LV30 Suspension Systems

kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:37 am Page 33
Student Workbook
LV30
Suspension
Systems (2)
LV30/SWB
Student Workbook for Technical Certificates in
Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
MODULE LV30
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS (2)
Contents
Page Page
Forces Acting on Suspension: 3 Independent front and rear

Torque reaction in a live axle 4 suspension 22
Brake reaction on a live axle 5 Progress check 4 23
Forces on leaf spring during Hydro-pneumatic and air suspension 24
cornering 5 Progress check 5 25
Bump steering effect of leaf sprung Routine suspension maintenance
live axle 6 checks 26
Limitations of leaf spring suspension 7 IFS layout – front wheel 27
Progress check 1 8 IFS layout – rear wheel 27
Typical forces in an independent Rear suspension with leaf spring 28
suspension 9 Exercise 3 29
Exercise 1 11 Check for component wear 30
Exercise 2 12 Progress check 6 32
Use of an offset spring to reduce
bending forces in the stub axle 13 Identification of Common Faults
Progress check 2 14 Associated with Suspension
Suspension system terminology 15 Systems: 33
Progress check 3 18 Common suspension system faults
and common causes 33
Compliance 19 Damper bounce test 34
Progress check 7 36
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Different Suspension Systems: 20
Non-independent rigid axle
suspension 20
Disadvantages of non-independent
suspension systems 21
-1-
Copyright © Automotive Skills Limited 2003 LV30: Suspension Systems (2) Issue 1
All Rights Reserved
-2-
All Rights Reserved
Forces Acting on Suspensions
Newton’s third law of motion tells us that forces always act in “pairs” of equal
and opposite forces. It states that “To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.”
This can be seen in the picture which shows a car towing another car.
A B
A is the action or force applied by the tow car and B is the opposing force or
reaction in the towrope caused by the mass or weight of the second car.
The statement, “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”,
should be considered when looking at the forces in a suspension system.
The suspension has to resist the following forces:
• forces produced by driving torque from the transmission
• forces produced when brakes are applied
• forces produced during cornering
• plus the normal forces produced in the suspension as the vehicle

negotiates bumps on the road surface.
-3-
All Rights Reserved
Torque reaction in a live axle
The illustration shows what happens to the axle and leaf springs when drive is
passed to the wheels.
Action of “axle
tramping”
As the torque is applied to the wheels they are reluctant to turn due to the
inertia of the car. Therefore there is a tendency for the axle to twist in the
opposite direction and “wind up” the springs as shown.
The torque is applied to move the wheels in a forward direction but the axle
tends to twist in a reverse direction, i.e. action and reaction. This causes the
leaf springs to bend in the direction shown, as they resist the torque reaction.
If the springs were not there to resist this force, then instead of the wheels
rotating forwards, the axle would rotate backwards, as this is the line of least
resistance.
Under severe conditions the springs will “wind up” until the wheels spin. This
releases the torque reaction in the springs as the force due to the driving
torque is lost. Remember that if there is no action or load, then there will be
no reaction. The axle is returned to its normal position by the springs, wheel
adhesion is reapplied and the action is repeated. This cyclic action of “wind
up” and release is repeated causing “axle tramp”.
-4-
All Rights Reserved
Brake reaction on a live axle
The red line

shows the curve
of the spring
under braking
When the brakes are applied the wheels and axle tend to rotate as one in the
same direction. This causes the springs to be bent in the direction shown i.e.
in the opposite direction to the way they bend when resisting torque reaction.
Forces on leaf spring during cornering
When a vehicle corners, the centrifugal force and opposing cornering force
cause the springs to bend laterally or sideways slightly. It is the cornering
force on the tyre that causes the vehicle to turn a corner. A Panhard rod or
lateral control rod is sometimes used to eliminate this bending of the spring.
-5-
All Rights Reserved
A Panhard rod is shown and in this example it is used on a live axle that is
suspended on coil springs. However it can be used to good effect on a leaf
spring suspended live axle.
Springs bending
laterally
Centrifugal
force
Cornering force opposing centrifugal force
The effects of cornering forces on a leaf spring suspended live axle are shown
in this diagram. The lateral, or sideways, bending that takes place also moves
the axle in this direction slightly. This will have an adverse affect on the
steering and road holding of the vehicle. We shall see later some other
disadvantages of the simple leaf sprung rigid axle.
Bump steering effect of leaf sprung live axle
Distance a is greater than b causing rear axle to steer
The action of a leaf sprung live axle passing over road surface bumps can
cause a steering effect to take place on the axle.
-6-
All Rights Reserved
Vehicle roll during cornering can cause a similar steering effect since the
inside spring is effectively in the rebound position and the spring on the
outside of the curve is under bump conditions. These effects are called bump
steer and roll steer respectively. Bump steer and roll steer can occur with
independent suspension systems. However, it more noticeable and the
effects are greater with the rigid leaf sprung axle, which is a very basic design
that has its roots in the horse drawn cart.
The reason for this bump steer (and roll steer) is shown here. As the wheel
moves upwards the leaf spring is flattened and the leading part of the spring,
from the fixed shackle, becomes longer. See (a) in the diagram. The centre
line of the axle is thus moved away from its normal position of 90 degrees to
the front/rear or longitudinal axis of the vehicle. This causes a steering effect
to take place in much the same way as the steering on a horse drawn cart in
pre-Ackermann days.
In addition, during roll conditions the spring on the other side moves down
which causes the front part of the spring to shorten, see (b) in the diagram.
Limitations of leaf spring suspension
As covered in Phase 1 Suspension Systems LV16 the fact that the leaf spring
has to carry out two tasks means that it has limitations as a suspension
system.
-7-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 1
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the two functions that a leaf spring has to perform?
2. Why does it not carry out these functions ideally?
-8-
All Rights Reserved
Typical forces in an independent suspension
The next few diagrams show typical forces produced in an independent

suspension system during driving, braking and cornering. A MacPherson strut
IFS (right hand) has been chosen for simplicity but the principles can be
applied to any type IFS or IRS.
Bending force
on strut Centrifugal
force
Wishbone in tension
Opposing
cornering force
The first diagram illustrates the forces in the suspension as the vehicle
negotiates a right turn.
Note: Direction of the centrifugal force due to cornering and the opposing
cornering force applied to the wheel at the road surface.
Look at the direction of the forces produced in the suspension components.
-9-
All Rights Reserved
Bending force on
strut Centrifugal
force
Wishbone in
compression
Opposing cornering
force
This diagram shows the forces in the suspension components as the vehicle
goes round a left hand corner.
Note: The forces are all acting in the opposite direction to those produced
when rounding a right hand corner and the wishbone is in compression
instead of tension.
The wishbone and the inner bushes have the same forces applied as shown
in the above diagram.
-10-
All Rights Reserved
D.O.R. Bending
forces on
strut
Forces on
wishbone
Braking Vehicle
force momentum
The diagram shows the forces in the MacPherson strut during braking.
Note: The two opposing forces produced by the vehicle momentum as it tries
to continue moving forward, and the braking force between tyre and road.
The forces in the suspension are generated by the wheel and hub assembly
trying to rotate as one unit as the brakes are applied. The greater the braking
effort the greater will be the forces produced.
Exercise 1
Look at the slide which shows the forces acting on the suspension due to
torque reaction.
Draw a front wheel drive system that uses a MacPherson Strut and indicate
the forces that are applied during braking.
-11-
All Rights Reserved
Exercise 2
Forces acting on suspension – torque reaction
The torque reaction is different from a rigid axle since there is little friction in
the stub axle. Most of the torque reaction that takes place as the drive is
applied to the wheels is taken up by the engine mountings, as the engine unit
tends to rotate in the opposite direction to the crankshaft. Most of the forces
are in the wishbone due to the opposing driving force and the inertia of the
car. Imagine the wheel trying to move forwards and leaving the car behind.
This diagram shows a non-driven MacPherson strut.
Indicate the following:
a) driving force
b) inertia
c) forces acting upon the wishbone.
-12-
All Rights Reserved
Use of an offset spring to reduce bending forces in the stub axle
This diagram shows how the coil spring in a MacPherson strut is offset from
the damper unit. This is to reduce bending forces in the stub axle area due to
normal vertical movements of the suspension. The spring is offset from the
damper unit centre line but is almost concentric with the swivel axis. Some
non-driven struts have a much simpler stub and it not necessary to offset the
spring. Older designs of MacPherson strut suspensions do not use offset
springs.
-13-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 2
Answer the following questions:
1. Under what type of driving conditions do most of the bending forces

take place on a MacPherson strut?
2. Why is the coil spring mounted in an offset position on some

MacPherson struts?
3. Is this offset spring position normally used on driven or non-driven

struts and why?
-14-
All Rights Reserved
Suspension system terminology
Upward movement of the

suspension is called
bump
Downward movement
is called rebound
Vehicle movement on the suspension takes place about three axes. Vertical
movement about the vertical axis is called bump and rebound, or bouncing.
Horizontal rotation about the vertical axis.
This is called yawing and is an undesirable characteristic. Suspension

designers try to eliminate yawing as it leads to vehicle instability. Increasing
the lateral or sideways stiffness of the suspension layout and vehicle does
this. IFS and IRS systems have greater lateral stiffness than a simple live
axle and low profile tyres also improve this desirable characteristic.
-15-
All Rights Reserved
This diagram shows a vehicle yawing.
Rotation about the longitudinal axis is shown above. This is called rolling and
is controlled by anti-roll bars and spring settings. The wider the track and the
lower the centre of gravity the less is the tendency for the vehicle to roll.
Consider a Formula 1 car that has virtually no roll. However some degree of
roll is desirable to provide “feel” to a vehicle’s handling and prevent the driver
becoming over confident.
-16-
All Rights Reserved
Rotation about the transverse axis. This is called pitching and is controlled by
spring and damper settings.
A vehicle with a long wheelbase is less prone to pitching and vice-versa. This
shows a vehicle pitching and the second diagram illustrates the action of pitch
diving under braking.
Action of dive pitching under braking
Sophisticated anti-dive suspension geometry can eliminate most of the

unwanted characteristics and prevents the front of the vehicle lifting under
acceleration.
This diagram summarises suspension movement terminology.
-17-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 3
Answer the following question:
Name the vehicle motion for the diagrams below?
-18-
All Rights Reserved
Compliance
Direction
of travel
Resulting
force on
IFS
This term is used to describe the amount of “give” in a suspension system

usually in the rubber bushes. It can be used to advantage to induce a degree
of rear wheel steering that can help vehicle cornering and improve the stability
of the vehicle. This diagram shows the natural compliance that occurs in most
suspension systems that employ rubber bushes.
-19-
All Rights Reserved
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Suspension
Systems
Non-independent rigid axle suspension
Front axle
Rear axle
A typical front and rear axle is shown.
This type of suspension has many disadvantages, but it also has some
advantages:
• very simple design
• very strong and an asset for four wheel drive utility vehicles
• left and right hand wheels always remain parallel to each other.
Note: The simple design of these two axles, which are shown in their basic
form, i.e. multi-leaf spring, no anti-roll bars and no Panhard rods.
The action of a live axle non-independent suspension layout is shown.
Refer to this diagram when considering the disadvantages of this type of

suspension.
Vertical movement of RH wheel causes the

axle, body and LH wheel to move
-20-
All Rights Reserved
Disadvantages of non-independent suspension systems
Limited spring deflection. This is partly due to the need for over stiff springs
needed so that they can perform their secondary role of locating the axle.
Other reasons are the lack of space for the spring and axle to move vertically
without fouling the chassis, plus the need to limit the camber angle change, if
one wheel was allowed to move too much. This last point is less important
with four-wheel drive off-road vehicles but they are not noted for their road
holding capabilities.
Inaccurate control of steering geometry. This occurs mainly because of the

relatively poor axle location, covered previously in the workbook, and the fact
that movement of one wheel causes the other wheel to move.
Poor roll stiffness, due mainly to the springs being relatively close together.
High un-sprung weight. Components that follow the road surface are
classified as un-sprung weight, e.g. wheels, rigid axles and part of the weight
of springs and dampers. The greater the un-sprung weight, the greater the
tendency for the wheel to leave the road surface because of the increased
momentum. Also because of the increased inertia of the suspension, the
wheel will be less likely to follow the road surface.
Engine has to be mounted high up in the frame to ensure the axle does not
foul the sump.
-21-
All Rights Reserved
Independent front and rear suspension
This type of suspension addresses most of the disadvantages of the rigid axle
suspension e.g:
• Increased spring deflection and therefore ride comfort - due to the

suspension design.
• Accurate control of steering geometry and therefore reduced bump steer

and roll steer. This is due to the suspension design which maintains the
wheels in the correct position with little or no change in geometry as the
wheels follow the road surface.
• Improved roll stiffness as the springs tend to move further apart, plus the
extensive use of anti-roll bars.
• Reduced un-sprung weight giving improved wheel to road contact and

therefore road holding. This is due to the suspension design involving
lighter moving parts and greater wheel to road contact.
• Greater flexibility regarding engine positioning in frame.
Un-sprung weight consists of; the weight of the

wheels, half the weight of the springs, dampers and
drive shafts and less than half the weight of the
suspension arms and anti-roll bars
This diagram illustrates which parts of the independent suspension system

are un-sprung weight.
-22-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 4
Answer the following:
1. Give four advantages of independent suspension systems:
2. Give two advantages of rigid axles:
-23-
All Rights Reserved
Hydro-pneumatic and air suspension
These suspensions systems are complex and relatively expensive.
They have the following advantages:
• constant ride height
• variable spring rate, which is dependent on load
• reduced body roll
• reduced pitching
• ride height can be automatically lowered with electronic control of air

suspension giving improved road holding.
A layout of a car air suspension system is shown.
Note: The suspension design is almost the same as a normal IFS and IRS
system except for the air springs and control actuators (levelling valves).
-24-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 5
Give three advantages of air suspension on a car:
-25-
All Rights Reserved
Routine suspension maintenance checks
These checks are relatively simple and are as follows:
• check security of suspension fittings and components
• check operation of dampers
• check ride heights
• check for wear and leaks.
This shows a typical vehicle under body and indicates the components that
need routine checking for tightness. The following two diagrams show
tightening checks that have to be carried out on typical IFS and IRS systems
respectively.
-26-
All Rights Reserved
IFS layout - front wheel
IFS layout - rear wheel
-27-
All Rights Reserved
Rear suspension with leaf spring
The areas that need a tightness check on a leaf spring rear suspension. The
layout shows a “dead” or non-driven axle, but the same areas would need
checking on a live or driven axle.
Check for
damper leaks
in this area
The photograph shows where to check for damper leaks. Damper operation
can be checked by a simple “bounce test”, as shown in the next section.
Uneven tyre wear and poor road holding often indicate weak damper
operation.
-28-
All Rights Reserved
Exercise 3
Checking the suspension ride height of a vehicle. This task should be carried
out on flat non-sloping workshop floor.
Checking ride heights

Checking ride heights
Ride heights should be checked in accordance

with manufacturers instructions. E.g. tyre
pressure settings, no person onboard and
specified amount of fuel in tank
The measurement is best taken with a solid rule or bar calibrated to the
manufacturers’ dimensions. Use of a tape rule is not recommended.
-29-
All Rights Reserved
Check for component wear
1. Checking lower suspension ball joint wear
Checking lower suspension ball joint wear
MacPherson
strut
suspension
layout
2. Checking for wear in the wishbone suspension
Checking for wear in wishbone suspension
-30-
All Rights Reserved
3. Checking for wear for
Checking in top wishbone
wear in top wishbone
-31-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 6
List four routine suspension maintenance checks that need to be carried out:
1.
2.
3.
4.
-32-
All Rights Reserved
Identification of Common Faults Associated with Suspension
Systems
Common suspension system faults and common causes
1. Incorrect ride height (unequal or low) and common causes:
• broken spring or fault with spring seating e.g. corrosion at

MacPherson strut top mounting
• damaged or bent suspension arms as a result of kerbing etc.
2. Cracked, perished or worn mountings or bushes:
• usually due to high mileage or long vehicle life.
3. Suspension noise:
• excessive free play or wear in components or mountings
• loose suspension components or fixings
• worn damper
• lack of lubricant.
4. Excessive travel or movement in suspension components:
• generally due to worn, loose or broken suspension components
• worn dampers.
5. Fluid leakage from dampers and hydraulic components:
• worn dampers due to high mileage or arduous service conditions
• loose hydraulic connections or cracked pipes or hoses.
6. Worn dampers:
• Carry out bounce test and observe results.
-33-
All Rights Reserved
DamperDamper bounce
bounce test test
Vehicle should be pushed down on suspension at

each corner and the degree of bounce observed
The first diagram shows the vertical motion of the vehicle on the suspension
during a bounce test. This shows a serviceable damper. Notice how the
there are only 3 or 4 strokes before the damper absorbs the oscillation of the
spring.
The second diagram illustrates the same action but with a worn damper. In
this case there are eight strokes before the spring force is damped out. Only
experience will enable a technician to decide how many strokes a spring can
move before the damper is considered to be unserviceable. The test should
be backed up with a road test and if necessary the damper removed and its
action compared with a new unit.
Start Finish
Vertical motion of vehicle

body on suspension
Serviceable damper action is shown.
Note: There are only three strokes before the vertical motion is damped out.
-34-
All Rights Reserved
Start Finish
Un-serviceable damper action is shown.
Note: There are eight strokes before the vertical motion is damped out.
Abnormal tyre wear can be attributed to a number of suspension faults.

For example, worn, damaged or loose suspension components affecting
wheel alignment settings will increase the rate of tyre wear, and reduce
passenger comfort.
-35-
All Rights Reserved
Progress check 7
List six possible suspension faults:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
-36-
All Rights Reserved

LV30 Suspension Systems

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

LV30 Suspension Systems

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:37 am Page 33

Forces Acting on Suspension: 3 Independent front and rear

The suspension has to resist the following forces:

• forces produced by driving torque from the transmission

• forces produced when brakes are applied

• forces produced during cornering

• plus the normal forces produced in the suspension as the vehicle

The red line

Forces on leaf spring during cornering

Cornering force opposing centrifugal force

Bump steering effect of leaf sprung live axle

Distance a is greater than b causing rear axle to steer

Limitations of leaf spring suspension

Answer the following questions:

2. Why does it not carry out these functions ideally?

The next few diagrams show typical forces produced in an independent

Look at the direction of the forces produced in the suspension components.

Forces acting on suspension – torque reaction

This diagram shows a non-driven MacPherson strut.

Indicate the following:

1. Under what type of driving conditions do most of the bending forces

2. Why is the coil spring mounted in an offset position on some

3. Is this offset spring position normally used on driven or non-driven

Upward movement of the

Horizontal rotation about the vertical axis.

This is called yawing and is an undesirable characteristic. Suspension

Action of dive pitching under braking

Sophisticated anti-dive suspension geometry can eliminate most of the

This diagram summarises suspension movement terminology.

Name the vehicle motion for the diagrams below?

This term is used to describe the amount of “give” in a suspension system

Non-independent rigid axle suspension

A typical front and rear axle is shown.

• very simple design

The action of a live axle non-independent suspension layout is shown.

Refer to this diagram when considering the disadvantages of this type of

Vertical movement of RH wheel causes the

Inaccurate control of steering geometry. This occurs mainly because of the

• Increased spring deflection and therefore ride comfort - due to the

• Accurate control of steering geometry and therefore reduced bump steer

• Reduced un-sprung weight giving improved wheel to road contact and

• Greater flexibility regarding engine positioning in frame.

Un-sprung weight consists of; the weight of the

This diagram illustrates which parts of the independent suspension system

1. Give four advantages of independent suspension systems:

2. Give two advantages of rigid axles:

These suspensions systems are complex and relatively expensive.

They have the following advantages:

• constant ride height

• variable spring rate, which is dependent on load

• reduced body roll

• ride height can be automatically lowered with electronic control of air

A layout of a car air suspension system is shown.

Give three advantages of air suspension on a car:

These checks are relatively simple and are as follows:

• check security of suspension fittings and components

• check operation of dampers

• check ride heights

• check for wear and leaks.

IFS layout - rear wheel

Checking ride heights

Ride heights should be checked in accordance

1. Checking lower suspension ball joint wear