MATERIAL SCIENCE

Material-Anything that occupies space and has some properties which will split under a given
category.
Material science-Study of materials in terms of their properties and applications
Fields of application
i. Communication and entertainment
ii. Industrial applications
iii. Medicine
iv. Instrumentation
v. Astronomy
vi. Biometrics
vii. Training
viii. Entertainment
Communication and entertainment
 Mobile phones
 Satellites
 Computers
 TVs and Radios
 Cameras
 Robots
 Trends
Medicine
 X rays
 Mammogram
 Ultra sound scanners
 Heart pacers
 Microscopes
 Radar

Industrial
 Lifts

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  Conveyors
 Robots
 Motors
 SCADA
 Computers
Military
 Electrically guided missiles
 Computers
 Simulators
 Lasers
 Autopilots
 Radar
Astronomy
 Telescopes
 Computers
 Satellites
 Space stations
 Space ships
 Robots
 Space suits
 Weather balloons
 Radiometers
Biometrics-Use of human features to develop systems
Features
-Retina -Face
-Finger prints -Thermogram
-Voice -DNA
-Blood -Smile
-Palm -odor
-Walking styles -Handwriting

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-BMI -Body structure
Training
Computers
Projectors
Robots
Video interfacing
E-learning
Trends in terms of materials
Use of AI
 Materials with memory
 Sensors and effectors
 MEMS microelectromechanical systems MEMS
 Pielectric materials
 Size mobile phones
 Power consumption and dispensation and educing
Historical perspective of material science
 Stone age
 Bronze age
 Iron age
 Steel age
 Space/electronics age
Stone Age
Stones were being used as tools
Use of skin and wood for shelter and clothing
Bronze Age
Used for tools instruments
Steel age
Industrial revolution
Electronic space
Started in 1940’s semiconductors technology
Invention of a diode

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Matter
Is anything that occupies space and has weight?
There are two types of mater physical and chemical
Physical
This deals with the appearance of matter. There are three types i.e. solid liquid and gas
Solid
Have a definite shape/volume
Have very strong intermolecular forces
Are compact
They do not flow
Examples
All metals except mercury, wood, stones and plastic rubber
Chemical state
Deals with the internal properties of matter.
There are three types. Element, compound and mixture
Element
A pure substance with some kind of atoms e.g. hydrogen, helium, beryllium, boron, carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur,
argon, potassium, calcium
NB
Group 3, 4&5 elements are very important in the advancement of electronics
Compound
A chemical combination of two or more elements e.g. H2O, NaCl,Na2CO3,Hydrogen Peroxide,
Acids, Alcohol.
Mixtures
A physical combination of two or more elements or compounds
Examples air, milk, crude oil, alloys
Atoms
Smallest particle of an element that cannot be broken down any further and retain its chemical
properties

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 Molecules-Smallest particle of a compound that cannot be broken down and maintain its
physical properties
Orbit
Neil Bohr’s Theory
Atomic model Proton

Electron

Neutron

Forbidden band

Nucleus

1. Nucleus-Is the innermost part of an atom which contains protons and neutrons. It contributes
by the highest percent the weight of the atom
2. Protons-These are positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
3. The neutrons-Are particles that do not have change. Their weight is almost the same as that
of the protons the mass of a proton
4. Electrons are negatively charged particles revolving around the nucleus in a specified orbits
5. Orbits-A pathway for electrons. At times referred to as quantum energy levels
6. Shell-it is a section of an atom where the electrons can exist. It consists of subshells and
electrons. The number of subshells in a shell is equivalent to the shell number. Number of
electrons in a shell is given by 2n2 n=number of shell number three
7. Subshells-A subsection where electrons exist. Several form the orbit or shells depending on
the shell number in a subshell ( ) where m= subshell number
Subshell number will have ( )
8. Forbidden gap/band-It is the section where the electrons cannot exist .It separates two
shells.it determines the electrical properties of materials.

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 Neil Borl Theories
1. Electrons revolves round the nucleus in specified orbits, without emitting or absorbing the
energy
2. When an electron transits from one energy level to another it either emits or absorbs energy

Planks constant
Frequency
3. The angular momentum is given by

Pauli’s exclusion principle

No more than one electron can exist in the same quantum energy level
There are other models which discusses about an atom
They include
1. Summerfield models
2. Vector atom model
The Neil Bohr’s is the most commonly used though it has disadvantages
It is not applied in more complex atoms. Mostly deals with the hydrogen atom
Classification and selection of materials
Selection of materials
In most engineering applications, the selection of materials can be classified as
 Manufacturing
 Functional
 Operational
 Cost
Manufacturing
This deals with the case with which the material is transformed or moulded.For instance the
following are considered

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 i. Machinability
ii. Ductility
iii. Malleability
iv. Finishing
Functional
Deals with the functionality of the products that come from the material
The factors considered include
i. Strength
ii. Hardness
iii. Toughness
iv. Resistance
Operational
Deals with the environmental conditions to which the product from the material is exposed to
operating conditions. They include
i. Temperature
ii. Pressure
iii. Humidity
iv. Friction
Costs
Deals with the monetary and also time cost
This includes
i. Raw material
ii. Production
iii. Storage/warehouse
iv. Transportation
v. Tax cost
vi. Advertisement
vii. Maintenance
viii. Insurance
ix. Power

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General material properties
The material properties are classified into the following categories
i. Electrical
ii. Mechanical
iii. Thermal
iv. Magnetic
v. Optical
vi. Chemical
vii. Structure
Electrical properties
The electrical properties will include conductivity and resistivity of materials. Helps in
classifying materials in terms of the ability to conduct i.e. good conductors, insulators and semi-
conductors
Mechanical properties
Deals with different properties e.g. strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, wear resistance,
density
Thermal properties
Deals with the way materials interact with heat energy includes thermal conductivity, specific
heat, heat capacity, thermal resistance, thermal expansion
Magnetic properties
Deals with magnetic properties e.g. (Dipole arrangement) diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, ferromagnetic
Others are cohesive forces and permeability
Optical properties-deals with the way materials interact with light energy
Includes the refractive index, reflectivity, absorption, and coefficient.
Chemical properties-They include the internal properties of a material e.g. atomic number,
atomic weights, and electrons in the outer shells, acidity and alkalinity of the material
Structural properties-Deals with the build up of the material. They include the size, alloys and
composites
Classification of materials
Materials are mostly classified according to their properties and applications

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Different classifications that we have in engineering materials include
i. Metals
ii. Ceramics
iii. Polymers
iv. Composites
v. Semiconductors
vi. Biomaterials
vii. Advanced materials
viii. Smart materials
ix. Biological materials
Metals
Materials that can conduct electricity and heat energy.
Classified into 2 main categories i.e. ferrous and non-ferrous
Ferrous
Have elements of iron in them
Include iron and its components or alloys
They are magnetic materials
Ferrite is commonly used when magnetism is required.
Non ferrous
 These are metals that do not have iron
 Include Cu, Al, Au
 Most have application in heat and electrical conduction
 Al commonly used in heat sink application and overhead cable
 Preferred because of their conductivity and weight
 Cu preferred as conductive lines or they are better conductors than Al
 Gold and Silver preferred in small area of application like metal contacts of integrated
circuits
Ceramics
 These are materials formed as oxides e.g. SiO2 and burnt clay
 Applied in insulation
 SiO2-commonly used in the development of field transistors

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  Also applied in the development of capacitors
Polymers
Also referred to as organic materials
Form complex structures of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Developed using polymerization
Two types
-Thermoplastics
Thermosetting
Thermoplastics-Materials that when exposed to heat become soft then hard when the heat is
removed include nylons and polyethene
Thermosetting-They do not get soft and then hard when exposed to heat energy e.g. PVC, they
are commonly used as insulators for wires carrying electricity
Composites
Materials that are obtained by combining two or more materials.
Include alloys, carbon combined with other materials to form composite resistors
They take the properties of the materials that have been combined
Semi-conductors
Materials that have electrical properties between the conductors and the insulators
Contributed a lot in the electronic age revolution
Applied in electrical and electronic equipment
Include silicon, germanium
The N-types and P-type materials are the basic building block of all semi conducting devices up
to processor.
Biological materials
Materials that have been obtained from plants or animals
Include leather (skin) wood, limestone, horns, Bones
Applied in the textile industries shoes, bags
Applied in the manufacture of glue (Bones)
Limestone-cement
Biomaterials
Materials that is compatible with the human body parts

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Include all materials mentioned above
Commonly implanted in the human body.
Smart materials
Materials that sense their surrounding and change accordingly.
Include sensors effects, MEMS, NEMS
e.g. mem resistors, piezoelectric
Quantum dots
Materials
These are considered to be the level of particles in atom including electrons
These are zero dimensions
Construction of devices started with 3D, 2D, 1D, 0D.
The future is in 0D where the devices will be developed at quantum level of particles.
Electrical properties of materials
These are properties that determine the ability of a material to allow current to pass through.
There are several of these properties that are used to classify these materials.
They include
Number of free electrons
Bonding
Number of electrons in the outer shell atomic number and group in the periodic table
Forbidden bond size
Energy gap
Resistance
Resistivity
Temperature
Dielectric properties.
1. Number of free electrons
These are the number of electrons that are free in the materials it to conduct electricity.
The more the number of free electrons the more the conductivity of the material.
2. Number of the electrons in the outer shell
From the atomic theory the number of the electrons in the outer shell determines the group of a
material in the periodic table.

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If a material has less than 4 then it is classified as a good conductor.
4 electrons will be a semiconductor and more than four electrons is an insulator.
3. Bonding
This is the way the atoms are held together.
It is also how the electrons are strongly held at their position in relation to the nucleus
There are different types of bonding which include
 Ionic
 Covalent
 Metallic
This can also determine the classification of the materials
4. Forbidden bond
This appears when dealing with the cross section of an atom of an element
Where this bond is in between the valence and conduction band.

Conduction band

Forbidden band

Valence band

The size of the energy levels determines the electrical properties of the material.
The smaller it is the more the conductivity.
5. Energy Gap(Eg)
This is the energy required to enable an electron to transits from the valence band to the CB.
It is measured in electron volts (eV)
It is related to the forbidden band in that the larger the band the more the energy that will be
required to enable an electron t transits from the VB to the CB
6. Resistance
The opposition of the flow of current by a conducting material

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Measured in ohms
By ohms law, it is given by

Where
V-Voltage
I-Current
It depends on the following factors
 Length(m)
 Cross sectional area( )
 resistivity( )
 temperature(k)
The more the length the more the resistance
The more the areas the less the resistance proportional.
The more the resistivity, the more the resistance (direct proportionality)
The more the temperature, the more the resistance i.e. for a conductor

The temperature affects the resistivity in a way that it is given by

Total resistivity

Resistivity at a given temperature

Constant depends on the material

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For a conductor the current density is given by

Where

-electric field

Conductance: The process of allowing current to pass through the inverse of resistance.

Measured in Mohr’s( ) or siemens( )

Resistivity ( )

The ability of a current to oppose the flow of a current.

Measured in ohms meters ( )

It depends on several factors which include

 temperature
 impurities
 plastic deformation
 pressure

The more the temperature the more the resistivity.

There are is a linear relation from -2000C as one increases the temperature

Impurities

In most cases the impurities increases the resistivity of materials. This feature is discussed under
alloys since two or more materials are physically combined.

This is because of the resulting structure after combination.

For semiconductor materials; Their resistivity will decrease after adding impurities.

Plastic deformation-Deformation is where the atoms are dislocated. It increases the resistivity of
a material since they are not able to move freely.

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Pressure this is the process of applying force on a material. This also increases the resistivity of a
material since the atoms will not be in their regular position.

The more the resistivity the less the conductance of a material

conductivity( )

This is the ability of a material to allow current to pass through.

Measured in OR

RESISTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Intrinsic conduction

Equilibrium there is the positive and the negative carrier in these materials at a given temperature

The rate of the combination

Where

Negative charge carriers

Positive charge carrier

Gamma is a constant.

The rate of generation is given by

Intrinsic concentration

In thermal equilibrium the two are the same

In intrinsic conduction considering negative charge carriers

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Where

Negative charge carriers

Electron charge

Electron mobility

Positive charge carriers

Hole mobility

Total conductivity

( )

( )

( )

( )

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 ( )

This is referred to as sheet resistance

Conductance

G=
( )

( )

Resistance of a diffused layer (extrinsic semiconductor)

At equilibrium

Taking donors, their concentration is given by

Replacing n with Nd

P=

Taking a uniformly diffused layer of the following structure we can calculate its resistance

Resistance is given by

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Sheet resistance n given by N-types

Similarly for p-type

Conductance (G)

For N-type material

None uniformly diffused layer

No(X)
18
10

1015 X

dx Xj

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Using the conductance

( )

Integrating both sides

∫ ∫ ( )

∫ ( )

∫ ( )

̅̅̅

( )

Resistance

̅̅̅ ∫ ( )

̅̅̅ ∫ ( )

7. Dielectric properties

Dielectric is a material that affects electric field

The dielectric properties include

 dielectric constant
 dielectric strength
 less tangent
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Dielectric constant

This is the ability of a material to affect the electric field

Given by permittivity( ) epsilon

The same as relative permittivity

Permittivity can be used with the most insulating materials.

There are different formula which apply it including

To put two charges

Where

Force between the point charges

Pt charge

Permittivity

-Distance between two charges

Electric field E

Electric field density (D)

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Loss tangent

An electric is not supposed to allow current to pass through if there is a leakage of current, if
loses dielectric (insulating) properties.

This parameter indicates the capability of a material not to leak any current

Given by

Dielectric strength

Ability of a material to withstand electric field applied across its terminals (two ends).

If the material is not able to withstand the electric field then it breaks down and starts
conducting.

This is sometimes called intrinsic breakdown

The relation between the electric field applied the breakdown voltage and the thickness of the
material is given by

In

-breakdown electric field

Breakdown voltage

Thickness of the material

The units are volts per metre.But in most cases given by

, , or

All the above properties result into classification of materials in terms of electrical behavior.

The classifications are given by

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  conductors
 insulators
 semiconductors

Conductors

They allow current to pass through

Characteristics

 have free electrons

 have metallic bonds
 fall in groups 1-3 of the periodic table
 have very small or no forbidden band since VB & CB overall sometimes
 have a very small or no energy gap
 Temperature increase increases resistance of the material at 00C these materials act as
super conductors.
 The resistivity of these materials ranges between

They don’t exhibit dielectric properties

Example

All metals

Aluminum 0.0265Ω

Copper-0.0172 Ω

Insulators

Materials that do not allow current to pass through

Characteristics

 No free electrons
 Have covalent(ionic bonds)
 Fall in group 5-8
 Have a large forbidden band
 Have a very large energy gap
 Increase in temperature in some cases reduces resistance but to a very small extent. In
most cases temperature doesn’t affect the resistance of the insulators
 Resistivity ranges from
 The slow dielectric properties

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Examples

Rubber and its products (PVC)

Plastic, polyethene and ceramic

Semi-conductors

Materials that partially allow current to pass through

Characteristics

Moderate number of free electrons

Have covalent bonds from crystalline structure

Fall in group four

They have a medium sized forbidden band

Have a moderate energy gap

e.g. <3eV

Increase in temperature decreases resistance. Negative temperature coefficient. At 00C a

semiconductor behaves as insulators.

Resistivity ranges from between

They exhibit some dielectric properties (minimal levels)

Examples include

Carbon

Silicon

Germanium

Compounds e.g. N-type-type, Gallium Arsenic (GaAs)

Gallium Phosphide (GaP)

There are two categories

Intrinsic

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Pure

Have crystalline structure

Silicon is commonly used because it is readily available also has a stronger electrical strengths
minimal leakage current

Germanium bette in solar panels

Extrinsic

Have impurities-have been doped

Two types N-types

P-types

Other materials include

 Super ionic conductors

 Dielectric
 Ferroelectrics
 Thermoelectric
 Piezoelectric
 Electrostrictions
 Magnetic electric

Superionic conductors

Are solids that show electrical properties similar to electrolytes?

Electrolytes liquids that conduct through electrolysis

Conduct through electrolysis

Are materials are comely used in power generation for low level voltage and current ex is in a
cell

Dielectric

Materials that affect the electrical field

They are also called insulators

Mica ceramic, air, depletion layers etc.

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Ferroelectric

These are the materials that show spontaneous polarization.

Polarization-This is a phenomenon where a material exhibits electrical properties i.e. positive

and negative

The electrical dipoles i.e. positive and negative orient themselves in a way that the material will
have two polarities i.e. positive and negative

Example is an electrolyte capacitor that has permanent polarities i.e. positive which means they
need to be conducted in a specific way in a circuit

These materials when exposed to an electric field their polarization will change.

The behavior can be analyzed using hysteric curve (loop)

P
Cohesive force

Polarization

The curve describes the behavior of a ferroelectric material when exposed to electric field.

After the material gets polarized one can be able to reduce the polarization to zero by using a
coercive force

Occurs below a temperature called the Curie temperature

Above the Curie temperature materials shows a linear relation then between polarization and
applied electric field
P

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Polar electric relationship above curie temp

The rate of polarization depends on the electric susceptibility of the material

Electrical susceptibility

Curies constant

Current temperature

Pyro electric

This is a property of a material which enables it to respond to heat changes

When heat is applied to the material produces some voltage due to the orientation of the dipoles

These materials can be used to save heat energy.

Thermoelectric

This is a property where a material transforms variations of temperature to electric energy

A temperature gradient will result to voltage.

These materials are used to serve temperature

Specific applications being in thermeter, very small voltage generations changes in temperature

Electrostriction

A concept where when electric energy is applied to a material it undergoes deformation.

This property is not reversible (Deformation cannot result to electric energy)

This can be applied in sensors. Electrochemical systems (MEMS)

Piezo dentricity

At times retrieved to as pressure electricity

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This is a concept where when pressure is applied to a material it results to electric energy
(voltage)

For this case, the reverse is possible where applications of the electric energy across the material
will cause deformation

Example is quarts which are commonly used in applications that require change of electric
energy to mechanical or pressure and vice versa.

Also commonly applied in MEMS

Electromagnetic material

These are materials that when exposed to electric energy they result to magnetic energy and vice
versa.

For instance passing current through a conductor will result to magnetic induction.

Several principles have been in different applications related to this concept which includes
flemmings rules, faraday, lenz’s and Maxwell’s equations

Bio electromagnetism

This is a concept that deals with the response of living organisms to electric magnetic properties.

Magnetism

Sources of magnetic properties i.e.

 Orbiting
 Spins
 Nucleus

Terminologies

Magnetic induction/magnetic flux density( )

Magnification

Magnetic susceptibility

Magnetic dipole

Factors that affect the magnetic properties of materials

 Temperature
 Impurities

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  Pressure
 Permeability
 Deformation
 Length
 Number of turns

NB-Relate everything to what was done in an electrical.

Classification of magnetic materials

 Diamagnetic
 Paramagnetic
 Ferromagnetic
 Antiferromagnetic
 Ferromagnetic
 Magnetrostriction

Differentiate between hard and soft magnetism

Etching

1. Magnetic induction/Magnetic flux density

Impresence of magnetic field in a vacuum is related to the field.

Field strength

2. Magnetic field

3. Magnetization
( )
4. Magnetic susceptibility-magnitude of magnetization is proportional to applied field as
follows

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 5. Magnetic dipoles-Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic material which is to
electronic dipoles.

Strength of magnetic dipole=pole strength distance between poles (magnetic moment)

Sources of magnetic moments

Orbital magnetic moment of electrons. Spin magnetic moment of electrons

1. Diamagnetism

Weak form of magnetism exhibited by substances with a negative magnetic

susceptibity.Substances that magnetize in a direction opposite to that of an applied electric
field.Benzene, Silver, Gold and copper

H=0 H

Induction
ferro

para

Vacuum

diam

Magnetic field(H)
2. Paramagnetism

Exhibited by substances which when placed in a magnetic field are magnetized parallel to the
field to an extent proportional to the field.

H=0

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Net magnetic moment per atom=

3. Ferromagnetism-Exhibited by certain metal alloys and compounds of transition.

All ferromagnetic materials exhibit para magnetic behavior above their ferromagnetic curie
point.

Materials exhibit special form of ferromagnetisms below Curie temperature called

ferrimagnetism

H=0

4. Antiferromagnetic-originates when spin moments of neighboring atoms arte ordered in

antiparallel arrangement e.g. manganese oxide
Magnetic moments cancels one another as a result solid as a whole possess a number of
magnetic current

5. Magnetostriction changes in length of a substance when magnetized.

6. Ferrimagnetism-e.g. ceramics-ferrites

Atoms may be antiterromagnetically coupled but with different magnetic moments giving rise to
net magnetic moment and could not result to magnetization

Temperature on a magnetic field

Saturation magnetization decreases with increase in temperature

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Domain and hysteresis

Domain region of small volume where there is a mutually alignment in the same direction of all
magnetic moments
B

Hysterisis loop

H H

Magnetic flux density vs. magnetic field strength for a Ferro that is subjected to forward and
reverse saturations

Soft magnetic material

Low loss and high permeability. Easily magnetized and demagnetized. iron, low carbon and steel

Hard magnetic material

Utilized in permanent magnets

Etching

Process of removing unwanted sections that have been exposed to photo lithography.

a. Wet etching

Use of a sole which can react with exposed part removing it

b. Dry etching

Use of ions or gases to remove unwanted sections

Dielectric-This is a material that affects the electric field

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 a. Dielectric constant-Ability to affect the electric field
b. Loss tangent-Capacity of a material not to leak any current
c. Dielectric strength-Ability of a material to withstand electric field applied across its
terminals

Categories of dielectrics

 Simple dielectrics
 Paradielectrics
 Ferro electrics

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