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5 September 2010
Introduction
Address for correspondence: *Director of Graduate Studies, Faculty of Business and Economics.
Macquarie University, NSW 2109 Australia, e-mail: anne.ross-smith@mq.edu.au
The ideas of Pierre Bourdieu have not been extensively drawn upon in the
management and organization studies literature (Ozbilgin and Tatli, 2005)
even less so by feminists and those interested in the study of gender in
organizational settings. On a purely pragmatic level, one reason is
the fact that Bourdieu’s oeuvre is simply just difficult to comprehend. This
problem is a function of at least three things: the sheer size of his work (he
has penned over two dozen books and two hundred articles), the fact that
it is written in French, and his difficult writing style. (Everett, 2002, p. 77)
Yet, as Everett suggests, Bourdieu has a lot to offer organization studies. His
capacity to ‘link an analysis of the humdrum details of ordinary organiza-
tional existence with both an analysis of language and a more general social
analysis’ (Everett, 2002, p. 57) is one dimension of his work that is of
the ranks of senior management in the private sector is still a long way from
being achieved with women holding only 12 per cent of executive positions
in Australia’s top 200 publicly listed companies — the ASX200 (EOWA, 2006).
Nevertheless, in 2006, women accounted for at least one-quarter or more of
senior executives in 18 per cent of the ASX200 companies, an increase from 13
per cent in 2003. The percentages of women in senior management in the
higher education and public sectors in this country are considerably higher
than in the private sector. For example, women hold 35 per cent of senior
executive positions in the Australian Public Service (Commonwealth of
Australia (2009) and 21.1 per cent of vice-chancellors’ positions in Australian
universities (EOWA, 2006). There are several largely historical reasons why
this is the case. Firstly, women in the public and tertiary sectors were more
active in debates concerning industrial democracy in this country (Walpole
and Baldwin, 1986). Many initiatives relating to women and employment,
such as affirmative action and equal employment opportunity legislation,
work-based childcare, flexible hours, job sharing, the merit principle and
paid maternity leave, were originally enacted in these sectors (Public Service
Commission, 1993). These initiatives resulted in changes in structural condi-
tions that assisted in the retaining women in the workforce and facilitated
their progression through the ranks of management. The private sector lagged
behind the public and tertiary sectors, in term of both equity initiatives and
structural reform.
The changing gender norms that have accompanied the increased presence
of women in managerial roles in the last thirty or so years require theoretical
explanations beyond notions of patriarchy and female subordination. Theo-
retical explanations need to be more nuanced and finely attuned, for instance,
to local organizational contexts, cross-sections of class and race with gender
and considerations of individual agency and the rethinking of gender iden-
tity. This article seeks to build on the nascent interest in Bourdieu in the
organization studies and to draw on broader feminist engagement with his
ideas to theoretically build a more complete understanding of the contempo-
rary, gendered structure of senior management. More specifically, we explore
whether women wield gender capital in management fields. In doing this we
seek to understand how the game of management has changed since women
players have become more prevalent.
analyse excerpts from the narratives of five women whose experiences are
characteristic of female and feminine forms of capital as articulated in the
article.
Gender capital
For Bourdieu, the concept of capital is invaluable for making sense of the
distribution of advantage and disadvantage, and the movements of agents
through social space. This is because the accumulation (or lack of accumula-
tion) of capital is an important element of social distinction and different
social groups possess different volumes and species of capital. Moreover, the
concept of capital allowed Bourdieu to consider both monetary and non-
monetary wealth, for the concept of capital encompasses material and
symbolic resources. According to Bourdieu (1984), four forms of capital exist
— economic, cultural, educational and social capital. Cultural capital may be
embodied, objectified or institutionalized.
Generally, Bourdieu did not consider the possibility of gendered forms of
capital. Capital, as conceived by Bourdieu, is gender neutral and is merely
shaped by gender in the ‘reconversion process’ (McCall, 1992, p. 842). This is
because Bourdieu saw gender as a secondary form of social stratification; it is
not as significant as class in the production of distinction (McCall, 1992, p.
841). Hence, Bourdieu only tended to use the concept of capital to examine
class advantage. However, capital may also be a useful tool for examining
gender advantage and gender distinction. In her article. ‘Does gender fit?
Bourdieu, feminism, and the conceptions of social order’, Leslie McCall
(1992) extends Bourdieu’s interpretation of capital and the habitus and pro-
poses that the embodied dispositions that constitute the habitus may operate
as gendered cultural capital or ‘gender capital’. McCall (1992, p. 843) argues
that the possibility of gendered capital can actually be found in Bourdieu’s
formulation of embodied cultural capital — for in Bourdieu’s work ‘certain
types of dispositions are themselves forms of capital’. Although Bourdieu saw
gender as a secondary social form that gains specificity from a person’s class
position, McCall (1992, p. 844) points out that Bourdieu did not only term
gender ‘secondary’ on the basis of its significance in stratification, it is also
termed ‘secondary’ due to its hidden form. McCall (1992, p. 844) states that
this allows for an interpretation of gender as a primary, yet elusive social
force that appears natural and universal. Hence, gender is potentially a sig-
nificant form of capital (McCall, 1992, p. 842).
Nevertheless, Bourdieu saw women as having a limited relationship with
capital. He saw their primary role as the accumulation of capital for men.
Thus, he did not consider that women might have capital accumulating strat-
egies of their own. According to Bourdieu, women are capital-bearing objects
rather than capital-bearing subjects; women are mere ‘repositories’ of capital
(Lovell, 2000, p. 22). However, Bourdieu contradicted himself on this matter.
is the discursive position available though gender relations that women are
encouraged to inhabit and use. Its use will be informed by the network of
social positions of class, gender, sexuality, region, age and race which
ensure that it will be taken up (and resisted) in different ways
Findings
I think in the early stages of my career it had some success in that in the
early ’80s there weren’t a lot of women in senior roles in banking and
finance so there was a bit of a curiosity factor and also at that point there
was a bit of a quota ... unstated quota system working. Did that mean I got
promoted over a man? I don’t think so; but maybe it got me at least to the
table. Does it make a difference now? I don’t think so. My track record has
got me to where I am. I think the choices that I made in my personal life
probably have helped get me to where I am in that I’ve spent most of my
career.... I’ve been on my own, I haven’t had a family so I’ve been able to
move to New York in the space of 2 months notice and take jobs that
perhaps I wouldn’t have been able to take if I’d had a small family.
Hence, Clare achieved entrance into the management field because her orga-
nization was attempting to address its bias towards men. However, as this
participant pointed out, her gender did not assist her to the extent that she got
promoted over a man; it merely brought her to the table. Indeed, her success
was more to do with her decision not to have a family than the quota system;
Clare has foregone the experience of mothering and adapted to the masculine
norms of un-attachment and flexibility (Corsun and Costen, 2001, p. 19).
The gender capital which Clare experienced was unusual and the result of
a deliberate attempt to undo the privileging of men in her organization. It
took place at a time when Australian governments were particularly respon-
sive to the needs of women and put in place via legislation ‘an impressive
network of rights covering women at work’ (Davis and Harris, 1996, p. x).
Women such as Clare, now nearing retirement, were the beneficiaries of this
legislation and its impact on equity policies in Australian organizations.
However, equal opportunity discourse no longer holds the same impact as it
had in the 1980s. In the early days of its implementation this legislation was
seen to have produced positive gains for women in the workplace but its
influence has waned.
Feminine skills
The participants saw their feminine skills as instrumental in their movement
into and success in management. These feminine skills are specific abilities
which the participants stated they saw as particular to their gender and as a
consequence of their gender. The participants appeared to view these skills as
stemming from either biology or socialization. Therefore, it seems these skills
were seen as part and parcel of a feminine disposition; as an aspect of the
women’s habitus. These feminine skills often appeared to the researchers to
be stereotypes of the feminine but, nevertheless, the participants interpreted
them as advantageous. For example, when asked if her gender played a role
in her success, Mary, a manager from a financial institution, stated:
I was thinking about this the other day, ... and I’m frightened I’m not the
brightest person around, and I think that one of my keys to success is
probably my social capability, so my ability to put people ... meet new
people and for it not to take long for that person to feel comfortable with me
and I wonder whether part of that is gender, whether that comes more
naturally to females than males. I’m not sure.... So that would be my first
thought. And secondly, I think gender ... I think females do have a different
way of thinking to males. I’m not always sure whether I can define what
that is but certainly in a debate ... and most of the time I am working with
males ... in the debate I would bring up different ways of looking at things
than the rest of ... the debate is thinking around, often around compromise,
so ... trying to get a situation resolved that people have become polarized....
So I think ... bearing in mind ... because I’ve obviously grown ... my career
has been during a time which has been predominantly males versus ...
whereas I think it’s getting a bit more balance. I think that ability to look at
things slightly differently has been positive and has helped.
Hence, for Mary, her social skills and ability to compromise are feminine
skills and these skills have worked to her advantage in the management field.
However, Mary is also frightened that she is not the brightest person and
seems relieved that she has feminine skills to draw upon. This may be one of
the negative outcomes of the naturalization of feminine skills — they are
conceptualized in opposition to ‘masculine’ intellectual and cultural skills.
The consequence of this is that while women may be confident in their
‘natural’ feminine skills, which may provide them with some advantage in the
workplace, it may also undermine their confidence in relation to other capaci-
ties, thereby deterring them from investing in ‘masculine skills’ and practices.
Thus, Mary is a ‘people person’ and not an intellectual one.
Joan (a manager from the public service) also discussed feminine skills.
When asked if her gender played a role in her career success, she replied:
I think that I deliver in terms of work and attention to detail and perfec-
tionist.... I think women tend to be more attentive to those sorts of things,
and I guess that’s why I observe that there’s value in differences.
Later Joan expanded on this point:
I find it hard to answer because I think if I was a male with my personality
I may not have done as well. I think it’s OK for a woman; I just don’t know
how that mix would have worked if I was a male. I can say that I’ve never
knowingly used my female wiles or certainly anything more than that, but
I suspect that I do it without thinking about it. I mean, we all use different
techniques, in the same way that guys have a bit of a yarn. I do find it
interesting ... with my boss we got going very well but I always find it
interesting socially ... on occasions we tend not to be comfortable with each
other socially or having drinks. He doesn’t relate to me very well in that
situation, whereas with lots of guys he feels very comfortable and I often
reflect on ... and sometimes he’ll sort of have a bit of a go ... it’s a very good
relationship but yeah, he sort of, I don’t know ... it’s different. I find it
interesting with different guys and some in particular ... there’s that sort of
personal continuous level of comfort and ‘at ease’ and nothing much varies,
but there’s a few guys that ... sometimes it feels different, strange.
Thus, for Joan, women tend to pay more attention to detail and (as this is one
of her skills) this may operate to her advantage. She also states that there may
be other feminine capacities which she unknowingly uses to her benefit.
However, Joan also mentions that although she gets on well with her boss,
they are uncomfortable with each other at organizational social occasions.
What this would seem to suggest is that her male boss relates to masculine
dispositions in ways that he cannot replicate in his interactions with her.
Masculine dispositions fit with one another so that there is a continuous level
of comfort and ease which positions her on the outer so that she feels differ-
ent, strange. As Witz (1998) states, male forms of embodiment are validated
while female forms are not. Hence, although her feminine disposition may
have provided her with feminine skills, this feminine disposition is not as
comfortable in the management field as masculine dispositions are, and Joan
is consequently disadvantaged compared to her male counterparts.
Other participants stated that they drew these feminine skills from their
mothering role. For example, when asked if her gender had contributed to
her success Jenny (a manager from a university) replied:
Yes. Well it’s played a role in my success. It’s also ... as I think my third son
said, if I’d been a boy I’d probably have been a CEO of an organization a lot
earlier. If I hadn’t had four children and I hadn’t discovered that I wanted
to have a career in my mid-thirties because of having children.... I think
two things ... the fact of having four children had a huge impact on me and
it affected the way I did work. So having such a ludicrous number of
children taught me to work in a way I’d never worked before and it taught
me to be well organized and brought out a whole lot of things I suspect
were there but I’d never ever done. So I became very well organized and I
am very well organized, which everybody who works with me will tell
you, and that is always because I wanted to go back to work. There was a
profound difference between me at 20 and me at 30, around my attitudes ...
a bit older, 35 probably.
Hence, it is Jenny’s opinion that her gender assisted her in her success
because she developed organizational skills in her mothering role. However,
she stated that it was necessary to be very well organized because she wanted
to go back to work. While mothering may have provided Jenny with unique
skills, her mothering role simultaneously made returning to work difficult
because organizations still tend to be inflexible over working hours and
continue to be based around a male working life. Moreover, these skills
cannot compensate for the fact that if she had been male she might have been
a CEO of an organization a lot earlier. Once again, these feminine skills are an
embodied cultural capital that operates within limits.
from these devices herself. Moreover, Alice mentioned that men also profit
from appearance but alluded to the idea that this asset is more valuable for
women. Alice stated that the women are much better turned out than the
blokes. Therefore, it seems that the senior women invest more time in (sexu-
alized) appearance than the men in the field. Hence, it appears that, as
Bourdieu (1984) argued, women may derive occupational profit from their
appearance and cultivate their bodies accordingly. This may mean that
women play sexual games at work, as Alice suggests, or it may mean that a
groomed appearance is a powerful social signifier — a form of distinction
that provides women with authority in the management field. However, this
asset may also be indicative of an inequality — it may indicate that women’s
appearances are prioritized over other attributes.
Like Alice, Susan (a manager from the public service) discussed the prof-
itability of a feminine appearance. When asked whether her gender had
played a role in her success she stated:
I’m conscious at times where gender has played a role because I’ve
exploited it and I learned this very early in my career. I used to have very
long waist-length hair and I had a very young-looking face. This was quite
some time ago and I was in my 20s and I was going to a meeting in
Canberra with some pretty hard hitters, senior Commonwealth bureau-
crats. I went with my boss at the time who was a man and I had done a lot
of the work in this area and I knew quite a lot about it and I was really right
on top of the issues. We went to this meeting and my boss spoke first and
I could tell at once that everybody around that table (and they tended to be
senior male bureaucrats) had put me in my box. I was the secretary who
was there taking notes and when my boss at the time handed over to me
you could see them.... Suddenly they had to re-evaluate who I was and I
realized I’d really caught them off guard. I just let fly with the issues and
they were just really reeling, I used that. I remember some months later
when I was going to a meeting I was feeling quite intimidated because a
couple of ministers were going to be there. It was a very high level meeting.
I deliberately chose something quite feminine, very girlish and they made
that same mistake. And in a way that empowered me because I could see
what was going on and I felt a bit more in control of the situation and
wrong-footed them. It doesn’t work for me any more.
Susan, therefore, used her appearance tactically in order to manipulate a
particular situation and gain an upper hand. However, this does not mean
that a feminine appearance is capital. As Susan has illustrated, the men with
whom she worked equated femininity with traditional female roles, which
are unauthoritative, devalued and considered to be lesser than their own (in
this case, Susan was assumed to be a secretary). It may be speculated then,
that this would generally have a negative impact on women and would limit
the use value of their appearance. Susan’s is an exceptional case in that she
was reflexive about this and did not allow these presumptions to negatively
affect her practices or her opinion of her own worth. Moreover, these per-
ceptions did not inform her position in the field. Rather, this was a unique
situation in which she was able to use these presumptions to alter the state of
play and gain a more powerful position in the field.
Discussion
The narratives of Mary, Joan, Jenny, Alice and Susan demonstrate how female
and feminine capitals may be utilised to destabilize the masculinized field of
management. These narratives suggest that feminine capital in the manage-
ment field may take the form of feminine skills and appearance, and female
capital may have operated in the early days of equal opportunity discourse in
particular. Each of these participants provided an example of how their
femaleness or femininity has operated to their benefit. To be recognized as
female has brought them to the table; their feminine experiences have enabled
them to acquire gendered skills (and confidence in these skills); and their
feminine appearance and sexuality provided them with (at least) a tactical
advantage.
Hence, contrary to popular understanding and much feminist rhetoric
concerning the patriarchy and female subordination, in some instances
femaleness or femininity may empower women and provide them with
agency. Moreover, these findings show that feminine capital may be gaining
wider currency and, in particular, may be changing the state of play in
management fields so that they are no longer wholly masculinized. As Illouz
(1997, p. 39) suggests, traditional feminine skills may be increasingly valued
in management culture.
These narratives demonstrate that female and feminine capitals are quite
real and tangible but they also show how limited they are in their use
value. Whether they realized it or not, the participants never expressed the
view that female and feminine capitals are straightforwardly assets. They
always perceived female and feminine capitals as double-edged, as situ-
ational, as operating within boundaries. Moreover, while gendered dispo-
sitions and embodiments provided certain advantage, they often
disadvantaged the participants in other ways. The limitations to women’s
gender capital are something that Bourdieuian feminists have foreseen. For
example, McCall (1992) argues that the profits that may be gained from
femininity are restricted and Skeggs (1997, p. 10) proposes that feminine
capital has a limited use value as ‘it provides only limited access to potential
forms of power’. For Skeggs (1997, pp. 8–10), femininity can be used only as
a ‘cultural resource’ in ‘tactical rather than strategic ways’. In other words,
women’s gender capital may only manipulate constraints rather than over-
turn power.
Conclusion
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