that her husband had sent
home. On realising this, Paramadatta asked where it had come from and,
not believing his wife’s reply, reached out for it, only for it to disappear.
Perceiving his wife to be divine, Paramadatta left the family home only
to return to worship her. Punitavati appealed to Shiva to take away her
beauty so that she could devote herself to his worship. As a result her
beauty disappeared and she became an emaciated old woman who is
12
often shown without hair. She thenceforth became known as the
Mother of Karaikkal.
The sculptor has been asked to sculpt someone who has forfeited
beauty. How has the artist done this? What has been taken away
to represent the absence of beauty?
Does this sculpture remind you of any modern sculptures?
Saint Manikkavachakar (lived in the second half of the ninth century)
A minister to the Varaguna Pandya of Madurai, Manikkavachakar was sent
to the west to purchase horses for the Pandya calvalry. En route, he came
across Shiva disguised as a teacher. Manikkavachakar was so taken with
the teacher that he used the money intended for the horses to build a
temple. The king, outraged by his behaviour, recalled his minister and
imprisoned him twice. On both occasions Shiva intervened to secure his
release. Eventually he was permitted to join the teacher, Shiva, and his
followers. Manikkavachakar wrote a large body of poems.
Vishnu and his incarnations
Vishnu has several characteristics which have evolved over the last thousand
years and probably has more devotees than either Shiva or Devi. Vishnu has
ten avatars or bodily incarnations, which are Matsya (fish), Kurma (turtle),
Varaha (boar), Narasimha (lion), Vamana (dwarf), Parasurama, Rama,
Krishna, Buddha and Kalki (an incarnation which is yet to manifest itself).
Vishnu, seen as the preserver and maintainer of established order, holds
sway over intervening time (that is, the time not ruled by Shiva as Lord of
the Beginning and Lord of the End). Known for avoiding extremes, unlike
Shiva, Vishnu is seen as maintaining orthodox standards, placing his strong
belief in the family and caste system above the good of the individual.
As such, Vishnu is regarded as the god of accepted behaviour and the home
as well as of love and emotion. Vishnu became increasingly popular during
the time of the Mughals, when the power of Hinduism was challenged by
Islam in India. His most popular cults since the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries
have been Rama and Krishna, who are discussed below.
Vishnu is normally seen wearing a crown reflecting his regal quality
and carrying a sankha (conch shell), whose sound wards off demons and
whose spiralling is symbolic of infinite space and padma (lotus flower)
symbol of beauty, happiness and eternal renewal. His distinctive weapons
are the gada (club) which provides protection and represents the power
of natural laws and time and chakra (discus), the symbol of the cycle of
life and death.
Bhu-Varaha
Bhu-Varaha embraces goddess earth Prithivi, who had been abducted by
a demon and hidden at the bottom of the ocean. Varaha defeats the demon
and rescues Prithivi and makes her habitable for living creatures by creating
the continents and mountains.
Cat. 22 Yoga Narasimha [see p21]
The man-lion Narasimha vanquishes a gatekeeper, Hiranyakasipu, whom
he had condemned to live as a demon. Granted special powers by Brahma,
13
 which meant that he could not be injured by any weapon wielded by man ‘You who are the most They trembled Krishna can also be seen in the family group which is a rare example
or animal, day or night, inside or outside, the demon began to create many ancient supreme being, the gopis and gopas. of a familial group created by the same artist or workshop. Krishna is
problems for the gods. Assuming the head of a lion and thus appearing as they call you the best body He climbed upon accompanied by two of his consorts Rukmini and Satyabhama and his
and the supreme the flowering blue
neither man or animal, Yoga Narasimha hid in a pillar at the entrance to the Brahma, the highest yoga katampa oak,
mount, the divine eagle Garuda, king of birds and symbolic of the wind
house of the demon and grabbing him at dusk (neither night nor day) and and the most excellent he dived into the waters, and sun, is able to move at the speed of light.
on the threshold of his house (neither inside nor outside) Yoga Narasimha speech, danced on captive Kaliya.
mauled the demon with his claws (that is without weapons) and thus the supreme mystery, This sculpture of Krishna is one of the biggest and most important
and the highest path.’
defeated Hiranyakasipu. Chola bronzes in a Western collection. Made of solid bronze, it must
NAMMALVAR TIRUVAYMOLI
be extremely heavy. How has the sculptor conveyed lightness?
Thinking of Narasimha’s story and the way he conquered the demon,
do you think he seems wise? How has the sculptor conveyed a sense The medium of dance is vital to Indian culture. Do you think the idea
of wisdom or authority? of dance been incorporated into this sculpture? How?

Can you see any evidence in this sculpture of the machinery involved
in taking it on procession?
Conclusion
There can be little doubt that the Cholas had a major impact on the
Rama
development of culture across southern India. Although the dynasty only
Rama is the great hero of the Hindu epic, the Ramayana, which recounts the
lasted some four hundred years, it left a lasting and highly visible legacy
adventures he undergoes after being exiled to the forest by his father, king
throughout the region. The Cholas influence is most tangible through the
Dasharatha to fulfil a promise made to his youngest queen. Rama is exiled
numerous temple complexes that they built and the corpus of magnificent
with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana. Sita, seen as a model wife for
bronze sculpture, the like of which many would argue has never been
following her husband into exile, is left unguarded in the forest. Abducted by
equalled. In promoting the cult of Shiva Nataraja, the Chola also created
the demon king Ravana, Sita is taken to the island of Lanka (Sri or Shri is a
one of the most recognisable, widely used and enduring symbols, which
Sanskrit term of respect meaning illuminated one). Rama, suspecting Sita’s
has come to epitomise India.
chastity, rejects her, berating himself for allowing the situation to happen.
Accompanying Rama is the monkey general Hanuman (Cat. 24) who locates
Sita and leaps across the sea to the island of Lanka to give her a message
from Rama. Hanuman then returns to join Rama in victorious battle against
Ravana’s army. Rama is adored because he is a human hero who is also divine
Cat. 2 [p16] Cat. 22 [p21]
and the epic emphasises this fact since Ravana could not be killed by gods Shiva as Nataraja (Lord of Dance) Yoga Narasimha
or demons but, in his arrogance, had not sought the same protection from c.1100, bronze, 86 × 107 cm c.1250, bronze, height 55.2 cm
man. Today Rama and Sita have come to symbolise incorruptibility, honesty, Government Museum, Chennai The Cleveland Museum of Art,
Photo Aditya Arya Photography Gift of Dr. Norman Zaworski, 1973.187
loyalty and tenderness. Photo © The Cleveland Museum of Art,
Gift of Dr. Norman Zaworski, 1973.187
Cat. 10 [p17]
How has Hanuman been portrayed to suggest that he is a monkey? Devi Uma Parameshvari
Cat. 24 [p22]
(Great Goddess Uma)
Monkey General Hanuman
Can you describe Hanuman’s character from looking at this sculpture? c.1012, bronze, height 88.9 cm
Bronze, height 41 cm
Asia Society, New York, Collection of
Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd, 1979.19 Victoria and Albert Museum,
Photo Lynton Gardiner Bequest of Lord Curzon
Photo V & A Images/Victoria and Albert Museum
Cat 25 Krishna [see p23]
Cat. 14 [pp18 and 19]
This is considered to be the most important incarnation of Vishnu, and Cat. 25 [p23]
Ganesha
Krishna is revered as a god in his own right. Krishna means ‘the black one’ ‘In leaping I shall make Krishna Dancing on Kaliya
c.1070, bronze, height 50.2 cm
the mountains tremble, Eleventh century, bronze,
although he is often portrayed with blue skin. It is said that Vishnu plucked The Cleveland Museum of Art, Gift of
height 87.6 cm
leaping monkeys. Katharine Holden Thayer, 1970.62
two hairs from his head, one white and one black, which impregnated Rohini Photo © The Cleveland Museum of Art, Asia Society, New York, Collection of
And as I leap the sea,
and Devaki. Two brothers were born; Balarama from the white hair and Gift of Katharine Holden Thayer 1970.62 Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd, 1979.22
the force of my thighs Photo Lynton Gardiner
Krishna from the black. Here Krishna is seen dancing on Kaliya. This rare will carry along the
Cat. 17 [p20]
iconography represents one of the many heroic feats performed by Krishna blossoms of vines, shrubs Cat. 13 [p24]
Saint Karaikkal Ammaiyar
as a youth. Kaliya, the serpent demon, lived in the river Jumna with his and trees on every side. Trident with Shiva as Vrishabhavana
Twelfth century, copper alloy,
They will follow behind (Rider of the Bull)
serpent queens. Krishna dove into the river to do battle with Kaliya. 23.2 × 16.5 cm
me as I leap through the c.950, bronze, height 83.5 cm
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
Victorious Krishna spared Kaliya on account of the pleas of his serpent sky this very day, Purchase, Edward J. Gallagher, Jr., Bequest, in The British Museum, London
queens but only after the serpent demon promised to change his ways. so that my path will memory of his father, Edward Joseph Gallagher, Photo © Copyright the Trustees
resemble the Milky Way his mother Ann Hay Gallagher, and his son, of The British Museum
Krishna is shown dancing triumphantly on the hood of Kaliya symbolic Edward Joseph Gallagher III, 1982 (1982.220.11)
in the heavens …’
of his victory. Photo © 1994 The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
VALMIKI RAMAYANA New York / Bruce White

14 15
16 17
18 19
20 21
22 23
 Bibliography and further reading

BLURTON , T. RICHARD
Hindu Art
(2001, The British Museum Press, London)

DALLAPICCOLA , ANNA
Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend
(2002, Thames and Hudson, London)

DALLAPICCOLA , ANNA
Hindu Myths
(2203, British Museum Press, London)

DEHEJIA , VIDYA
Art of the Imperial Cholas (
1990, Columbia University Press, New York)

DEHEJIA , VIDYA ET AL
The Sensuous and the Sacred: Chola Bronzes From South India
(2002, American Federation of Arts in association
with the University of Washington Press, Seattle)

DEHEJIA , VIDYA ET AL
Chola: Sacred Bronzes from Southern India
(2006, Royal Academy of Arts, London)

JANSEN , EVA RUDY

The Book of Hindu Imagery: The Gods and their Symbols
(1993, Binkey Kok Publications BV, Havelte)

MICHELL , GEORGES
Hindu Art and Architecture
(2000, Thames & Hudson, London)

NARAYANAN , VASUDHA
Understanding Hinduism (2004, Duncan Baird, London)

WOOD , MICHAEL
The Smile of Murugan: A South Indian Journey
(1996, Penguin, Harmondsworth)

ZAEHNER , R . C .,
Hinduism
(1962, Oxford University Press, Oxford)

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