International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment (2015) 4, 278–306

H O S T E D BY
Gulf Organisation for Research and Development

International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment

ScienceDirect
www.sciencedirect.com

Review Article

A brief on high-volume Class F fly ash as cement replacement – A

guide for Civil Engineer
Alaa M. Rashad ⇑
Building Materials Research and Quality Control Institute, Housing & Building National Research Center, HBRC, Cairo, Egypt

Received 17 January 2015; accepted 1 October 2015

Abstract

Disposal of fly ash (FA) resulting from the combustion of coal-fired electric power stations is one of the major environmental chal-
lenges. This challenge continues to increase with increasing the amount of FA and decreasing the capacity of landfill space. Therefore,
studies have been carried out to re-use high-volumes of fly ash (HVFA) as cement replacement in building materials. This paper presents
an overview of the previous studies carried out on the use of high volume Class F FA as a partial replacement of cement in traditional
paste/mortar/concrete mixtures based on Portland cement (PC). Fresh properties, mechanical properties, abrasion resistance, thermal
properties, drying shrinkage, porosity, water absorption, sorptivity, chemical resistance, carbonation resistance and electrical resistivity
of paste/mortar/concrete mixtures containing HVFA (P45%) as cement replacement have been reviewed. Furthermore, additives used to
improve some properties of HVFA system have been reviewed.
Ó 2015 The Gulf Organisation for Research and Development. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Class F fly ash; Recycling; Fresh properties; Hardened properties; Additives

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
2. General properties of fly ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3. Heat of hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4. Degree of hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5. Workability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6. Setting time, bleeding and segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

⇑ Mobile: +202 01228527302; fax: +202 33351564.

E-mail addresses: alaarashad@yahoo.com, a.rashad@hbrc.edu.eg.
Peer review under responsibility of The Gulf Organisation for Research
and Development.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2015.10.002
2212-6090/Ó 2015 The Gulf Organisation for Research and Development. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306 279

8.1. Paste and mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

8.2. Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.2.1. Fly ash content 45–55% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.2.2. Fly ash content up to 60% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.2.3. Fly ash content up to 70% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.2.4. Fly ash content up to 100% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
10. Splitting tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11. Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
12. Abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
13. Freeze/thaw resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
15. Drying shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
16. pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
17. Porosity and water absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
18. Chloride ion penetration and permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
19. Sorptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
20. Chemical resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
21. Carbonation and corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
22. Electrical resistivity and conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
23. Additives to improve some properties of HVFA matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
23.1. Nano particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
23.2. Silica fume, slag, metakaolin and ultra-fine FA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
23.3. Fibres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
23.4. Chemical activators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
23.5. Other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
24. Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

1. Introduction materials, binder quantity and amount of PC replacement,

World cement demand and production are increasing,
the total output of cement in the world may exceed 3 billion
tonnes in 2009 (Feiz et al., 2015), whilst in 2012 the total
production of cement reached approximately 3.6 billion
tonnes (Rashad, 2015). Cement production is highly energy
and materials intensive (Rashad and Zeedan, 2011; Rashad,
2013, 2014). In addition, cement plant has been always
among industries which generate plenty of CO2. Beside
the emission of CO2, cement industry launches SO2 and
NOx which can cause the greenhouse effect and acid rain
(Anand et al., 2006; Rashad, 2013). Among the greenhouse
gases, CO2 contributes about 65% of the global warming.
The scientific community reported that the global mean
temperature is likely to rise by 1.4–5.8 °C over the next
100 years (Rehan and Nehdi, 2005). This is particularly seri-
ous in the current context of climate change caused by CO2
emissions worldwide, causing a rise in sea level and the
occurrence of natural disasters and being responsible for
future meltdown in the world economy (IPCC, 2007). Alter-
native binders to PC have been proposed to reduce green-
house gas emission as blended cements. These blended
can reduce CO2 emissions by approximately 13–22%
(Flower and Sanjayan, 2007), although this estimate can
vary depending on local conditions at the source of raw
type of manufacturing facilities, climate, energy sources and
transportation distance.
Recently, huge quantities of FA were found in the
world. Manz (1980) reported that the estimated production
of coal ash was 278.443 Mt (million tonnes) in 1977, of
which approximately 14% was used. Manz (1993) reported
that the estimated production of coal ash in 1989 was
approximately 562 Mt, of which approximately 16.1%
was used, whilst the rest was disposed in landfills. Accord-
ing to the annual survey results published by American
Coal Ash Association, for the year 2009, approximately
63 million tonnes of FA was produced, approximately 25
million tonnes from them were used in various applica-
tions, whilst approximately 10 million tonnes of them were
used in concrete and concrete products, and approximately
2.5 million tonnes were used in blended cements and raw
feed for clinker. Ahmaruzzaman (2010) reported that the
annual production of coal ash worldwide was estimated
around 600 million tonnes, with FA constituting approxi-
mately 500 million tonnes at 75–80% of total ash produced.
Bakharev (2005) reported that about one billion tonnes of
FA was produced annually worldwide in coal-fired steam
power plants. Only a small part of this ash is used
(20–30%); the rest is land filled-and surface-impounded,
with potential risks of air pollution and contamination of
280 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
water due to leaching (Femández-Jiménez and Palomo,
2005). Due to the rapid economic development and the
growth in the world production consumption of energy
over the world, FA has significantly increased. Therefore,
FA should not only be disposed of safely to prevent envi-
ronmental pollution, but should be treated as a valuable
resource. Instead of dumping it as a waste material, FA
can be used in concrete (Mehta, 1993; Erdoğan, 1997) to
reduce the environmental problems of power plants, to
decrease electric costs besides reducing the amount of solid
waste, greenhouse gas emission associated with Portland
clinker production and to conserve existing natural
resources, economic grounds as pozzolan for a partial
replacement of cement because of its beneficial effects of
lower water demand (Ravina and Mehta, 1986) for similar
workability, improvements in strength (Dunstan, 1986;
Bijen and ven Selst, 1993; Lam et al., 1998; Rashad
et al., 2009) drying shrinkage (Haque et al., 1984; Hansen
and Reinhardt, 1991; Nanni et al., 1996; Delagrave et al.,
1997; Pittman and Ragan, 1998), fire resistance (Seleem
et al., 2011) and lower evolution of heat. Although FA is
a valuable mineral admixture for blended PC and concrete,
only about 6% of the total available FA is used for this pur-
pose (Malhotra and Mehta, 2002). As a result, the method
to replace cement with a high volume of FA has generated
considerable interest.
HVFA is an approach to maximize the FA input in con-
crete. However, HVFA concrete has been not a unified def-
inition yet now. Sivasundaram et al., 1990 believed that
replacing cement ratio above 30% with FA in concrete is
defined as HVFA concrete. But 40% is defined as the upper
limit in many state standards or regulations, the quantity of
FA in concrete does not exceed 40% stipulated in many
cases. Therefore, Dunstan et al., 1992 believed that above
40% FA in concrete defined as HVFA concrete is suitable.
Some researchers suggested that the concrete may be
defined as HVFA concrete when the quantity of FA
exceeds that of cement in cementitious material (i.e. the
quantity of FA is more than 50%). Bilodeau and
Malhotra (1992) suggested that the quantity of FA in
HVFA concrete must be 50–70%, namely the volume of
FA is larger than cement in concrete. LEED (PCA, 2005)
pointed that HVFA concrete included up to 40% of FA
in cement or in concrete. HVFA concrete for structure
applications was developed by the Canadian Center for
Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET) in 1985
(Carett et al., 1993; Mok, 1996). This type of concrete
has typically more than 50% (Langley et al., 1989; Mehta
and Monteiro, 2006) FA in the total cementitious material.
The U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAV-
FAC) has recently developed HVFA concrete formulation,
of which 50% of PC is replaced with FA, by mass (Burke,
2012).
The inclusion of HVFA in the matrix has a positive
effect on some properties and a negative effect on other
properties. Indeed, there is no article which summarizes
the previous studies carried out on the fresh properties,
hardened properties and durability of paste/mortar/con-
crete containing high volume Class F FA (P45%) as
cement replacement by weight or by volume which can
serve the market. Therefore, this article was written to
present the previous findings related to this topic, to collect
these findings in one paper which can be treated as a
reference base for future researches.
2. General properties of fly ash
Generally, FA is a by-product of the combustion of pul-
verized coal in thermal power plants. The dust collection
system removes FA, as a fine particulate residue, from
the combustion gases before they are discharged into
atmosphere. Most of the FA particles are solid spheres
and some are hollow cenospheres. Also present are plero-
spheres, which are spheres containing smaller spheres.
The particle sizes in FA vary from <1 lm up to more than
100 lm with the typical particle size measuring under
20 lm. The surface area is typically 300–500 m2/kg,
although some FA can have a surface area as low as
200 m2/kg and as high as 700 m2/kg. The mass per unit vol-
ume including air between particles can vary from 540 to
860 kg/m3, whilst with regard to the close packed storage
or vibration, the range can be from 1120 to 1500 kg/m3.
The specific gravity (relative density) of FA between 1.9
to 2.8. FA is primarily silicate glass mainly containing sil-
ica, alumina, iron and calcium. Magnesium, sulphur,
sodium, potassium and carbon are minor constituents.
FA is typically classified as either Class F or Class C
according to ASTM C618-12a ASTM International
(2012). This classification is based on the chemical compo-
sition of FA. The major delimiter for this classification is
the sum of silica, aluminium and iron oxide percentages
in the FA, being a minimum of 70% for a Class F and a
minimum 50% for a Class C. The Canadian Standards
Association (CSA, 1982) classified FA according to the
amount of CaO. FA is generally low-calcium (Class F)
when CaO is less than 10%.
3. Heat of hydration
Poon et al. (2000) reported a reduction in the heat of
hydration by partially replacing cement with 45% FA.
The heat of hydration of the neat cement paste was
2.4 W/kg, whilst it was 1.27 W/kg for the paste containing
45% FA. Both the maximum rate of heat evolution and the
cumulative heat evolution decreased with the inclusion of
45% FA during the first 72 h. The inclusion of 45% FA
resulted in 36% reduction in the cumulative heat evolution.
In addition, the time of reaching the maximum rate of heat
evolution delayed. Li (2004) reported a reduction in the
heat of hydration of concrete by partially replacing cement
with 50% FA. Yoshitake et al. (2013) reported that the heat
of hydration, as measured by the adiabatic temperature
rise, was found to be 40% less in concrete containing 50%
FA as cement replacement compared to the control. Atisß
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306 281

(2002a,b) reported that using FA in concrete mixtures as

cement replacement at levels of 50% and 70% resulted in
a reduction in the maximum temperature rise under adia-
batic curing condition. The higher the replacement levels
of FA, the lower the temperature rise. Duràn-Herrera
et al. (2011) reported that the inclusion of 45%, 60% and
75% FA as cement replacement reduced the heat release-
peak temperature at early ages through dilution (Fig. 1).
From the above review of the literature in this section, it
is clearly noted that the effect of HVFA on the heat of
hydration still needs more investigations. According to
the available studies, it is safe to conclude that the inclusion
of HVFA in the mixture decreased the heat of hydration.
The hydration heat reduction is one advantage of using this
Fig. 2. The non-evaporable water content of specimens, curing regime:
system in especial cases such as mass concrete and concrete 28 days in 20 °C water and 4/14 days in 80 °C water (Zhang et al., 2000).
in hot weather.

4. Degree of hydration of hydration of paste mixture containing 60% FA as

Lam et al. (2000) reported that the inclusion of 45–55%
FA in paste mixtures as partial replacement of cement
exhibited a lower degree of reaction, of which more than
80% of FA still remained unreacted after 90 days of curing.
The non-evaporable water of 45% FA mixture was lower
than that of the neat PC paste. Zhang et al. (2000) reported
that the non-evaporable water in HVFA pastes (up to 60%)
was lower than that in the plain cement paste, at the same
age (Fig. 2). The non-evaporable water decreased with
increasing FA content. Poon et al. (2000) reported a lower
degree of hydration of paste mixture containing 45% FA as
cement replacement. At w/b ratio of 0.24, the degree of
hydration of the plain cement paste was 52.8%, 54.6%
and 60.5% at ages of 7, 28 and 90 days, respectively, whilst
it was 5.3%, 12.8% and 16.5% with the inclusion of 45%
FA, respectively. Yoshitake et al. (2014) reported that the
adiabatic temperature rises of concrete containing 50%
FA as cement replacement were significantly lower than
those of the control. Bentz (2014) reported a lower degree
cement replacement, compared to the control.
From the above review of literature in this section, it is
safe to conclude that the inclusion of HVFA in the mixture
decreased the degree of hydration. This reduction increased
with increasing FA content. The lowering heat of hydra-
tion with the inclusion of HVFA is one advantage of using
this system. This makes HVFA more suitable for mass con-
crete and concrete in hot weather as reported before.
5. Workability
Sahmaran and Yaman (2007) reported 23.2% increase in
the slump flow of concrete mixture by partially replacing
cement with 50% FA. Siddique (2004a) reported an
increase in the workability of concrete mixtures with the
inclusion of FA as cement replacement at levels of 45%
and 50%, by weight. The workability increased as the con-
tent of FA increased. The increment in the slump height
was 38.46% and 53.85% with the inclusion of 45% and
50% FA, respectively, compared to the control. Siddique

Fig. 1. Semi-adiabatic calorimetry curves for FA and control pastes (Duràn-Herrera et al., 2011).
282 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
(2004b) reported an increase in the workability of concrete
mixtures with the inclusion of 45% and 55% FA as cement
replacement. The workability increased as the FA content
increased. The increment in the slump height was 44.44%
and 66.67% with the inclusion of 45% and 55% FA, respec-
tively, compared to the control, whilst the reduction in the
Vebe time was 38.71% and 51.61%, respectively. Jiang and
Malhotra (2000) partially replaced 55% of cement in con-
crete mixtures with different types of FA. The w/b ratios
for different FA mixtures were ranging from 0.34 to 0.38,
whilst it was 0.43 for the control mixture. The results
showed higher or similar workability of FA mixtures com-
pared to the control. Balakrishnan and Abdul Awal (2014)
reported higher workability of concrete mixtures with the
inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. The workabil-
ity increased as the FA content increased. The increment in
the slump height was 220% and 300% with the inclusion of
50% and 60% FA, respectively. Yoon et al. (2014) reported
an increase in the workability of concrete mixtures with the
inclusion of 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement, when
binder content and w/b ratio was 450 kg/m3 and 0.3,
respectively. The increment in the slump height was 50%
and 25% with the inclusion of 50% and 60% FA, respec-
tively. Saravanakumar and Dhinakaran (2013) reported
high workability of concrete mixtures with the inclusion
of 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement. The workabil-
ity increased as the FA content increased. The increment in
the slump height was 13.64% and 18.18% with the inclusion
of 50% and 60% FA, respectively.
Bouzoubaâ et al. (2010) reported an increase in the con-
crete mixture workability with the inclusion of 60% Lingan
FA as cement replacement when 172 kg/m3 of cement was
used. Mirza et al. (2002) reported that the inclusion of 60%
FA as cement replacement in grout reduced the flow time.
This means that the workability increased. Shaikh and
Supit (2014) reported higher workability of mortar mixture
with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement.
Shaikh and Supit (2014) reported higher workability of
concrete mixture with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
replacement, of which the increment in the slump height
was 42.86%. Gesoğlu et al. (2009) reported an increase in
the workability of concrete mixture with the inclusion of
60% FA as cement replacement. The increment in the
slump flow was 7.46% with the inclusion of FA. Siddique
et al. (2007) reported higher workability of concrete mix-
tures with the inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement.
The increment in the slump height was 20%, 13.33% and
20% with the inclusion of 45%, 55% and 65% FA,
respectively.
Mukherjee et al. (2013) reported higher workability of
concrete mixtures with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
replacement. The increment in the slump highest was
21.43%, 7.14% and 0% with the inclusion of 50%, 60%
and 70% FA. S ß ahmaran et al. (2009) reported higher
workability of concrete mixtures with the inclusion of
HVFA as cement replacement. The workability increased
as the FA content increased. The increment in the slump
flow was 10.98%, 15.79% and 16.54% with the inclusion
of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively. Supit et al.
(2014) reported higher workability of mortar mixtures
with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA as cement
replacement. The workability increased as the FA content
increased. Shaikh et al. (2014) reported higher workability
of concrete mixtures containing HVFA as cement replace-
ment. The workability increased as the content of FA con-
tent increased. The increment in the flow diameter was
11.11%, 29.63% and 44.44% with the inclusion of 50%,
60% and 70% FA, respectively. Atisß (2003a,b) partially
replaced cement in concrete mixtures with FA at levels of
50% and 70%, by weight. Fixed dosage of superplasticizer
(SP) was used. The results showed higher flow table of
HVFA mixtures compared to the control. Atisß (2003a,b)
reported higher workability of concrete mixtures with the
inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. The flow diam-
eter increased by 9.1% and 3.64% with the inclusion of 50%
and 70% FA, respectively. Atisß (2005) reported an increase
in the workability of concrete mixtures with the inclusion
of different types of FA at high levels as cement replace-
ment. The increment in the slump height was 11.11% and
1.85% with the inclusion of 50% and 70% Drax FA, respec-
tively, whilst it was 5.55% and 3.7% with the inclusion of
Aberthaw FA, respectively. Wu et al. (2006) reported an
increase in the workability of concrete mixtures with the
inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. At w/b ratio
of 0.3, the increment in the slump height was 54.27%,
57.32% and 52.44% with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and
70% FA, respectively, whilst the increment in the spread
was 77.66%, 76.62% and 74%, respectively.
Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) reported an increase in the
workability of concrete mixtures with the inclusion of
HVFA as cement replacement. At w/b ratio of 0.5, the
increment in the slump height was 18.18%, 13.64% and
4.55% with the inclusion of 45%, 60% and 75% FA, respec-
tively, whilst it was 16.67%, 16.67% and 19.1%, respec-
tively, at w/b ratio of 0.6. Huang et al. (2013) reported
higher workability of concrete mixtures containing HVFA
as cement replacement. There was 31.25% and 37.5% incre-
ment in the slump height with the inclusion of 60% and
80% FA, respectively, when the original cement content
was 280 kg/m3, whilst it was 4.55% for both of 60% and
80% FA, when the original cement content was 340 kg/
m3. Dinakar et al. (2008a,b, 2009) reported that the work-
ability of concrete mixtures increased with increasing FA
content from 50% to 85% as cement replacement.
On the contrary, S ß ahmaran et al. (2008) reported 5%
reduction in the slump flow of concrete mixture with the
inclusion of 55% FA as cement replacement. Baert et al.
(2008) reported lesser workability of concrete mixture with
the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement. The reduc-
tion in the slump height was 3.77%. Sua-iam and Makul
(2014) reported that the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
replacement in concrete mixture slightly decreased the
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306 283

slump flow. The slump flow diameter of the control mix-

ture was 72 cm, whilst it was 70 cm for the FA mixture.
Silva and de Brito (2013) reported 20.39% and 22.73%
reduction in the slump flow of concrete mixtures with the
inclusion of 60% and 70% FA as cement replacement,
respectively. Table 1 summarizes the mentioned studies
about the effect of HVFA on mixture workability.
From the above mentioned studies in this section, it is
safe to conclude that the inclusion of HVFA increased the
workability as reported by several studies (Fig. 3). The
workability increased as the content of FA increased.
The improvement in the fluidity of fresh mixtures with
the inclusion of FA could be attributed to the fine particle
size and smooth glassy texture as well as spherical shape
of FA could act as plasticizer. The improving workability Fig. 3. Number of studies versus the effect of HVFA on the workability.
with the inclusion of FA is one advantage of using this
system. It is possible to use HVFA to produce high per-
FA content (Fig. 4). At w/b ratio of 0.5, the increment
formance concrete (HPC), of which high workability is
in the initial setting time was 20.22%, 41.57% and
required.
58.43% with the inclusion of 45%, 60% and 75% FA,
respectively, whilst it was 22.33%, 60.19% and 64.1% at
6. Setting time, bleeding and segregation w/b ratio of 0.6, respectively. Huang et al. (2013) reported
an increase in the initial and final setting time of concrete
Mirza et al. (2002) reported a longer setting time of mixtures with the inclusion of HVFA as cement replace-
cement grout with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement ment. When the original cement content was 280 kg/m3,
replacement. Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) reported an the increment in the initial and final setting time was
increase in the initial and final setting time of concrete 72.95% and 84.72%, respectively, with the inclusion of
mixtures containing HVFA as cement replacement. The 60% FA, whilst it was 100% and 115.3%, respectively,
increment in the setting time increased with increasing with the inclusion of 80% FA. When the original cement

Table 1
Effect of HVFA on mixture workability.
References FA content (%) Type Increased workability
Sahmaran and Yaman (2007) 50 Concrete Yes
Siddique (2004a) 45 and 50 Concrete Yes
Siddique (2004b) 45 and 50 Concrete Yes
Jiang and Malhotra (2000) 55 Concrete Yes
Balakrishnan and Abdul Awal (2014) 50 and 60 Concrete Yes
Yoon et al. (2014) 50 and 60 Concrete Yes
Saravanakumar and Dhinakaran (2013) 50 and 60 Concrete Yes
Bouzoubaâ et al. (2010) 60 Concrete Yes
Mirza et al. (2002) 60 Grout Yes
Shaikh and Supit (2014) 60 Mortar Yes
60 Concrete Yes
Gesoğlu et al. (2009) 60 Concrete Yes
Siddique et al. (2007) 45, 55 and 65 Concrete Yes
Mukherjee et al. (2013) 50, 70 and 70 Concrete Yes
ß ahmaran et al. (2009)
S 50, 70 and 70 Concrete Yes
Supit et al. (2014) 50, 60 and 70 Mortar Yes
Shaikh et al. (2014) 50, 60 and 70 Concrete Yes
Atisß (2003a) 50 and 70 Concrete Yes
Atisß (2003b) 50 and 70 Concrete Yes
Atisß (2005) 50 and 70 Concrete Yes
Wu et al. (2006) 50, 60 and 70 Concrete Yes
Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) 45, 60 and 75 Concrete Yes
Huang et al. (2013) 60 and 80 Concrete Yes
Dinakar et al. (2008a,b, 2009) 50-85 Concrete Yes
ß ahmaran et al. (2008)
S 55 Concrete No
Baert et al. (2008) 60 Concrete No
Sua-iam and Makul (2014) 60 Concrete No
Silva and de Brito (2013) 70 Concrete No
284 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Fig. 4. Effect of FA content on final setting time of concrete mixture (Duràn-Herrera et al., 2011).
content was 340 kg/m3, the increment in the initial and
final setting time was 72.95% and 84.72%, respectively,
with the inclusion of 60% FA whilst it was 118.2% and
117.14%, respectively, with the inclusion of 80% FA.
Bentz (2014) reported a longer initial setting time of paste
mixture containing 60% FA as cement replacement com-
pared to the control. The increment in the initial setting
time was 101.53%, 114.23% and 69.23% at 15, 25 and
40 °C, respectively. Bentz and Ferraris (2010) reported a
longer initial and final setting time of paste mixture
containing 50% FA as cement replacement, of which the
initial and final setting time increased by 72.9% and
58.3%, respectively. Mirza et al. (2002) reported very little
bleeding was observed in grout cement without or with
60% FA. S ß ahmaran et al. (2009) reported that the inclu-
sion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA as cement replacement
in concrete mixtures did not show any segregation or
bleeding.
From the above mentioned studies in this section, it is
safe to conclude that the inclusion of HVFA in the mixture
prolonged the initial and final setting time, of which FA
exhibited a lower hydration rate compared to cement. In
addition, FA exhibited slow pozzolanic reaction Mirza
et al. (2002). Analysis of the liquid phase of the hydration
system showed that saturation in terms of gypsum occurred
within a few seconds of water being added to FA. The
SO4 2 and Ca+2 dissolved from FA may also partly explain
the retarding effect of FA (Wesche, 2005). Thus, it is possi-
ble to use HVFA instead of chemical admixture which was
used as retarder. This has a major economic factor. Retar-
dation of setting time of concrete may be required for some
applications in civil engineering such as casting deep walls
and casting grout or concrete in repaired elements. It is
clear to note that there is a lack in the publications related
the effect of HVFA on bleeding and segregation. According
to the available studies, it can be concluded that the inclu-
sion of HVFA in the mixture reduced the bleeding and seg-
regation. The reduction of bleeding and segregation may be
related to the lubricating effect of the glassy spherical FA
particles.
7. Density
Bouzoubaâ et al. (2010) reported 1.26% reduction in the
fresh density of concrete mixture with the inclusion of 50%
Lingan FA as cement replacement, when 172 kg/m3 of
cement was used. Bouzoubaâ et al. (2010) reported 2.36%
reduction in the concrete density with the inclusion of
50% Lingan FA as cement replacement, when 172 kg/m3
of cement was used. Jiang and Malhotra (2000) reported
a reduction in the fresh density of concrete mixtures by par-
tially replacing 55% of cement with different types of FA.
The reduction in the fresh density were ranging from 0%
to 2.33%. Siddique (2004a) reported 0.25% and 0.21%
reduction in the fresh density of concrete mixtures with
the inclusion of 45% and 50% FA as cement replacement,
respectively. Baert et al. (2008) found 2.47% reduction in
the fresh density of concrete mixture with the inclusion of
60% FA as cement replacement. Sua-iam and Makul
(2014) reported 8.35% reduction in the fresh density of con-
crete mixture with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
replacement. Mukherjee et al. (2013) reported a reduction
in the bulk density of concrete specimens with the inclusion
of 50%, 60% and 70% FA as cement replacement. This
reduction increased as FA content increased. Duràn-
Herrera et al. (2011) reported a reduction in the fresh den-
sity of concrete mixtures with the inclusion of HVFA as
cement replacement. At w/b ratio of 0.5, the reduction in
the fresh density was 1.79%, 2.3% and 3.96% with the
inclusion of 45%, 60% and 75% FA, respectively, whilst it
was 1.66% and 2.22%, respectively, at w/b ratio of 0.6.
Huang et al. (2013) reported 2.85% and 5.5% reduction
in the fresh density of concrete mixtures with the inclusion
of 60% and 80% FA as cement replacement, respectively,
when the original cement content was 280 kg/m3. When
the original cement content was 340 kg/m3, 2.68% and
5.2% reduction in the fresh density was obtained with the
inclusion of 60% and 80% FA, respectively. On the other
hand, Siddique et al. (2007) reported there was no change
in the fresh density of concrete mixtures with the inclusion
of 45%, 55% and 65% FA as cement replacement.
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Accordingly, it can be noted that the inclusion of
HVFA in the mixture decreased its fresh density. This
reduction in the density could be attributed to the lower
specific gravity of FA compared to cement. The reduction
in the concrete density with the inclusion of HVFA would
lead to a reduction in the dead weight of the constructed
element. This can be considered as one advantage of using
this system.
8. Compressive strength
8.1. Paste and mortar
Jiang and Guan (1999) reported a reduction in the com-
pressive strength of pastes at ages of 3, 7, 28 and 90 days by
partially replacing cement with HVFA. This reduction
increased with increasing FA content. The reduction in
the 3 days compressive strength was 67.3% and 76.98%
with the inclusion of 50% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst
the reduction in the 28 days compressive strength was
45.34% and 68.63%, respectively. Poon et al. (2000)
reported 25%, 8.39% and 12.18% reduction in the pastes
compressive strength by partially replacing cement with
45% FA at ages of 7, 28 and 90 days, respectively, at w/b
ratio of 0.24. At w/b ratio of 0.19, this reduction was
36.17%, 14.66% and 13.29%, respectively. Shi and Qian
(2001) reported a reduction in the compressive strength
of pastes at ages of 7, 28 and 56 days by partially replacing
cement with HVFA. The reduction in the 7 days
compressive strength was approximately 50% and 80.8%
with the inclusion of 50% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst
the reduction in the 28 days compressive strength was
approximately 41.54% and 60%, respectively. The reduc-
tion in the 56 days compressive strength was approximately
37.5% and 52.5% with the inclusion of 50% and 70% FA,
respectively. Mirza et al. (2002) reported a reduction in
the compressive strength of cement grout by partially
replacing cement with 60% FA, by weight. The strength
gap between the reference grout and grout containing
60% FA decreased with increasing age.
Bazzar et al. (2013) reported a reduction in the compres-
sive strength of mortars at ages ranging from 1 to 365 days
with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement. Supit
et al. (2014) reported a reduction in the 7 and 28 days com-
pressive strength of mortars with the inclusion of HVFA as
cement replacement. This reduction increased as the FA
content increased. The reduction in the 28 days
compressive strength was 40%, 54.29% and 74.29% with
the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively.
Zhang et al. (2014) reported that the compressive strength
of engineered cementitious composites (mortars) decreased
with increasing FA content. Shaikh and Supit (2014)
reported 60% and 54.29% reduction in the 7 and 28 days
compressive strength of mortars with the inclusion of
60% FA as cement replacement. Shaikh et al. (2014)
reported a reduction in the 7 and 28 days compressive
strength of mortars with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
285
replacement. The reduction in the 7 days compressive
strength was 56.67%, 60% and 80% with the inclusion of
50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst it was 40%,
46.67% and 74.29%, at age of 28 days, respectively.
8.2. Concrete
8.2.1. Fly ash content 45–55%
Poon et al. (2000) reported 39.29%, 29.2%, 8.2% and
2.72% reduction in the compressive strength of concrete
specimens at ages of 3, 7, 28 and 90 days by partially
replacing cement with 45% FA, respectively, at w/b ratio
of 0.24. At w/b ratio of 0.19, the reduction reached
46.54%, 32.46%, 8.57% and 0.91%, respectively. Lam
et al. (2000) reported 36.1%, 18.19% and 13.29% reduction
in the compressive strength of concretes containing 45%
FA as cement replacement at ages of 7, 28 and 90 days,
respectively, when w/b ratio was 0.19. At w/b ratio of
0.24, this reduction was 25%, 8.39% and 12.18%, respec-
tively. At w/b ratio of 0.3, the reduction in the compressive
strength at ages of 7, 28 and 90 days was 53.87%, 27.19%
and 19.1%, respectively, whilst it was 54.13%, 37.87% and
21.96%, respectively, at w/b ratio of 0.5. McCarthy and
Dhir (2005) reported 8.51%, 13% and 6% reduction in
the compressive strength of concretes at ages of 3, 7 and
14 days with the inclusion of 45% FA as cement replace-
ment, when the designed strength was 50 MPa.
Siddique (2004a) reported a reduction in the compres-
sive strength of concretes with the inclusion of 45% and
50% FA as cement replacement, by volume. The reduction
in the compressive strength was 40.47%, 33.6%, 23.8% and
18.29% at ages 7, 28, 91 and 365 days, respectively, with the
inclusion of 45% FA, whilst this reduction was 42.8%,
37.9%, 29.87% and 23.75%, respectively, with the inclusion
of 50% FA. Siddique (2004b) reported 31.67% and 35.83%
reduction in the 28 days compressive strength of concretes
with the inclusion of 45% and 55% FA as cement replace-
ment, respectively. Burden (2006) reported 33.63%, 24%,
24.39%, 21.11% and 18.33% reduction in the compressive
strength of concretes at ages of 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days with
the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement, when w/b
ratio was 0.4. Li (2004) reported 58.52%, 46.1%, 47.6%,
32.92%, 18.54%, 6.03%, 0.93% and 4.63% reduction in
the compressive strength of concretes with the inclusion
of 50% FA as cement replacement at ages of 1, 3, 7, 28,
56, 112, 360 and 720 days, respectively. Wei et al. (2007)
reported approximately 58%, 55.9%, 57.9%, 41.7% and
32,5% reduction in the compressive strength of concretes
with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement at
ages of 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days, respectively. Sahmaran
and Yaman (2007) reported 42.75% and 31.4% reduction
in the compressive strength of concretes with the inclusion
of 50% FA as cement replacement at ages of 28 and
56 days, respectively. Misra et al. (2007) reported a reduc-
tion in the 7, 28 and 90 days compressive strength of con-
cretes with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement. Siddique et al. (2012) reported 53.44%,
286 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Fig. 5. Effect of FA content on the compressive strength (Siddique et al.,
2012).
39.8% and 39.11% reduction in the compressive strength of
concretes at ages of 7, 28 and 56 days with the inclusion of
50% FA as cement replacement (Fig. 5). Yoshitake et al.
(2013) reported a reduction in the compressive strength
of concretes with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement. Filho et al. (2013) reported 2.16% reduction
in the 91 days compressive strength of concrete with the
inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement. Soni and
Saini (2014) reported 53% and 54.76% reduction in the
28 and 56 days compressive strength of concretes contain-
ing 50% FA as cement replacement, respectively. Nikhil
(2014) reported 18.64%, 28.96% and 33.8% reduction in
the 3, 7, 28 days compressive strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement, respec-
tively. Bouzoubaâ et al. (2010) reported 44.59%, 44.81%,
36.76%, 15.88% and 0.92% reduction in the 3, 7, 10, 28
and 56 days compressive strength of concretes with the
inclusion of 50% Lingan FA as cement replacement, when
strength class was 25 MPa, whilst there was 1.73%
enhancement in the 91 days compressive strength. Younsi
et al. (2011) reported 45%, 23.1% and 20.67% reduction
in the 2, 7 and 28 days compressive strength of concretes
with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement.
Yoshitake et al. (2014) reported 44.44%, 60%, 47.46%,
54.76%, 52.83%, 33.45% and 9.35% reduction in the 1, 2,
3, 5, 7, 28 and 91 days compressive strength of concretes
with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement, when
w/b ratio was 0.45. Jia et al. (2012) reported 22.68% and
25.26% reduction in the 28 and 56 days compressive
strength of concretes with the inclusion of 50% FA as
cement replacement. Liu and Presuel-Moreno (2014)
reported 38.73% and 7.12% reduction in the 28 and
600 days compressive strength of concretes with the inclu-
sion of 50% FA as cement replacement, respectively.
Sounthararajan and Sivakumar (2013) reported 52.1%,
41.23% and 26.75% reduction in the 7, 28 and 56 days com-
pressive strength of concretes containing 50% FA as
cement replacement. Thangaraj and Thenmozhi (2013)
reported 17.9%, 12.68% and 20.54% reduction in the 7,
14 and 28 days compressive strength of concretes with the
inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement, whilst the
inclusion of 55% FA reduced it by 13.52%, 6.56% and
26.69%, respectively. Jiang and Malhotra (2000) reported
a reduction in the compressive strength of concretes at dif-
ferent ages by partially replacing 55% of cement with differ-
ent types of FA. They also measured the compressive
strength of concretes containing 55% FA when w/b ratios
were 0.3 and 0.5. The results showed reductions ranging
from 76.49% to 48.13% and 59.12% to 11.47% at ages of
1 and 3 days. S ß ahmaran et al. (2008) reported 24.56%,
12.76% and 7.17% reduction in the compressive strength
of concretes at ages of 28, 43 and 58 days with the inclusion
of 55% FA as cement replacement.
8.2.2. Fly ash content up to 60%
El-Chabib and Ibrahim (2013) reported 87.2%, 56.79%
and 41.15% reduction in the 1, 7 and 28 days compressive
strength of concretes with the inclusion of 60% FA as
cement replacement. Kumar et al. (2007) reported a reduc-
tion in the compressive strength of concretes with the inclu-
sion of 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement at ages
ranging from 7 days to 365 days. The reduction of
46.87% and 26.1% was obtained with the inclusion of
60% FA at ages of 7 and 28 days, respectively, when w/b
ratio was 0.4. Siddique (2010) reported a reduction in the
compressive strength of concretes at ages ranging from 7
to 365 days with the inclusion of 50% and 60% FA as
cement replacement. The reduction in the 7 days compres-
sive strength was approximately 42.22% and 44.79% with
the inclusion of 50% and 60% FA, respectively, whilst it
was approximately 24.62% and 35.23% at age of 365 days,
respectively. Saravanakumar and Dhinakaran (2013)
reported a reduction in the compressive strength of con-
cretes containing 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement.
This reduction increased with increasing FA content. The
reduction in the 7, 14, 28 and 56 days compressive strength
was 21.47%, 17.16, 38%, and 40% with the inclusion of 50%
FA, whilst the inclusion of 60% FA reduced it by 22.1%,
35.65%, 50.1% and 42.55%, respectively. Yoon et al.
(2014) reported a reduction in the compressive strength
of concretes at ages ranging from 7 to 91 days with the
inclusion of 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement, when
the binder content and w/b ratio were 450 kg/m3 and 0.3,
respectively. The reduction in the 7 days compressive
strength was 28.23% and 43.66% with the inclusion of
50% and 60% FA, respectively, whilst it was 12.24 and
23.66% at age of 91 days, respectively. At age of 365 days,
the inclusion of 50% FA caused 9.67% enhancement in the
compressive strength, whilst the inclusion of 60% FA
reduced it by 5.66%. Balakrishnan and Abdul Awal
(2014) reported 27.95% and 37.27% reduction in the
28 days compressive strength with the inclusion of 50%
and 60% FA as cement replacement.
Baert et al. (2008) reported a significant reduction in the
compressive strength of concretes with the inclusion of 60%
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
FA as cement replacement. This reduction was 88% and
35% at ages of 1 and 91 days, respectively. Gesoğlu et al.
(2009) reported 42.26% reduction in the 90 days compres-
sive strength of concrete specimens with the inclusion of
60% FA as cement replacement. Jiang et al. (2004) reported
33.93% and 20.29% reduction in the compressive strength
of concretes at ages of 56 and 118 days, respectively, with
the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement. Sua-iam
and Makul (2014) reported 39.8% reduction in the 28 days
compressive strength of concrete specimens with the
inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement. Mardani-
Aghabaglou and Ramyar (2013) reported 47.63%,
22.44%, 26.85% and 30.48% reduction in the 7, 28, 90
and 180 days compressive strength of concretes with the
inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement. Shaikh and
Supit (2014) reported 69.23%, 31% and 36.84% reduction
in the 3, 28 and 90 days compressive strength of concretes
with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement.
8.2.3. Fly ash content up to 70%
Sujjavanich et al. (2005) reported a reduction in the
compressive strength of concretes especially at early ages
with the inclusion of 50% and 65% FA as cement replace-
ment. Siddique et al. (2007) reported a reduction in the
compressive strength of concretes at ages ranging from 7
to 365 days with the inclusion of 45%, 55% and 65% FA
as cement replacement. This reduction increased as the
content of FA increased. The reduction in the 7 days com-
pressive strength was 45.45%, 50.55% and 58.18% with the
inclusion of 45%, 55% and 65% FA, respectively, whilst the
reduction in the 91 days compressive strength was 30.16%,
38.8% and 50%, respectively. Lammertijn and De Belie
(2008) reported a reduction in the compressive strength
of concretes with the inclusion of 50% and 67% FA as
cement replacement. This reduction increased with increas-
ing FA content. The reduction in the compressive strength
was approximately 51.3%, 43.3% and 33.3% at ages of 0.5,
1 and 3 months with the inclusion of 50% FA, respectively,
whilst it was approximately 69.5%, 63.3% and 56%, respec-
tively, with the inclusion of 67% FA. Atisß (2005) reported
53.36%, 19.68%, 22.87, 6.17%, 7.43%, 2.65% and 4.79%
reduction in the compressive strength of concretes at ages
of 1, 3, 7, 28 days, 3, 6 months and 1 year with the inclu-
sion of 50% Drax FA, respectively, when the specimens
were cured at 20 °C with 65% RH, whilst the inclusion of
70% FA caused a reduction of 85.39%, 57.45%, 51.27%,
45.27%, 37.34%, 38.59% and 36.62%, respectively. Atisß
(2003b) reported 35.5%, 47.41%, 33.4% and 19.29% reduc-
tion in the 3, 7, 28 days and 3 months compressive strength
of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 70% FA as
cement replacement, respectively, when the curing condi-
tions were 20 °C and 100% RH. Wu et al. (2006) reported
a reduction in the compressive strength of concretes at ages
of 3, 28 and 56 days with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
replacement. At w/b ratio of 0.3, the reduction in the 3 days
compressive strength was 57.31%, 63.27% and 67.52% with
287
the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst
the reduction in the 56 days compressive strength was
17.65%, 25.1% and 30.13%, respectively.
ß ahmaran et al. (2009) reported a reduction in the
S
compressive strength of concretes at ages ranging from
7 to 365 days with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
replacement. The reduction in the 7 days compressive
strength was 42.75%, 59.21% and 67.26% with the inclu-
sion of 50%, 60% and 70%, whilst the reduction in the
365 days compressive strength was 5.53%, 11.2% and
16.87%, respectively. Latha et al. (2012) reported a
reduction in the compressive strength of concretes with
different concrete grades containing HVFA as cement
replacement. This reduction increased with increasing
FA content. At grade of M40, the reduction in the
28 days compressive strength was 15.82%, 19.34% and
48.99% with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA,
respectively, whilst it was 53%, 13.33% and 5.41%,
respectively, at age of 180 days. John and Ashok (2014)
reported a reduction in the 7 and 28 days compressive
strength of concretes with the inclusion of HVFA as
cement replacement. The reduction in the 7 days com-
pressive strength was 42.54%, 43.87% and 43.1% with
the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively,
whilst it was 15%, 14.2% and 18.9%, respectively, at
age of 28 days. Shah and Modhera, 2014 reported a
reduction in the 7, 28 and 56 days compressive strength
of concretes with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
replacement. The reduction in the 7 days compressive
strength was 21.57%, 36.77% and 46.57% with the inclu-
sion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst the
reduction in the 56 days compressive strength was
17.64%, 34.22% and 42.9%, respectively. Kate and
Murnal (2013) reported a reduction in the 7, 28 and
56 days compressive strength of concrete with the inclu-
sion of HVFA as cement replacement. The reduction in
the 7 days compressive strength was 61.34% and
72.53% with the inclusion of 55% and 70% FA, respec-
tively, whilst the reduction in the 56 days compressive
strength was 43.4% and 37.68%, respectively.
Silva and de Brito (2013) reported a reduction in the 7,
28, 91 and 182 days compressive strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 60% and 70% FA as cement replacement.
This reduction increased with increasing FA content.
Kayali and Ahmed (2013) reported approximately 50%
and 80.26% reduction in the 7 days compressive strength
of concretes with the inclusion of 50% and 70% FA as
cement replacement, respectively. Mukherjee et al. (2013)
reported a reduction in the 7 and 28 days compressive
strength with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA as
cement replacement. The reduction in the 7 days compres-
sive strength was 55.29%, 61% and 66.65% with the inclu-
sion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst the
reduction in the 28 days compressive strength was
41.57%, 40.44% and 50.9%, respectively. Rashad et al.
(2014) reported 71%, 66.46%, 49.4% and 38.4% reduction
in the 7, 28, 91 and 180 days compressive strength of
288 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
concrete specimens with the inclusion of 70% FA as cement
replacement. Rashad (2015a,b,c) reported 66.46% reduc-
tion in the 28 days compressive strength of concrete con-
taining 70% FA as cement replacement.
8.2.4. Fly ash content up to 100%
Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) reported a reduction in
the compressive strength of concretes at ages ranging
from 1 to 56 days with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
replacement. This reduction increased with increasing FA
content. At a w/b ratio of 0.5, the reduction in the 1, 3,
7, 14, 21, 28 and 56 days compressive strength was
57.33%, 47.96%, 47%, 50.52%, 42.75%, 45.29% and
40.31% with the inclusion of 45% FA, respectively, whilst
it was 70.67%, 73.23%, 71.23%, 69.33%, 66.67%, 61.38%
and 61.69%, respectively, with the inclusion of 60% FA.
The reduction in the compressive strength with the inclu-
sion of 75% FA was 92.67%, 88.1%, 88.32%, 86.1%,
84.54%, 83.91% and 77.95% at ages of 1, 3, 7, 14, 21,
28 and 56 days, respectively. Hannesson et al. (2012)
reported 31.58%, 28.32%, 20.62% and 4.66% reduction
in the compressive strength of concretes at ages of 7,
14, 28 and 56 days with the inclusion of 60% FA as
cement replacement, whilst there was 1.56% and 6.11%
enhancement in the compressive strength at ages of 84
and 168 days, respectively. The inclusion of 80% FA
reduced the 7, 14, 28, 56, 84 and 168 days compressive
strength by 70.59%, 71.55%, 60%, 44.1%, 40.94% and
22.91%, respectively, whilst the inclusion of 100% FA
reduced it by 98.14%, 97.97%, 97.75%, 97.67%, 97.36%
and 96.59%, respectively. Huang et al. (2013) reported
50.94%, 33.56%, 30.62%, 6% and 7.25% reduction in
the compressive strength of concretes at ages of 1, 3,
7, 28, 56 and 91 days with the inclusion of 60% FA as
cement replacement, respectively, when the original
cement content was 280 kg/m3, whilst there was 15.12%
and 12.88% enhancement at ages of 182 and 365 days,
respectively, when cement content was 280 kg/m3. The
inclusion of 80% FA as cement replacement caused
56.6%, 41.78%, 32.53%, 16.4%, 11.95% and 1.72% reduc-
tion in the 1, 3, 7, 28, 56 and 91 days, respectively, whilst
3.7% and 6% enhancement in the 182 and 365 days was
obtained, respectively. At cement content of 340 kg/m3,
the reduction in the 1, 3 and 7 days compressive strength
was 53.95%, 34.8% and 30.51% with the inclusion of
60% FA, respectively, whilst at ages of 56, 91, 182 and
365 days there was an enhancement in the compressive
strength by 4.3%, 18.61%, 33% and 46.41%, respectively.
The inclusion of 80% FA as cement replacement caused
56.58%, 51.96%, 40.1%, 13% and 7.53% reduction in the
1, 3, 7, 28 and days, respectively, whilst 0.25%, 16.27%
and 38.12% enhancement in the 91, 182 and 365 days
compressive strength was obtained, respectively.
Dinakar et al. (2008a,b, 2009) reported that the compres-
sive strength of concretes decreased with increasing FA
content from 50% to 85% as cement replacement.
9. Flexural strength
Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) reported a reduction in the
modulus of rupture of concretes at age of 28 days with the
inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. This reduction
increased with increasing FA content. Siddique (2004a)
reported a reduction in the flexural strength of concrete
with the inclusion of 45% and 50% FA as cement replace-
ment. The reduction in the flexural tensile strength at ages
of 7, 28, 91 and 365 days was 47.37%, 42.59%, 29.1% and
23.64%, respectively, with the inclusion of 45% FA, whilst
the inclusion of 50% FA caused 52.63%, 50%, 43.64% and
40% reduction, respectively. Sounthararajan and
Sivakumar (2013) reported 32.73% reduction in the 28 days
flexural strength of concretes containing 50% FA as cement
replacement. Siddique (2004b) reported 52.83% and 56.6%
reduction in the 28 days flexural strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 45% and 55% FA as cement replacement,
respectively. Nikhil (2014) reported 31.88% reduction in
the 28 days flexural strength of concrete specimens with
the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement. Kumar
et al. (2007) reported 25.84%, 15.11% and 3.76% reduction
in the flexural strength of concretes with the inclusion of
50% FA as cement replacement at ages of 7, 28 and
90 days, respectively, when w/b ratio was 0.4. There was
an enhancement in the flexural strength by 2.85%, 1.82%
and 1.74% with the inclusion of 50% FA at ages of 180,
256 and 365 days, respectively. The inclusion of 60% FA
caused 19.11%, 5.93%, 1.9%, 2.73% and 4.53% reduction
in the flexural strength at ages of 7, 28, 90, 180, 256 and
365 days, respectively. Jiang et al. (2004) reported 17%
and 23.5% reduction in the flexural strength of concretes
at ages of 56 and 118 days with the inclusion of 60% FA
as cement replacement, respectively. Sofi et al. (2013)
reported 5.58% reduction in the 28 days flexural strength
of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 60% FA as
cement replacement.
Huang et al. (2013) reported 20.41% and 1.96% reduc-
tion in the 7 and 28 days flexural strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement, whilst
5.56%, 6.78% and 15.38% enhancement in the 56, 91 and
365 days flexural strength, respectively, was obtained when
the original cement content was 340 kg/m3. The inclusion
of 80% FA as cement replacement caused 32.65%,
27.45%, 12.96% and 1.7% reduction in the 7, 28, 56 and
91 days flexural strength, respectively, whilst 3.1%
enhancement in the 365 days flexural strength was obtained
(Fig. 6). Mardani-Aghabaglou and Ramyar (2013)
reported 41.79%, 13.52%, 15.73% and 20.34% reduction
in the 7, 28, 90 and 180 days flexural strength of concretes
with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement,
respectively. Jiang and Guan (1999) reported a reduction
in the flexural strength of pastes at ages of 3, 7, 28 and
90 days by partially replacing cement with 50% and 70%
FA. The reduction in the 3 days compressive strength
was 68.85% and 78.69% with the inclusion of 50% and
70% FA, whilst the reduction in the 28 days compressive
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Fig. 6. Effect of FA content on the concrete flexural strength (Huang
et al., 2013).
strength was 60.47% and 70.54%, respectively. John and
Ashok (2014) reported a reduction in the 7 and 28 days
flexural strength of concretes with the inclusion of 50%,
60% and 70% FA as cement replacement. The reduction
in the 7 days flexural strength was 2.86%, 11.67% and
21.59% with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA,
respectively, whilst the reduction in the 28 days flexural
strength was 13.31%, 18.17% and 20.32%, respectively.
Atisß (2005) reported 8.96%, 5.71% and 1.18% reduction
in the flexural strength of concretes at ages of 1, 3 days
and 3 months, respectively, with the inclusion of 50% Drax
FA as cement replacement when the specimens were cured
at 20 °C with 65% RH, whilst an increase of 6.5%, 14.4%,
3.77% and 7.81% was obtained at ages of 7, 28 days,
6 months and 1 year, respectively. The inclusion of 70%
FA caused a reduction in the flexural strength by 33.79%,
38%, 28.91%, 22.56%, 23.35%, 24.92% and 22.66% at ages
of 1, 3, 7, 28 days, 3, 6 months and 1 year, respectively.
10. Splitting tensile strength
Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) reported a reduction in the
splitting tensile strength of concretes at age of 28 days with
the inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. This reduc-
tion increased with increasing FA content. Siddique
(2004a) reported a reduction in the splitting tensile strength
of concrete with the inclusion of 45% and 50% FA as
cement replacement. The reduction in the splitting tensile
strength at ages of 7, 28, 91 and 365 days was 42.86%,
36.59%, 21.43% and 11.63% with the inclusion of 45%
FA, respectively, whilst the inclusion of 50% FA caused
46.43%, 46.34%, 38.1% and 30.23%, reduction, respec-
tively. Siddique (2004b) reported 35% and 45% reduction
in the 28 days splitting tensile strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 45% and 55% FA as cement replacement,
respectively. Soni and Saini (2014) reported 75% and
289
53.33% reduction in the 28 and 56 days splitting tensile
strength with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replace-
ment, respectively. Sahmaran and Yaman (2007) reported
21.23% and 9.24% reduction in the splitting tensile strength
of concrete with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement at ages of 28 and 56 days, respectively.
Nikhil (2014) reported 6.15% and 31.35% reduction in
the 7 and 28 days splitting tensile strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement, respec-
tively Yoshitake et al. (2014) reported 50%, 57.14%,
57.14%, 61.54%, 44%, 15.38% and 2.86% reduction in the
1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 28 and 91 days splitting tensile strength of con-
cretes with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement,
respectively, when w/b ratio was 0.45. Sounthararajan and
Sivakumar (2013) reported 36.68% reduction in the 28 days
splitting tensile strength of concretes containing 50% FA as
cement replacement. Saravanakumar and Dhinakaran
(2013) reported a reduction in the tensile strength of con-
cretes containing 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement.
This reduction increased with increasing FA content. The
reduction in the 7, 14, 28 and 56 days tensile strength was
2.94%, 13.12%, 24.13% and 5.47% with the inclusion of
50% FA, respectively, whilst the inclusion of 60% FA
caused a reduction of 10.66%, 25.36%, 33.74% and 6.64%
respectively. S ß ahmaran et al. (2009) reported a reduction
in the splitting tensile strength at ages of 28, 90 and
180 days with the inclusion of HVFA as cement replace-
ment. The reduction in the 28 days splitting tensile strength
was 20.5%, 27.22% and 35.7% with the inclusion of 50%,
60% and 70%, respectively, whilst it was 5.95%, 11.71%
and 18%, respectively, at age of 180 days.
Mardani-Aghabaglou and Ramyar (2013) reported
40%, 12.16%, 15.14 and 14.38% reduction in the 7, 28, 90
and 180 days splitting tensile strength of concretes with
the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement,
respectively (Fig. 7). Atisß (2005) reported 14.51% reduction
Fig. 7. Effect of FA content on the splitting tensile strength of the concrete
(Mardani-Aghabaglou and Ramyar, 2013).
290 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
in the splitting tensile strength of concrete specimens at age
of 7 days with the inclusion of 50% Drax FA as cement
replacement when the specimens were cured at 20 °C with
65% RH, whilst 30.96% enhancement in the splitting tensile
strength was obtained at age of 28 days. The inclusion of
70% FA caused 18.82% and 18.39% reduction in the split-
ting strength at ages of 7 and 28 days, respectively. John
and Ashok (2014) reported a reduction in the 7 and 28 days
splitting tensile strength of concretes with the inclusion of
50%, 60% and 70% FA as cement replacement. The reduc-
tion in the 7 days splitting tensile strength was 18.73%,
23.48% and 33.77% with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and
70% FA, respectively, whilst it was 19.29%, 23.76%
and 21.88%, respectively, at age of 28 days. Shah and
Modhera (2014) reported a reduction in the 7, 28 and
56 days splitting tensile strength of concretes with the inclu-
sion of HVFA as cement replacement. The reduction in the
7 days splitting tensile strength was 26.6%, 32.69% and
39.1% with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respec-
tively, whilst the reduction in the 56 days compressive
strength was 24.94%, 31.97% and 38.55% respectively.
Dinakar et al. (2008a,b) reported that the splitting tensile
strength of concretes decreased with increasing FA content
from 50% to 85% as cement replacement.
11. Modulus of elasticity
Duràn-Herrera et al. (2011) reported a reduction in the
static modulus of elasticity of concretes at age of 28 days
with the inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. This
reduction increased with increasing FA content. Mirza
et al. (2002) reported a reduction in the modulus of elastic-
ity of cement grout by partially replacing cement with 60%
FA. Soni and Saini (2014) reported 66.48% and 67.56%
reduction in the 28 and 56 days modulus of elasticity of
concretes containing 50% FA as cement replacement,
respectively. Yoshitake et al. (2014) reported 60.43%,
13.93%, 11.33%, 14.73%, 19.86% and 7.38% reduction in
the 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 28 days compressive Young’s modulus
Fig. 8. Effect of FA content on the modulus of elasticity of concrete (Kayali and Ahmed, 2013).
of concretes with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement when w/b ratio was 0.45. The reduction in
the tensile Young’s modulus was 40.58%, 50.22%,
29.92%, 18.68%, 23.43%, 24.11 and 11.1% at ages of 1, 2,
3, 5, 7, 28 and 91 days, respectively. Yoon et al. (2014)
reported a reduction in the Young’s modulus of elasticity
of concretes at age of 28 days with the inclusion 50% and
60% FA as cement replacement. This reduction increased
with increasing FA content. Kayali and Ahmed (2013)
reported approximately 30.3% and 54.55% reduction in
the 7 days modulus of elasticity of concretes with the inclu-
sion of 50% and 70% FA as cement replacement, respec-
tively, (Fig. 8). Huang et al. (2013) reported 2.6%,
17.54%, 15.5% and 9.7% reduction in the 28, 56, 91 and
365 days modulus of elasticity of concretes with the inclu-
sion of 80% FA, respectively, when the original cement
content was 340 kg/m3. Dinakar et al. (2008a,b) reported
that the elastic modulus of concretes decreased with
increasing FA content from 50% to 85% as cement
replacement.
From the above discussion in Sections 8–11, it is evident
that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix decreased the
strength especially at early ages. The strength significantly
decreased with increasing FA content. Significant reduction
in the strength was obtained during the early ages compared
to the control. The strength gap between the HVFA mixtures
and the control decreased with increasing curing age. At too
long ages, the strength of HVFA mixture may reach the same
or show higher strength value compared to that of the con-
trol. The time at which the strength of HVFA concrete will
catch up with that of the control generally depend on the
amount, reactivity and fineness of FA, w/b ratio and curing
conditions such as humidity and temperature.
The reduction in the strength with the inclusion of
HVFA could be mainly attributed to the slow pozzolanic
reaction of low-calcium FA and the dominant dilution
effect, especially during early ages, with only a few
parts of the FA participating the reaction (Jiang and
Guan, 1999). Montgomery et al. (1981) reported that
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Fig. 9. Number of studies versus the amount of HVFA in concrete.
low-calcium FA apparently did not react appreciably at an
early age under normal curing conditions. The reduction in
the strength by partially replacing cement with HVFA is
the main shortcoming reason of using this system which
limits its wide use by engineers. It is worth mentioning that
the number of researches regarding the FA amount in con-
crete decreased as the amount of FA increased (Fig. 9).
Thus, replacing cement with very high volumes FA can
be considered as a main topic for future researches.
12. Abrasion resistance
Siddique (2004a) reported a reduction in the abrasion
resistance of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 45%
and 50% FA as cement replacement. This reduction
increased with increasing FA content. The depth of the wear
at age of 28 days was 1.9, 2.4 and 2.7 mm with the inclusion
of 0%, 45% and 50% FA, respectively, whilst it was 1.7, 2.36
and 2.52 mm at age of 91 days, respectively. At age of
365 days, the depth of wear was 1.42, 2.17 and 2.32 mm with
the inclusion of 0%, 45% and 50% FA, respectively, (Fig. 10).
Siddique et al. (2012) reported 73.5%, 35.6% and 37.3%
reduction in the 7, 28 and 56 days abrasion resistance of con-
crete with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement replacement.
Langan et al. (1990) reported a reduction in the abrasion
resistance of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 50%
FA as cement replacement. Kumar et al. (2007) reported a
reduction in the abrasion resistance of concrete specimens
with the inclusion of 50% and 60% FA as cement replace-
ment. This reduction increased with increasing FA content.
The abrasion loss of the control specimens was 0.22%, 0.18%
and 0.16% at w/b ratio of 0.4, 0.34 and 0.3, respectively,
whilst it was 0.34%, 0.29% and 0.21% with the inclusion of
60% FA, respectively. Bilodeau and Malhotra (1992)
reported that the inclusion of 55–60% FA of total cementi-
tious materials in concretes exhibited poorer abrasion resis-
tance than concrete specimens without FA.
Siddique (2010) reported a reduction in the abrasion
resistance of concretes at ages of 28, 91 and 365 days with
291
Fig. 10. Effect of FA content on wear depth of concrete at age 28 days
(Siddique, 2004a).
the inclusion of 50% and 60% FA as cement replacement.
The depth of wear increased by 29.12%, 30.64%, 12.43%
with the inclusion of 50% FA at ages of 28, 91 and
365 days, respectively, whilst it increased by 42.86%,
44.51% and 34.32% with the inclusion of 60% FA, respec-
tively. Siddique et al. (2007) reported a reduction in the
abrasion resistance of concretes at ages of 28, 91 and
365 days with the inclusion of 45%, 55% and 65% FA This
reduction increased with increasing FA content. Rashad
et al. (2014) reported a reduction in the abrasion resistance
of concrete specimens with the inclusion of HVFA as
cement replacement. The depth of wear increased by
40.9%, 48.9%, 16.38% and 15.1% at ages of 7, 28, 91 and
180 days, respectively, with the inclusion of 70% FA. On
the contrary, Atisß (2002a,b) reported that concretes con-
taining 50% and 70% FA as cement replacement exhibited
higher abrasion resistance at ages of 3, 7 and 28 days and
3 months compared to the control. Atisß and Çelik (2002)
reported that concrete containing 70% FA as cement
replacement exhibited better abrasion resistance than that
of the reference, particularly at high tensile strength
(>4 MPa).
From the above review of the literature in this section, it
can be noted that the inclusion of HVFA in concrete
decreased the abrasion resistance as reported by several
studies (Fig. 11). The reduction in the abrasion resistance
with the inclusion of HVFA is logical, of which the abra-
sion resistance of concrete is closely related with its com-
pressive strength (Rashad et al., 2014), the compressive
strength is the most important factor governing the abra-
sion resistance (Naik et al., 1995) and the abrasion resis-
tance of concrete follows its compressive strength
(Rashad, 2013b; Rashad et al., 2014; Atisß, 2002a,b;
Mehta, 1986; Hadchti and Carrasquillo, 1988; Laplante
et al., 1991; Gjorv et al., 1990; Naik et al., 1995; Atisß,
2003c; Li et al., 2006). The reduction in the abrasion resis-
tance of concrete with the inclusion of HVFA is one of
292 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Fig. 11. Number of studies versus the effect of HVFA on abrasion
resistance of concrete.
disadvantage of using this system. On the other hand,
there are few studies (Atisß, 2002a,b; Atisß and Çelik,
2002) believed that the inclusion of HVFA in concrete
exhibited better abrasion resistance compared to the
control.
13. Freeze/thaw resistance
Pigeon and Malhotra (1995) reported that HVFA con-
crete specimens containing air-entrained showed excellent
resistance to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. The
HVFA concrete specimens which did not contain air-
entrained exhibited adequate performance according
ASTM C666. Baert et al. (2008) reported that concrete
specimens containing 60% FA as cement replacement
exhibited similar frost/thaw resistance to the reference
specimens. Joshi et al. (1993) reported that concrete speci-
mens containing HVFA (Alberta FA) with air content
more than 5% exhibited acceptable freeze/thaw durability
performance. Joshi (1987) reported that no significant dif-
ferences were observed in freeze/thaw performance of air-
entrained concrete specimens containing 50% FA as
cement replacement and the concrete specimens containing
both air-entraining and water-reducing agents. Malhotra
et al. (1990) reported that superplasticized and air-
entrained concrete specimens containing HVFA exhibited
satisfactory durability against freeze/thaw attack. On the
other hand, Mardani-Aghabaglou et al. (2013) reported
that concrete specimens containing 60% FA as cement
replacement exhibited higher reduction in the dynamic
modulus of elasticity and compressive strength after
freeze-thaw 300 cycles compared to the control, at age of
90 days.
From the above discussion, it can be noted that the
effect of HVFA on the freeze/thaw resistance of concrete
specimens still needs more investigations. However,
according to the available studies it can be concluded that
there is no apparent difference in the freezing and thawing
resistance of concrete specimens with and without HVFA.
14. Thermal properties
Bentz et al. (2011) reported a reduction in the thermal
conductivity of mortar and concrete specimens with the
inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. This reduction
increased with increasing FA content. Gifford and Ward
(1982) reported that the inclusion of FA at high levels as
cement replacement slightly reduced the thermal expansion
of concrete. Yoshitake et al. (2013, 2014) reported 2.13%
reduction in the coefficient of thermal expansion of con-
crete containing 50% FA as cement replacement, when
w/b ratio was 0.49, compared to the control. On the other
hand, Yoshitake et al. (2014) reported that when w/b ratios
were 0.45 and 0.38, the increment in the coefficient of ther-
mal expansion of concrete specimens containing 50% FA
was 8.51% and 10.64%, respectively. Rashad (2015a,b,c)
reported higher relative compressive strength of concretes
containing 70% FA after being exposed to 400, 600, 800
and 1000 °C for 2 h compared to the control, whilst lesser
residual compressive strength was obtained compared to
the control.
From the above review in this section, it can be noted
that the data on the effect of HVFA on thermal properties
of concrete are extremely limited. Indeed thermal proper-
ties of HVFA matrix still needs more investigations. This
topic is suitable for future investigation.
15. Drying shrinkage
Yang et al. (2007) reported a reduction in the free dry-
ing shrinkage of concrete specimens with the inclusion of
HVFA. The free drying shrinkage decreased as FA con-
tent increased. Kumar et al. (2007) reported 30.5%, 32%
and 49.5% reduction in the drying shrinkage of concrete
specimens with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement when w/b ratio was 0.4, 0.34 and 0.3, respec-
tively, whilst the inclusion of 60% FA reduced it by 39%,
51% and 58%, respectively. Mirza et al. (2002) reported a
reduction in the drying shrinkage of cement grout by par-
tially replacing cement with 60% FA. Gesoğlu et al.
(2009) reported a significant reduction in the drying
shrinkage of concrete specimens with the inclusion of
60% FA as cement replacement. At 50 days drying age,
the reduction in the shrinkage strain was approximately
16.7% with the inclusion of 60% FA. El-Chabib and
Ibrahim (2013) reported 16.67% reduction in the overall
free shrinkage of concrete specimens at age of 90 days
with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement,
whilst 41.49% reduction was obtained for mortar speci-
mens containing the same content of FA.
Atisß (2003a) reported a reduction in the drying shrink-
age of concrete specimens by partially replacing cement
with FA at levels of 50% and 70%. This reduction increased
with increasing FA content. The reduction at the 1 day dry-
ing age was approximately 55.8% and 60.5% with the inclu-
sion of 50% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst the reduction
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
at age of 6 months was approximately 46.9% and 52.5%,
respectively. When fixed dosage of SP was used, the trend
of drying shrinkage increased. Wu et al. (2006) reported
a reduction in the shrinkage of concrete specimens at ages
ranging from 3 to 180 days with the inclusion of 50%, 60%
and 70% FA as cement replacement. At w/b ratio of 0.3,
the reduction in the shrinkage at age of 3 days was
10.34%, 9.48% and 11.21% with the inclusion of 50%,
60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst the reduction at
age of 180 days was 10.29%, 11.45% and 11.74%, respec-
ß ahmaran et al. (2009) reported a reduction in the
tively. S
drying shrinkage of concrete specimens with the inclusion
of HVFA as cement replacement. The reduction in the dry-
ing shrinkage strain at age of 365 days was 31.94%, 13.96%
and 38.56% with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA,
respectively. On the other hand, Huang et al. (2013)
reported an increase in the drying shrinkage of concretes
with the inclusion of 60% and 80% FA as cement replace-
ment. The drying shrinkage increased with increasing FA
content. The drying shrinkage value of 60% FA was
673  10 6, whilst it was 683  10 6 for 80% FA. Kate
and Murnal (2013) reported an increase in the drying
shrinkage of concrete specimens with increasing FA con-
tent up to 70%.
From the above mentioned studies in this section, it can
be concluded that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix
decreased its drying shrinkage. The inclusion of HVFA in
the matrix reduced the water demand, at the same time,
produced finer paste structure, as a result of which the less
of pore water within the paste system is restricted and con-
sequently the drying shrinkage reduced. Kumar et al.
(2007) reported that cracking occurs when the stresses
induced by shrinkage strain, at any time, exceed the tensile
strength of concrete. Any delay in sawing of joints beyond
the time when significant concrete shrinkage occurs may
induce uncontrolled cracking in the concrete. HVFA con-
crete, owing to its low shrinkage, is expected to lower the
cracking tendency and the risk of uncontrolled cracking
due to any delay in sawing of joints. The reduction in the
drying shrinkage with the inclusion of HVFA as cement
replacement is one advantage of using this system. As
known, drying shrinkage is one of the main reasons that
cause cracks in large concrete structures. Consequently,
using HVFA in large concrete structures, such as floors
and dams, can alleviate this problem.
16. pH value
Zhang et al. (2000) reported a reduction in the pH value
of paste specimens containing 50% and 60% FA. This
reduction increased with increasing FA content. Shi and
Qian (2001) reported a reduction in the pH value by par-
tially replacing cement in pastes with 50% and 70% FA.
The pH value decreased with increasing FA content. Wu
et al. (2006) reported a reduction in the pH value of con-
crete specimen with the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70%
293
FA as cement replacement. The pH value decreased with
increasing FA content.
Although there are limited investigations related to the
effect of HVFA content on the pH value, it can be con-
cluded that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix reduced
the pH value. The pH value decreased with increasing
FA content, but it wouldn’t decrease to the degree that
destroys the passivated film of reinforcement (Wu et al.
(2006). The reduction in the pH value with the inclusion
of HVFA could be related to the FA absorbed the OH-
and other cations in the pore solution and decreased the
pH of the pore solution, which resulted a reduction in
the pH of the extract (Shi and Qian (2001). The reduction
in the pH value with the inclusion of HVFA could be
related to the pozzolanic reaction of FA which can cause
the decline of the alkalinity of pore solution, and in the
meantime consume the CH from the hydration of cement
(Zhang et al., 2000).
17. Porosity and water absorption
Poon et al. (2000) reported 16.11% and 46.94% incre-
ment in the porosity of paste specimens at ages of 28 and
90 days, respectively, by partially replacing cement with
45% FA when w/b ratio was 0.24. At w/b ratio of 0.19,
the increment in the porosity was 15.99% and 42.1% at
the same ages, respectively. Poon et al. (2000) reported that
the inclusion of 45% FA as cement replacement in concrete
specimens did not increase the porosity when w/b ratio was
0.24. At w/b ratio of 0.19, higher porosity was obtained
compared to that at w/b ratio of 0.24. Jiang and Guan
(1999) reported 40.64%, 54.64% and 61.57% increment in
the porosity of paste specimens with the inclusion of 50%
FA as cement replacement at ages of 3, 28 and 90 days,
respectively. Filho et al. (2013) reported 32.74% increment
in the concrete specimens porosity with the inclusion of
50% FA as cement replacement. Younsi et al. (2011)
reported 5% and 10.14% increment in the percentage of
porosity of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 50%
FA as cement replacement at ages of 2.5 and 14 days,
respectively. If 0.57% air-entraining agent (AEA) was
added to the 50% FA mixture, 1.9% and 5.8% increment
in the percentage of porosity was obtained at ages of 2.5
and 14 days, respectively. Lammertijn and De Belie
(2008) reported 38.36% increment in the total permeable
porosity of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 50%
FA as cement replacement at age of 1 month, whilst it
decreased by 2.36% and 0.49% at ages of 3 and 6 months,
respectively. The inclusion of 67% FA as cement replace-
ment resulted 42.45%, 11.64% and 26.46% increment in
the total permeable porosity at ages of 1, 3 and 6 months,
respectively. Gesoğlu et al. (2009) reported 50% reduction
in the water permeability of concrete specimens with the
inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement. Mardani-
Aghabaglou et al. (2013) reported that the percentage of
water absorption and permeable void of concrete speci-
mens increased by approximately 33.34% and 25.3% at
294 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
age of 56 days with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
replacement, respectively. Mukherjee et al. (2013) reported
an increase in the percentage of apparent porosity and
water absorption of concrete specimens with the inclusion
of 50%, 60% and 70% FA as cement replacement. The
increment increased as the content of FA increased. Silva
and de Brito (2013) reported a reduction in the capillarity
water absorption of concrete specimens at ages of 7, 28,
91 and 182 days with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
replacement, whilst 70% FA increased it.
From the above review of the literature in this section, it
can be concluded that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix
increased its porosity and water absorption. Both of poros-
ity and water absorption increased with increasing FA con-
tent. Increasing porosity and water absorption with the
inclusion of HVFA is one disadvantage of using this sys-
tem. However, in general, the use of FA increased the
porosity because of smaller amount of cement in mixture
proportions. The hydration of cement fills the volume ini-
tially occupied by the water, reducing the total porosity
of the systems. The pozzolanic activity of FA consumes
portlandite and precipitates secondary CSH, without
changing the porosity, but reducing the interconnectivity
of the pore structure (Filho et al., 2013).
18. Chloride ion penetration and permeability
Poon et al. (2000) reported 62.1% and 85.88% reduction
in the chloride diffusion of concrete specimens at ages of 28
and 90 days, respectively, by partially replacing cement
with 45% FA, when w/b ratio was 0.24. At w/b ratio of
0.19, the reduction in the chloride diffusion was 39.1%
and 76.67% at ages of 28 and 90 days, respectively.
Burden (2006) reported a reduction in the rapid chloride
permeability of concretes with the inclusion of 50% FA
as cement replacement. This reduction was 18.4%, 3.63%,
30% and 31.9% at ages of 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days, respec-
tively, when w/b ratio was 0.4. Filho et al. (2013) reported
that the chloride diffusion coefficient of concrete specimens
at age of 91 days reduced 13.25% with the inclusion of 50%
FA as cement replacement. On the same line, the total
charge passed (Coulombs) decreased by approximately
18.29%. Chalee et al. (2007) reported that the chloride pen-
etration of concrete specimens decreased with the inclusion
of 50% FA as cement replacement. van den Heede et al.
(2010) reported that concretes containing 50% FA as
cement replacement exhibited 78.9% and 78% lower appar-
ent gas permeability at ages of 28 and 91 days, respectively,
compared to the control. S ß ahmaran et al. (2008) reported
65.3%, 62.94 and 0% reduction in the rapid chloride perme-
ability (RCPT) of concrete specimens at ages of 28, 43 and
58 days with the inclusion of 55% FA as cement
replacement.
Balakrishnan and Abdul Awal (2014) exposed con-
crete specimens after curing for 28 days to chloride
attack. The results showed a reduction in the chloride
penetration depth with the inclusion of HVFA at ages
of 7, 28 and 90 days of exposure. This reduction
increased with increasing FA content. The reduction in
the 28 days was approximately 57% and 61% with the
inclusion of 50% and 60% FA, respectively. El-Chabib
and Ibrahim (2013) reported 53.79% reduction in the
rapid chloride permeability of concrete specimens at
age of 56 days with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
replacement. Gesoğlu et al. (2009) reported that the chlo-
ride permeability of concrete specimens which tested at
age of 90 days was reduced by 28.57% with the inclusion
of 60% FA as cement replacement. Sujjavanich et al.,
2005 reported a significant reduction in the chloride ion
penetration of concrete specimens with the inclusion of
50% and 65% FA as cement replacement. The HVFA
concretes exhibited a very low level of chloride perme-
ß ahmaran et al. (2009) reported a reduction in
ability. S
the RCRT of concrete specimens at ages ranging from
28 days to 365 days with the inclusion of 50%, 60%
and 70% FA as cement replacement. This reduction
increased with increasing FA content at ages of 90, 180
and 365 days. Yerramala and Babu (2011) reported less
permeability of concrete specimens with the inclusion of
60–70% FA as cement replacement.
On the other hand, Zhang et al. (2014) reported that
the charge passed increased in the engineered cementi-
tious composites (mortars) as the HVFA content
increased. Shaikh and Supit (2014) reported 76.5% and
69.3% increment in the chloride passed (Coulombs) of
concretes at ages of 28 and 90 days with the inclusion
of 60% FA as cement replacement, respectively. Kayali
and Ahmed (2013) reported that the values of total chlo-
ride content in 50% and 70% HVFA concretes were lar-
ger than those of the control. Mardani-Aghabaglou et al.
(2013) reported 76.5% and 69.31% increment in the
charge passed (Coulombs) at ages of 28 and 90 days with
the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement,
respectively.
From the above discussion, it is evident that the inclu-
sion of HVFA in the matrix has a positive effect on the per-
meability and chloride ion penetration. The reduction in
the permeability caused an improvement in long-term
durability and resistance to various forms of deterioration.
The addition of FA results in considerable pore refinement.
It transforms bigger pores into smaller ones to the forma-
tion of pozzolanic reaction products concomitant with
the progress of cement hydration. Since impermeability
and strength are oppositely related to the volume of pores
larger than 100 Ǻ in hydrated paste, the phenomenon of
pore refinement in FA concrete leads to the improvement
in these characteristics. The CH is consumed in the poz-
zolanic reactions and converted to water insoluble hydra-
tion products. The reactions reduce the risk of leaching
CH. The reaction products also tend to fill capillaries,
thereby reducing permeability Siddique, 2008a.
Manmohan and Mehta (1981) believed that transformation
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306 295

of large pores to fine pores, as a consequence of the poz- hydrochloric acid solution for up to 1800 h, after 28 curing
zolanic reaction between cement paste and FA, substan- days. The results showed that the inclusion of 50% and 60%
tially reduced permeability. FA as cement replacement exhibited weight loss lesser than
the control. The weight loss decreased with increasing FA
content. They also exposed some specimens to 10%
19. Sorptivity
Na2SO4, after 28 curing days, for 28, 90 and 550 days. They
reported that the specimens containing HVFA stayed intact
Misra et al. (2007) reported a reduction in the sorpitivity
in sulphate solution throughout the period of exposure.
of concrete specimens with the inclusion of 50% FA as
From the mentioned studies in this section, it can be
cement replacement. S ß ahmaran et al. (2008) reported
noted that there is a distinct lack in the literature regarding
21.24% and 50.98% reduction in the sorptivity index of
the effect of HVFA on the chemical resistance. According
concrete specimens at ages of 28 and 58 days with the inclu-
to the available studies, it can be concluded that the inclu-
sion of 55% FA as cement replacement. Gesoğlu et al.
sion of HVFA in the matrix increased its resistance against
(2009) reported 12.9% reduction in the sorptivity index of
sulphate attack. The excellence of high HVFA concrete
concrete specimens at age of 90 days with the inclusion of
specimens to sulphate resistance was attributed primarily
60% FA as cement replacement. S ß ahmaran et al. (2009)
to the prevention of ingress of sulphate ions into concrete,
reported a reduction in the sorptivity index of concrete
resulting in little formation of gypsum and/or ettringite in
specimens at ages ranging from 28 to 365 days with the
concrete (Torii et al., 1995). Siddique and Khan (2011)
inclusion of HVFA as cement replacement. At age of
reported that FA induced three phenomena which improve
28 days, the reduction in the sorptivity index was 45.19%,
sulphate resistance: (i) consumed the free lime resulted it
53.85% and 53.85% at age of 28 days with the inclusion
unavailable to react with sulphate, (ii) reduced permeability
of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst it was
which prevented sulphate penetration, and (iii) by replacing
32.2%, 35.59% and 42.37% at age of 365 days, respectively.
cement, the reactive aluminates was reduced. The positive
On the other hand, Zhang et al., 2014 reported that the
effect of FA on acid resistance could be related to the poz-
sorptivity of engineered cementitious composites (mortars)
zolanic reaction between FA and CH liberated during the
increased with increasing HVFA content, of which more
hydration of cement, which forms additional cementitious
porous matrix was produced. Mardani-Aghabaglou et al.
compound mainly CSH.
(2013) reported approximately 61.3% increase in the sorp-
tivity of concrete specimens at age of 56 days with the
21. Carbonation and corrosion resistance
inclusion of 60% FA as cement replacement. Shaikh and
Supit (2014) reported approximately 26.6% increase in
Burden (2006) exposed concrete specimens to different
the water sorptivity at ages of 28 and 90 days of concrete
methods of carbonation namely accelerated carbonation
specimens with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement
(1% CO2), indoor carbonation and outdoor carbonation
replacement.
for different durations. The results showed a reduction in
From the previous mentioned studies in this section, it
the carbonation resistance of concrete specimens with the
can be noted that there are contradictory results regarding
inclusion of 50% as cement replacement, for all carbonation
the effect of HVFA on the sorptivity. Some studies believed
methods. Feng et al. (2006) reported an increase in the car-
that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix reduced sorptiv-
bonation depth of concrete specimens with the inclusion of
ity. Minimizing sorptivity is important in order to reduce
50% FA as cement replacement. Bouzoubaâ et al. (2010)
the ingress of chloride-containing or sulphate-containing
reported a reduction in the carbonation resistance of con-
water into concrete, which can cause serious damage
crete specimens containing 50% Lingan FA exposed to
(McCarter et al., 1992). On the other hand, other studies
3% CO2 for 140 days or exposed to natural carbonation
reported higher sorptivity with the inclusion of HVFA in
for 4 years, after 7 days of curing. The accelerated carbon-
the matrix. Indeed, this property still needs more
ation rate increased by 136% with the inclusion of FA, when
investigations.
strength class was 25 MPa. The carbonation rate increased
by 39.5% and 440% by natural indoor and outdoor expo-
20. Chemical resistance sure, respectively, when the strength class was 25 MPa.
Younsi et al. (2011) measured the carbonation depth of con-
Torii et al. (1995) partially replaced cement in concretes crete specimens containing up to 50% FA as cement replace-
with FA up to 50%, by weight. After curing for 28 days, ment. The specimens were oven dried for 2.5 and 14 days
concrete specimens were exposed to 10% Na2SO4 for and exposed to accelerated carbonation for 7 days. The
2 years. The results showed that HVFA concrete specimens results showed an increased in the carbonation depth with
exhibited higher sulphate resistance. Baert et al. (2008) the inclusion of FA. The carbonation depth increased with
reported that concrete specimens containing 60% FA as increasing FA content (Fig. 12).Furthermore, they mea-
cement replacement exhibited better performance in sured the natural carbonation up to 1 year. The results
lactic/acetic and sulphuric acid. Balakrishnan and showed approximately 20.8% and 62.2% increment in the
Abdul Awal (2014) exposed concrete specimens to 2% carbonation depth with the inclusion of 50% FA in the case
296 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
Fig. 12. Influence of oven-drying duration (2.5 or 14 days) on carbonation
depths measured after 7 days in carbonation chamber (Younsi et al.,
2011).
of air and water curing, respectively. Khunthongkeaw et al.
(2006) exposed concrete specimens containing 0% and 50%
FA as cement replacement to 4% CO2 for 4 and 8 weeks,
after 28 days of curing. They reported that carbonation
coefficient of concrete increased with the inclusion of FA.
This means that the carbonation resistance decreased with
the inclusion of FA. Jia et al. (2012) reported higher carbon-
ation depth of concrete specimens containing 50% FA as
cement replacement after exposure to accelerated carbona-
tion or natural carbonation compared to the control.
Lammertijn and De Belie (2008) reported a reduction in
the carbonation resistance of concrete specimens with the
inclusion of 50% and 67% FA as cement replacement. This
reduction increased with increasing FA content. Baert et al.
(2008) reported that the carbonation depth after 9 weeks of
exposing concrete specimens to 10% CO2 environment
increased with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replace-
ment. Mingzhi and Guofan (1994) reported that when the
total amount of cementitious material was 222 kg/m3, the
depth of carbonation of concrete specimens containing
55% FA increased mildly, whilst the depth of carbonation
increased rapidly with the inclusion of 70% FA. Wu et al.
(2006) reported an increase in the carbonation depth with
the inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA as cement replace-
ment. The carbonation depth of concrete specimens
increased with increasing FA content. Atisß (2003b) exposed
concrete specimens containing 0% and 70% FA as cement
replacement to 5% CO2. The specimens were exposed to
CO2 for 2 weeks after 3, 7 and 28 days and 3 months of cur-
ing at 20 °C with 65% RH. The results showed an increase
in the carbonation depth with the inclusion of 70% FA.
The increment in the carbonation depth was 55.21%,
57.65%, 73.85% and 78% for 70% FA specimens cured for
3, 7, 28 days and 3 months, respectively, before carbonation
exposure.
Jiang et al. (2004) reported a reduction in the corrosion
resistance of steel reinforcement embedded in concrete con-
taining 60% FA as cement replacement compared to the
control. Kayali and Ahmed (2013) reported that the inclu-
sion of 70% FA in concrete as cement replacement caused a
possibility of corrosion occurring. On the other hand,
Chalee et al. (2007) reported that the inclusion of 50%
FA in concrete specimens as cement replacement when
w/c ratio of 0.65 exhibited corrosion resistance at 4 years
exposure as good as the control when w/c ratio was 0.45.
Sujjavanich et al. (2005) reported that the anti-corrosion
risk of concretes containing 50% and 65% FA as cement
replacement was significantly improved and the probability
of no corrosion risk was higher than 90%.
From the above review in this section, it can be noted
that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix decreased its car-
bonation resistance. This reduction in the carbonation
resistance is logical, of which Nagataki et al. (1986)
reported a direct relationship between 28 days compressive
strength and carbonation depth irrespective of FA replace-
ment in concrete, and also mentioned that the extent of car-
bonation decreased with increasing compressive strength.
In HVFA, the carbonation could be related to the decalci-
fication of CSH by CO2 exposure. This caused carbonation
shrinkage when the Ca/Si ratio of CSH dropped. Regard-
ing the effect of HVFA on corrosion resistance, the effect
of HVFA on the corrosion resistance is not clearly under-
stood, as the results obtained have trended to vary. This
item still needs more investigations.
22. Electrical resistivity and conductivity
Gesoğlu et al. (2009) reported an increase in the electri-
cal resistivity of concrete specimens which tested at age of
90 days with the inclusion of 60% FA as cement replace-
ment. The increment of electrical resistivity was 9.1%.
Liu and Presuel-Moreno (2014) reported an increase in
the electrical resistivity of concrete specimens at ages of
28 and 365 days with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement. Filho et al. (2013) reported that the electrical
resistivity of concrete specimens increased by approxi-
mately 4.8 times with the inclusion of 50% FA as cement
replacement. Shi and Qian (2001) reported a reduction in
the electrical conductivity of extract of paste specimens
with the inclusion of 50% and 70% FA as cement replace-
ment. The electrical conductivity decreased with increasing
FA content.
As shown, there is a lack in the literature related to the
effect of HVFA on the electrical resistivity and conductiv-
ity. However, according to the available studies, it can be
concluded that the inclusion of HVFA in the matrix
increased the electrical resistivity, but decreased the electri-
cal conductivity.
In general view, using HVFA as cement replacement in
the matrix shows some advantages, of which some proper-
ties are improved, and some disadvantages, of which some
properties are defected. The advantages of using HVFA in
the matrix are decreasing heat of hydration, increasing
workability, decreasing bleeding, decreasing segregation,
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
decreasing density, increasing fire resistance, decreasing
drying shrinkage, decreasing permeability, decreasing chlo-
ride ion penetration, decreasing sorptivity, increasing
chemical resistance and increasing electrical resistivity. It
is safe to conclude that HVFA can be applied for mass con-
crete, marine concrete, dam concrete, floor concrete, con-
crete in hot weather, non-structural works, construction
material where thermal insulation properties are required,
construction material where high durability is required
HPC where high workability is required etc. Because
HVFA replaced cement, this means that the PC will be
eliminated. Consequently, the CO2 emission caused by
decomposition during sintering process of Portland clinker
will be reduced and the consumption of natural raw mate-
rials (limestone and sand) required will be reduced. The dis-
posal of FA will be eliminated. Therefore, there are extra
advantages of using HVFA system such as lower emission
of pollutants into atmosphere, reduction in consumption of
natural resources, eliminate the disposal of FA and reduc-
ing the unit cost. However, on the other hand, the disad-
vantages of using HVFA system are sharply decreasing
mechanical strength at early ages, decreasing modulus of
elasticity, decreasing abrasion resistance, decreasing car-
bonation resistance, increasing porosity and water absorp-
tion. Increasing setting time by using HVFA can be
considered as an advantage or as a disadvantage. This
depends on the application that the HVFA concrete used
for. However, studies have tried to solve some of these dis-
advantages by adding different additives as shown in the
following section.
23. Additives to improve some properties of HVFA matrix
23.1. Nano particles
Li (2004) reported that the inclusion of 4% nano-SiO2
(NS) in concrete specimens containing 50% FA as cement
replacement significantly increased the pozzolanic activity
of FA. The inclusion of NS enhanced the compressive
strength of HVFA concrete by 80.95%, 59.1%, 68.57%,
39.34%, 18.72%, 7.58%, 9.54% and 6.82% at ages of 1, 3,
7, 28, 56, 112, 360 and 720 days, respectively. Zhang and
Islam (2012) reported 62.16%, 24.31%, 17.1%, 6.86% and
4.35% enhancement in the 1, 3, 7, 28 and 91 days compres-
sive strength of 50% FA mortar specimens by replacing 1%
FA with NS, respectively. The inclusion of 2% NS as FA
replacement in concrete specimens reduced the initial and
final setting time by 28.1% and 22.1%, respectively. Hou
et al. (2013) modified HVFA mortars by adding 2.25%
and 5% colloidal NS. They reported that the early-age
compressive strength of HVFA mortars could be greatly
improved by the addition of colloidal NS. The higher the
dosage, the greater the improvement. On the other hand,
colloidal NS adversely affect strength gain at later ages.
The higher the dosage, the greater the reduction in the rate
of strength gain. Shaikh et al. (2014) partially replaced 2%
of FA in mortars containing 50%, 60% and 70% FA as
297
cement replacement with NS particles. The inclusion of
NS enhanced the 28 days compressive strength of 50%,
60% and 70% FA mortars by 4.76%, 25% and 55.56%,
respectively. On the other hand, there was 7.69%, 25%
and 0% reduction in the 7 days compressive strength,
respectively. They also replaced 2% of FA with NS in con-
crete specimens containing 60% FA. The results showed
95% enhancement in the 3 days compressive strength, but
no such improvement at ages of 7, 28, 56 and 90 days.
Mardani-Aghabaglou et al. (2013) modified some prop-
erties of HVFA concrete and mortar specimens containing
60% FA as cement replacement by partially replacing 1%
FA with nano CaCO3 (NC) particles. The compressive
strength results showed 100% and 106.25% enhancement
in the 7 and 28 days compressive strength of mortars with
the inclusion of NC, whilst the enhancement in the 3, 28
and 90 days compressive strength of concretes was 25%,
15% and 8.33%, respectively. The sorptivity test results
showed that the use of 1% NC in HVFA concrete speci-
mens significantly reduced the rate of water absorption at
age of 90 days (30.49%). The volume of permeability voids
reduced by 7% and 21% at ages of 28 and 90 days, respec-
tively, with the inclusion of 1% NC. The chloride ion per-
meability resistance of concretes increased with the
inclusion of NC, of which the charge passed (Coulombs)
reduced by 11.77% and 7.72% at ages of 28 and 90 days,
respectively. Table 2 summarizes the mentioned studies
about the effect of nano particles on some properties of
HVFA mortar and concrete.
From the above mentioned studies in this section, it can
be concluded that the inclusion of NS increased the com-
pressive strength of HVFA mixture as well as reduced the
initial and final setting time. Zhang and Islam (2012)
reported that NS is highly reactive pozzolanic material
which can react with CH liberated from cement hydration
to produce CSH. The pozzolanic reaction of the NS might
have started before 24 h. The pozzolanic reaction of the NS
at very early age might have also contributed to the
reduced setting time and increased early strength of HVFA
matrix. The NS might reduce porosity in cement paste and
in interface transition zone (ITZ) between the cement paste
and aggregate. Consequently, the bonding between the
cement paste and aggregate increased which might have
contributed to the strength development. On the same line,
the inclusion of NC in the HVFA matrix enhanced the
compressive strength, reduced the sorptivity and the vol-
ume of permeability voids.
23.2. Silica fume, slag, metakaolin and ultra-fine FA
Gesoğlu et al. (2009) reported that the compressive
strength of 60% FA concrete specimens can be enhanced
by 5.65% when 15% FA was replaced with silica fume
(SF), by weight. Zhang and Islam (2012) reported
13.51%, 14.92%, 10.41%, 3.68% and 1.24% enhancement
in the 1, 3, 7, 28 and 91 days compressive strength of
50% FA mortars by replacing 1% FA with SF, respectively.
298 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306

Table 2
Effect of nano particles on some properties of HVFA mortar and concrete.
References % Nano Type Effect
Li (2004) 4 NS Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
Zhang and Islam (2012) 1 NS Mortar – Enhanced compressive strength
Zhang and Islam (2012) 2 NS Concrete – Reduced setting time
Hou et al. (2013) 5 NS Mortar – Enhanced early ages compressive strength
– Reduced later ages compressive strength
Shaikh et al. (2014) 2 NS Mortar – Enhanced 28 days compressive strength
– Reduced 7 days compressive strength
2 NS Concrete – Enhanced 3 days compressive strength
– Reduced 7–90 days compressive strength
Mardani-Aghabaglou et al. (2013) 1 NC Concrete – Enhanced 7 and 28 days compressive strength
– Reduced sorptivity
– Reduced permeability voids
– Reduced chloride ion permeability
1 NC Mortar – Enhanced 7 and 28 days compressive strength

The inclusion of 2% SF as FA replacement in concrete mix-
ture reduced the initial and final setting time by 9.92% and
1.23%, respectively. El-Chabib and Ibrahim (2013) modi-
fied concretes containing 60% FA as cement replacement
by partially replacing FA with 10% SF or 30% slag coupled
with 10% SF. The inclusion of 10% SF enhanced the com-
pressive strength by 66.97%, 34.9% and 30% at ages of 1, 7
and 28 days, respectively, whilst the inclusion of 30% slag
coupled with 10% SF enhanced it by 31.6%, 90% and
65.62%, respectively. The inclusion of 10% SF reduced
the rapid chloride permeability (Coulombs) at age of
56 days by 71.93%, whilst the inclusion of 30% slag coupled
with 10% SF reduced it by 74.78%. Rashad et al. (2014)
tried to modify the compressive strength and abrasion
resistance of concrete containing 70% FA as cement
replacement by partially replacing 10% and 20% FA with
SF, slag and SF coupled with slag. The results showed that
SF and SF coupled with slag enhanced the compressive
strength (Fig. 13) and abrasion resistance of HVFA con-
cretes. As the SF content increased as the enhancement
increased. On the other hand the inclusion of slag reduced
them. The inclusion of 10% SF enhanced 7, 28, 91 and
180 days compressive strength by 5.84%, 40%, 15.72%
and 5.24%, respectively, whilst the inclusion of 20% SF
enhanced it by 7.56%, 91.36%, 27.39% and 5.1%, respec-
tively. The inclusion of 10% SF reduced the 7, 28, 91 and
180 wear loss by 1.9%, 4%, 0.9% and 1.91%, respectively,
whilst the inclusion of 20% SF reduced it by 9.26%,
25.45%, 2.94% and 1.9, respectively. Rashad (2015a) used
SF to modified concrete containing 70% FA as cement
replacement. FA was partially replaced with 10% and
20% SF, by weight. Some specimens were exposed to ele-
vated temperatures ranging from 400 °C to 1000 °C with
a step of 200 °C for 2 h. The results showed that the inclu-
sion of SF exhibited good fire resistance up to 600 °C, then
severe degradation in the residual strength was observed at
800 and 1000 °C. The inclusion of 10% SF enhanced the
residual compressive strength of HVFA concretes after
being exposed to 400 and 600 °C by 14.53% and 28.83%,
respectively, whilst 21.37% and 23.42% reduction at

Fig. 13. Effect of SF, slag and their combinations of compressive strength of HVFA concrete (Rashad et al., 2014).
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306 299

800 °C and 1000 °C was obtained, respectively. The inclu-
sion of 20% SF enhanced the residual strength at 400 and
600 °C by 29.37% and 33.25%, respectively, whilst 20.71%
and 5.65% reduction was obtained at 800 and 1000 °C,
respectively. Similar results, but with lower trend, was
obtained when 10% and 20% FA was replaced with SF
coupled with slag (Rashad, 2015c). On the other hand,
the inclusion of 10% and 20% slag as partially replacement
of FA in concrete specimens containing 70% FA exhibited
adverse impact of fire resistance compared to the control
(70% FA) (Rashad, 2015b).
Zhu et al. (2012) reported that the mechanical properties
of concrete specimens containing 70% FA as cement
replacement could be modified by partially replacing
10%, 20% and 30% of FA with slag. The inclusion of
10% slag increased tensile strength by 4.72% and 3.93%
at ages of 28 and 90 days, respectively, whilst the inclusion
of 30% slag increased it by 14.38% and 19.25%, respec-
tively. The compressive strength and flexural strength
increased with increasing slag content. The compressive
strength at age of 28 days increased by 13%, 26% and
30% with the inclusion of 10%, 20% and 30% slag, respec-
tively. The inclusion of 10% slag enhanced 3, 14, 28 and
90 days flexural strength by 13.33%, 19.15%, 16.67% and
22.4%, respectively, whilst the inclusion of 30% enhanced
it by 46.67%, 17%, 25.93% and 37.93%, respectively. Wei
et al. (2007) partially replaced FA in concrete specimens
containing 50% with 5% SF or metakaolin (MK) aiming
to increase the compressive strength. The results showed
an enhancement in the compressive strength by approxi-
mately 180.9%, 200%, 150%, 77.4% and 65.4% with the
inclusion of 5% MK at ages of 3, 7, 28 and 56 days, respec-
tively, whilst the inclusion of 5% SF showed an enhance-
ment of 90.5%, 126.7%, 127.5%, 63.9% and 60.5%,
respectively. Supit et al. (2014) enhanced the 7 and 28 days
compressive strength of mortars containing 50%, 60% and
70% FA as cement replacement by replacing 8% of FA with
ultra-fine FA. The enhancement in the 28 days compressive
strength was 28.57%, 25% and 22.22%, respectively. Table 3
summarizes the mentioned studies about the effect of SF,
slag, MK and ultra-fine FA on some properties of HVFA
mortar and concrete.
From the above mentioned studies, it can be concluded
that the inclusion of SF in HVFA matrix enhanced the
compressive strength, abrasion resistance as well as
reduced the initial and final setting time. The inclusion of
SF in HVFA concretes reduced the apparent porosity
which was found in HVFA sample, of which the matrix
looks more continuous and compact (Fig. 14). Similar
behaviour was found with the inclusion of SF coupled with
slag. On the other hand, there is a contradictory result
about the effect of slag on HVFA matrix, of which one
study reported a positive effect, whilst another reported a
negative effect. This item still needs more investigations.
The inclusion of MK in HVFA matrix enhanced the
strength due to its high contents of SiO2 and Al2O3 which

Table 3
Effect of SF, slag, MK and ultra-fine FA on some properties of HVFA mortar and concrete.
References % Additive Type Effect
Gesoğlu et al. (2009) 15 SF Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
Zhang and Islam (2012) 1 SF Mortar – Enhanced compressive strength
2 SF Concrete – Reduced setting time
El-Chabib and Ibrahim (2013) 10 SF Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Reduced chloride permeability
10 SF + 30 slag Concrete
Rashad et al. (2014) 10–20 SF Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced abrasion resistance
5 SF + 5 slag Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced abrasion resistance
10 SF + 10 slag Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced abrasion resistance
10–20 slag Concrete – Decreased compressive strength
– Decreased abrasion resistance
Rashad (2015a) 10–20 SF Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced fire resistance up to 600 °C
– Reduced fire resistance beyond 600 °C
Rashad (2015c) 10–20 (SF + slag) – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced fire resistance up to 600 °C
– Reduced fire resistance beyond 600 °C
Rashad (2015b) 10–20 slag – Decreased compressive strength
– Decreased fire resistance
Zhu et al. (2012) 10–30 slag Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced tensile strength
– Enhanced flexural strength
Wei et al. (2007) 5 SF Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
5 MK Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
Supit et al. (2014) 8 ultra-fine FA Mortar – Enhanced compressive strength
300 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
70% FA 60% FA + 10% SF
Fig. 14. SEM micrographs of fracture surface of hardened HVFA without and with SF (Rashad, 2015a).
favours the formation of C2ASH8, beside converting CH to
CSH (Wei et al., 2007).
23.3. Fibres
Siddique et al. (2012) modified compressive strength and
abrasion resistance of concretes containing 50% FA as
cement replacement by adding 0.03–0.05% polyester fibres.
The inclusion of 0.03% fibres enhanced 7, 28 and 56 days
compressive strength by 2.82%, 2.48% and 3.83%, respec-
tively, whilst the inclusion of 0.05% enhanced it by
13.38%, 4.96% and 8%, respectively. The abrasion resis-
tance marginally increased with increasing polyester fibres
content. The abrasion resistance increased by 3.8%, 6.3%
and 10% with the inclusion of 0.03%, 0.04% and 0.05%
fibres, respectively. Patel and Modhera (2010) reported
higher compressive strength by adding 0.25% polyester
fibres to concretes containing 50%, 55% and 60% FA as
cement replacement. At grade of M40, the inclusion of
the fibres enhanced the 3, 7 and 28 days compressive
strength by 5.97%, 11.84% and 14.5%, respectively, in con-
crete specimens containing 50% FA, whilst the enhance-
ment was 5.75%, 8.32% and 12.5%, respectively, in
concrete specimens containing 55% FA. The inclusion of
the fibres enhanced the 3, 7 and 28 days compressive
strength by 6.74%, 8.75% and 12.5%, respectively, in con-
crete specimens containing 60% FA. In another investiga-
tion, Patel and Modhera (2013) reported that the
inclusion of 0.15% and 0.25% polyester fibres in concretes
containing 50%, 55% and 60% FA as cement replacement
increased the chloride penetration resistance. This resis-
tance increased with increasing fibres content. Rohit et al.
(2012) reported that the inclusion of 0.15% and 0.25% of
12 mm triangular shaped polyester fibres increased the flex-
ural strength of concretes containing 50%, 55% and 60% FA
as cement replacement. The inclusion of 0.15% fibres
increased the 7 days flexural strength of concretes contain-
ing 50%, 55% and 60% FA by 2%, 4.11% and 14.29%,
respectively, whilst the enhancement in the 56 days flexural
strength was 5.8%, 8.36% and 13.4%, respectively. The
inclusion of 0.25% fibres increased the 7 days flexural
strength of concretes containing 50%, 55% and 60% FA
by 4.53%, 10.4% and 18.1%, respectively, whilst the
enhancement in the 56 days flexural strength was 18.45%,
50% FA + 20% SF
16.55% and 14.47%, respectively. Sounthararajan and
Sivakumar (2013) reported that the inclusion of 0.5%,
0.75% and 1% steel fibres in concretes containing 50% FA
as cement replacement increased the 7 days compressive
strength by 10.81%, 7.57% and 10.27%, respectively, whilst
the inclusion of steel fibres increased the 28 days compres-
sive strength by 7.3%, 7.46% and 9.2%, respectively. The
28 days splitting tensile strength increased by 21.95%,
20.43% and 38.41% with the inclusion of 0.5%, 0.75% and
1% steel fibres, respectively, whilst the enhancement in the
28 days flexural strength was 21.62% for all levels of steel
fibres. Sahmaran and Yaman (2007) added 60 kg/m3
(12%) of hooked ends steel fibres to concrete containing
50% FA as cement replacement. The inclusion of fibres
enhanced the splitting tensile strength of HVFA concrete
by 9.9% and 10.4% at ages of 28 and 56 days, respectively,
whilst the inclusion of fibres decreased compressive strength
by 15.9% and 14.33%, respectively. Sofi et al. (2013) added
steel fibres to concrete containing 60% FA as cement
replacement. The inclusion of 1.5%, 2% and 2.5% fibres
enhanced the 28 days flexural strength of HVFA concrete
by 27.54%, 34.75% and 37.38%, respectively. Siddique
(2004b) added 0%, 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% of san (Crota-
laria juncea) fibres to concretes containing 45% and 55%
FA as cement replacement. The flexural strength, splitting
tensile strength and impact strength of HVFA concretes
increased with increasing san fibres content. On the other
hand, workability and compressive strength decreased with
increasing san fibre content. The inclusion of san fibres
increased the flexural strength between 5% and 10.8% for
45% FA, whilst they increased the flexural strength between
4% and 9% for 55% FA (Fig. 15). The splitting tensile
strength was enhanced by 9–24% and 8–22% for 45% and
55% FA, respectively. The impact strength increased by
1.5–2 and 1–1.5 times for 45% and 55% FA, respectively.
Siddique (2008b) reported that the inclusion of 0.3%,
0.6% and 0.9% san fibres in concretes containing 50% FA
as cement replacement did not affect significantly the com-
pressive strength, but increased fracture toughness and
impact strength. Table 4 summarizes the mentioned studies
about the effect of fibres on some properties of HVFA mor-
tar and concrete.
From the mentioned studies in this section, it can be
concluded that the inclusion of polyester fibres have
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306 301

pastes could be enhanced by adding suitable dosage of

Fig. 15. Effect of san fibres of flexural strength of HVFA concrete
(Siddique, 2004b).
positive effect on strength and abrasion resistance of
HVFA concrete. fibres acted as crack arrester which
related to their ductility and tensile strength, etc. Thus, ten-
sile strength was improved and abrasion was delayed. Their
contribution in enhancing the compressive strength is not
significant in comparison with tensile and ductility proper-
ties (Siddique et al., 2012).
23.4. Chemical activators
CaCl2. By adding 3% of CaCl2
2H2O, the compressive
strength of the pastes containing 50% FA as cement
replacement increased by approximately 50%, 95% and
70% at ages of 7, 28 and 56 days, respectively. As the
CaCl2
2H2O dosage increased from 3% to 5%, the activa-
tion effect decreased. The addition of 3% CaCl2
2H2O to
pastes containing 70% FA increased the compressive
strength by approximately 90%, 100% and 60% at ages of
7, 28 and 56 days, respectively. Increasing CaCl2
2H2O
dosage from 3% to 5% resulted a reduction in the activa-
tion effect. Antoni et al. (2013) reported that the inclusion
of sodium silicate and NaOH in concretes containing 60%
and 80% FA as cement replacement produced better sul-
phuric acid attack and ion chloride penetration, of which
lower mass loss, lower strength reduction and lower diffu-
sion coefficient were obtained. Younsi et al. (2011) reported
that the inclusion of 0.57% AEA in concrete containing
50% FA as cement replacement can improve compressive
strength and reduce porosity. The enhancement in the 2,
7 and 28 days compressive strength was 63.64%, 32% and
10.56%, respectively. The percentage of porosity decreased
by 14.47% at age of 14 days. Table 5 summarizes the men-
tioned studies about the effect of chemical activators on
some properties of HVFA paste and concrete.

Zhang et al. (2000) reported that the addition of 3%
Na2SO4 to pastes containing 50% and 60% FA could
accelerate the hydration at early ages. Wu et al. (2006)
reported that the compressive strength of HVFA concretes
can be enhanced by adding 1% sulphate. At w/b ratio of
0.25, the addition of 1% sulphate enhanced the 3 days com-
pressive strength by 37.63%, 31.45% and 13.73% with the
inclusion of 50%, 60% and 70% FA, respectively, whilst
the enhancement in the 56 days compressive strength was
26.93%, 28.1% and 29%, respectively. Shi and Qian
(2001) reported that the compressive strength of HVFA
23.5. Other materials
Bentz (2014) tried to solve the problem of longer setting
time of HVFA paste mixtures. FA was partially replaced
with 15% CaCO3, by weight, in paste specimens containing
60% FA. The results showed shorter initial setting time
with the inclusion of CaCO3. The initial setting time
reduced by 40.15%, 35.94% and 38.81% at 15, 25 and
40 °C, respectively. Feng et al. (2006) tried to decrease
the carbonation depth of concrete containing 50% FA by
partially replacing 5% FA with slaked lime. The results

Table 4
Effect of fibres on some properties of HVFA mortar and concrete.
References % Fiber Type Effect
Siddique et al. (2012) 0.03 polyester Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
– Enhanced abrasion resistance
Patel and Modhera (2010) 0.25 polyester Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
Patel and Modhera (2013) 0.15 and 0.25 polyester Concrete – Enhanced chloride penetration resistance
Rohit et al. (2012) 0.15 and 0.25 polyester Concrete – Enhanced flexural strength
Sounthararajan and Sivakumar (2013) 0.5, 0.75 and 1 steel Concrete – Enhanced mechanical strength
Sahmaran and Yaman (2007) 12 hooked ends steel Concrete – Enhanced splitting tensile strength
– Reduced compressive strength
Sofi et al. (2013) 1.5, 2 and 2.5 steel Concrete – Enhanced flexural strength
Siddique (2004b) 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 san Concrete – Enhanced splitting tensile strength
– Enhanced flexural strength
– Enhanced impact strength
– Decreased compressive strength
– Decreased workability
Siddique (2008b) 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 san Concrete – Enhanced fracture toughness strength
– Enhanced impact strength
– No effect on compressive strength
302 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306

Table 5
Effect of chemical activators on some properties of HVFA paste and concrete.
References Additive Type Effect
Zhang et al. (2000) 3% Na2SO4 Paste – Accelerate hydration at early ages
Wu et al. (2006) 1% sulphate Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength
Shi and Qian (2001) 3% CaCl2 Paste – Enhanced compressive strength
5% CaCl2 Paste – Decreased compressive strength
Antoni et al. (2013) 8 M and 14 M sodium silicate + NaOH Concrete – Enhanced sulphuric acid resistance
– Reduced chloride penetration
– Reduced diffusion coefficient
Younsi et al. (2011) 0.57% AEA Concrete – Enhanced compressive strength

showed a reduction in the carbonation depth with the
inclusion of slaked lime. Filho et al. (2013) reported that
the addition 20% of hydrated lime in concrete specimens
containing 50% FA as cement replacement increased the
electrical resistivity by 24.63%, reduced the porosity by
2.73% and reduced the total charge passed (Coulombs)
by approximately 10%. The addition of hydrated lime
almost did not affect the 91 days compressive strength.
Bondar and Coakley (2014) reported that compressive
strength of paste specimens containing 70% FA could be
enhanced by partially replacing 10% FA with cement kiln
dust (CKD). The enhancement in the 2, 7 and 28 days com-
pressive strength was approximately 40%, 29% and 13%,
respectively. They also reported that using gypsum instead
of CKD is not effective at age of 2 days, but can contribute
more effectively at age of 28 days and ages beyond. Bentz
and Ferraris (2010) reported that the addition of 5% cal-
cium hydroxide or 5–10% rapid set cement to paste speci-
mens containing 50% FA as cement replacement could
significantly reduce the setting time that exhibited excessive
retardation. The addition of 5% Ca(OH)2 reduced the ini-
tial and final setting time by 39.53% and 42.16%, respec-
tively, whilst the addition of 5% rapid set cement reduced
it by 61.63% and 55.88%, respectively. The addition of
10% rapid cement reduced the initial and final setting time
by 86% and 83.33%, respectively. McCarthy and Dhir,
2005 blended rapid hardened PC or low energy clinker with
45% FA in concrete mixtures aiming to rise the early age
compressive strength. The results at early ages strength val-
ues were compared with that of plain PC concrete. The
results showed comparable compressive strength, higher
modulus of elasticity, lesser drying shrinkage, creep, intrin-
sic permeability, initial surface absorption and chloride dif-
fusion coefficient values of HVFA concretes compared to
that manufactured from plain PC. Table 6 summarizes
the mentioned studies about the effect of different materials
on some properties of HVFA paste and concrete.
24. Remarks
The current review paper carried out on reviewing the
previous works that investigated the effect of Class F
HVFA (P45%) which used as cement replacement on
some properties of pastes, mortars and concretes. Fresh
properties, hardened properties and durability of matrices
containing Class F HVFA were reviewed. The remarks of
this literature review can be summarized as following:
1. The inclusion of HVFA in the mixture reduced the heat
of hydration, the degree of hydration, bleeding, segrega-
tion, density, but increased workability and setting time.
2. The inclusion of HVFA in the matrix sharply
decreased the mechanical strength and abrasion resis-
tance especially at early ages. The gap of mechanical
strength and abrasion resistance between the HVFA
and the control decreased with increasing curing
age. The mechanical strength and abrasion resistance
decreased with increasing FA content.
3. The inclusion of HVFA in the matrix approximately
did not affect the freeze/thaw resistance, but reduced
drying shrinkage and pH value. The drying shrinkage
and pH value decreased with increasing FA content.

Table 6
Effect of different materials on some properties of HVFA paste and concrete.
References Additive Type Effect
Bentz (2014) 15% CaCO3 Paste – Reduced setting time
Feng et al. (2006) 5% slaked lime Concrete – Enhanced carbonation resistance
Filho et al. (2013) 20% hydrated lime Concrete – Increased electrical resistivity
– Reduced porosity
– No effect on 91 days compressive strength
10% CKD Paste – Enhanced 2, 7 and 28 days compressive strength
10% gypsum Paste – Enhanced 28 days compressive strength
– No effect on 2 days compressive strength
Bentz and Ferraris (2010) 5% Ca(OH)2, or 5–10% rapid set cement Paste – Reduced setting time
McCarthy and Dhir (2005) Rapid cement Concrete – Enhanced early ages compressive strength
 A.M. Rashad / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 4 (2015) 278–306
4. The inclusion of HVFA in the matrix increased the
porosity and the percentage of water absorption, but
decreased the permeability and the chloride ion pene-
tration which can improve the long-term durability.
5. There are contradictory results about the effect of
HVFA on the sorptivity.
6. The inclusion of HVFA in the matrix increased the
sulphate resistance, acid resistance and electrical
resistivity, but decreased the carbonation resistance
and electrical conductivity.
7. 1-5% NS can be used to reduce setting time and
enhance the compressive strength of HVFA matrix
at early ages, but this may reduce the compressive
strength at later ages.
8. HVFA matrix can be modified with 1% NC, of which
sorptivity, permeability voids and chloride ion perme-
ability can be reduced, whilst the 7 and 28 days com-
pressive strength can be increased.
9. The inclusion of 10–20% SF or SF coupled with slag
in HVFA matrix can be used to modify the abrasion
resistance, compressive strength and fire resistance up
to 600 °C. 8% Ultra-fine FA, 5% MK can be used to
enhance the compressive strength of HVFA matrix.
On the other hand, there are contradictory results
about the effect 10–20% slag on HVFA matrix.
10. 0.15–0.25% polyester fibres and 0.5–1% steel fibres
can be used to enhance mechanical properties of
HVFA matrix. The inclusion of 0.25–0.9% san fibres
in HVFA matrix increased splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength, impact strength and fracture tough-
ness, but decreased workability and compressive
strength.
11. The inclusion of different chemical activators such as
3–5% sulphate and 3% CaCl2 in HVFA matrix can
accelerate the hydration and enhance the compressive
strength, whilst the inclusion of 8–14 M sodium sili-
cate + NaOH reduced the chloride penetration,
reduced the diffusion coefficient and increased the
acid resistance.
12. 15% CaCO3, 5% slaked lime, 20% hydrated lime, 10%
CKD, 10% gypsum, 5% Ca(OH)2 and 5–10% rapid
set cement can be used to enhance the compressive
strength of HVFA matrix.
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