Clinical Framework

1
BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define articulation and articulation disorders.
• Define phonetics and the three branches of phonetics: articulatory, acoustic,
and auditory.
• Define and differentiate speech sounds and phonemes.
• Define phonology.
• Differentiate between an articulation and a phonological disorder.
• Explain why articulation impairments are considered to be phonetic disorders,
whereas phonological disorders are noted as phonemic problems.

E very discipline has a core vocabulary that

provides a knowledge base within that particu-
lar field of study. Communication sciences and
disorders also has such a set of terms. Integral
to this discipline, speech and speech disorders
represent important constructs. Speech, the
exchange of information through speaking
or talking, is the most widely used means of
communication. One of the main emphases
of this book is speech and speech disorders. A
speech disorder is a general term that is used
to indicate oral, verbal communication that is
so deviant from the norm population that it is
noticeable or interferes with communication.
Individuals with speech disorders constitute a
large percentage of the population with com-
municative difficulties.
The goal of this beginning chapter is to
define and distinguish between certain basic
terms. These distinctions will be important
when identifying two core concepts within
this chapter: articulation and phonologi-
cal disorders. The term articulation disorder is
historically older and dates back to the early
foundations of what is currently designated
as the field of communication disorders. On
the other hand, a phonological disorder is a
more recent label which evidences in part the

ch01.indd 1 7/12/2007 8:02:55 AM

 2 CHAPTER 1
influence of linguistics on the field of commu-
nication disorders. These two different con-
cepts will be important when defining and
distinguishing varying types of speech disor-
ders. The following section will define artic-
ulation and articulation disorders as well as
illustrate their clinical relevance.
ARTICULATION AND
ARTICULATION DISORDERS
The term articulation and its derivations are
often used to describe an individual’s speech.
They might appear in a referral statement or
within a diagnostic report, for example:
Sandy was referred to the clinic because her
parents were concerned about her articulation
skills.
Bob could articulate the sound correctly in iso-
lation, but not in word contexts.
Joe’s articulation disorder affected his speech
intelligibility.
For the purpose at hand, articulation re-
fers to the totality of motor processes involved
in the planning and execution of sequences
of overlapping gestures that result in speech
(Fey, 1992). The definition of articulation en-
tails, first, that the learning of articulatory
skills is a developmental process involving
the gradual acquisition of the ability to move
the articulators in a precise and rapid manner.
Thus, learning to articulate is a specific kind of
motor learning. Just as children become more
adept at certain motor skills as they grow
older, their articulation skills develop as well.
For example, we do not expect the same level
of articulatory abilities from a 2-year-old
child as from a 6-year-old. Second, the defi-
nition suggests that errors in articulation re-
sult from relatively peripheral disturbances of
these articulatory processes. Thus, the periph-
eral motor processes involved in the planning
ch01.indd 2
Articulation is rooted in the Latin word articulatio,
which stood for the “joining of separate entities.”
In anatomy, zoology, and biology, this basic defi-
nition is preserved, as in “The thyroid cartilage
articulates with the cricoid cartilage.” Musicians,
too, use the word to refer to the joining of sepa-
rate entities, for example, tone groupings, as in
“She played the sonata with feeling and superb
articulation.” When used by dentists, articula-
tion alludes to the joining of teeth, as in “The
articulation of the new dentures was better than
that of the patient’s set of natural teeth.” Within
communication disorders, the original articulatio
is exemplified by the joining of the many sepa-
rate movements needed to establish speech, as
in “The child’s articulation was characterized by
multiple sound errors.”
and execution of articulation are impaired;
the central language capabilities of the indi-
vidual remain intact. In summary, articula-
tion is a specific, gradually developing motor
skill that involves mainly peripheral motor
processes.
If an individual’s articulation deviates
significantly from the norm, it may be diag-
nosed as an articulation disorder. An articu-
lation disorder refers to difficulties with the
motor production aspects of speech, or an in-
ability to produce certain speech sounds (El-
bert and Gierut, 1986). Articulation errors are
typically classified in light of a child’s age,
which translates into stages within this de-
velopmental process. Younger children are at
an earlier stage in this development, whereas
older children are at a later stage or may have
completed the process. Depending on the age
of the child, certain articulation errors may be
considered to be typical (age-appropriate er-
rors) or atypical (non–age-appropriate errors).
Articulation and its disorders represent
problems with the production of speech
sounds. One other basic term relevant to this
discussion is phonetics, which is the study of
speech and speech sounds. Phonetics pro-
7/12/2007 8:02:57 AM

vides a conceptual foundation for analyzing
articulation as well as a clinical framework for
assessing and treating articulation disorders.
The following section will discuss phonetics
and its link to articulation.
PHONETICS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP
TO ARTICULATION DISORDERS
The description and classification of speech
sounds is the main aim of phonetic science, or
phonetics. Sounds may be identified with ref-
erence to their production (or “articulation”)
in the vocal tract, their acoustic transmission,
or their auditory reception. The most widely
used descriptions are articulatory, because the
vocal tract provides a convenient and well-un-
derstood reference point. . . . (Crystal, 1987,
p. 152)
Generally stated, phonetics is the science
of speech (Grunwell, 1987). Such broad defi-
nitions delineate speech in its entirety while
also effectively indicating the various divi-
sions of phonetics. Thus defined, phonetics
is the study of speech emphasizing the de-
scription and classification of speech sounds
according to their production, transmission,
and perceptual features. These three branches
of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonet-
ics, exemplifying speech production, acoustic
phonetics, the study of speech transmission,
and auditory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics deals with the
production features of speech sounds and
their categorization and classification accord-
ing to specific parameters of their production.
Central aspects include how speech sounds
are actually articulated, their objective simi-
larities, and their differences. Whereas articu-
lation represents all motor processes resulting
in speech in its entirety, articulatory phonet-
ics describes and classifies the specific motor
processes responsible for the production of
speech sounds. Articulation is typically used
ch01.indd 3
CLINICAL FRAMEWORK 3
as a more general term to describe the over-
all speech production of individuals. Articula-
tory phonetics is a field of study that attempts
to document these processes according to spe-
cific parameters, such as the manner or voicing
of the speech sound. This branch of articula-
tory phonetics is closely aligned with articu-
lation and its disorders and will be the main
emphasis of this text. Definitions and clinical
examples are outlined in Table 1.1.
The transmission properties of speech are
dealt with in acoustic phonetics. Here, the
frequency, intensity, and duration of speech
sounds, for example, are described and cate-
gorized. Within auditory phonetics, investi-
gators focus on how we perceive sounds. Our
ears are not objective receivers of acoustic
data. Rather, many factors influence our per-
ception. Such factors are examined in the area
of auditory phonetics.
In the context of this book, we are primar-
ily interested in articulatory phonetics. This
specialty area deals with the actualities of how
speech sounds are formed. Directly related to
this area of phonetics is, of course, articulation.
The description and classification of
speech sounds is an integral portion of both
the assessment and the treatment of articula-
tion disorders. Knowledge of the production
features of speech sounds, information medi-
ated in articulatory phonetics, will guide cli-
nicians when they are evaluating the various
misarticulations noted in a clinical evaluation.
One important step involves gathering pho-
netic information on the exact way an individ-
ual misarticulates sounds. This type of clinical
work involving articulatory phonetics is indis-
pensable in the assessment and treatment of
our clients with articulation disorders.
The concept of speech sound is important
in our work with articulation and its disor-
ders. However, there is another central term,
the phoneme, that is connected to phonology
and its disorders. The next section will define
7/12/2007 8:02:57 AM
 4 CHAPTER 1

Table 1.1 Articulation, Articulation Disorder, and Articulatory Phonetics

Term Definition Examples

Articulation The totality of motor processes
involved in the planning and
execution of speech.
Describes the speech sound production of
individuals, e.g., “He articulated the [s] sound
correctly.” Describes tests that examine
speech sound production ability, e.g., “He
administered an articulation test.”

Articulation disorder Difficulties with the motor A diagnostic category that indicates that
production aspects of speech, or an individual’s speech sound productions
an inability to produce certain vary widely from the norm, e.g., “He was
speech sounds. diagnosed as having an articulation disorder.”

Articulatory phonetics
Categorization and classification
of speech sounds according to
specific production parameters.
How individual sounds are formed, e.g., their
place, manner, and voicing characteristics;
e.g., clinicians might use their knowledge of
articulatory phonetics to determine that the
place of articulation, specifically the tongue
placement, was deviant from the norm
production.

and distinguish between speech sounds and
phonemes.
SPEECH SOUNDS VERSUS
PHONEMES: CLINICAL APPLICATION
Speech sounds are central units in any discus-
sion of disordered speech. Although the hu-
man vocal tract is capable of producing a wide
array of sounds, including coughing and burp-
ing, speech sounds are special sounds because
they are associated with speech. Speech sounds
represent physical sound realities; they are end
products of articulatory motor processes. When
talking about a child’s s-production in the con-
text of an articulation test, for example, we re-
fer to the speech sound production of [s].
Speech sounds, then, are real, physical
sound entities used in speech. But in addi-
tion to their articulatory form, they also have
a linguistic function. Linguistic function refers
to how speech sounds function within a spe-
cific language. For example, which sounds
are included in a language and how they are
arranged to form meaningful words belong
to the linguistic function of speech sounds.
Therefore, linguistic function also includes
the rules that address how speech sounds can
be arranged to produce appropriate words.
The term phoneme is used in relationship to
linguistic function. A phoneme is the small-
est linguistic unit that is able, when combined
with other such units, to establish word mean-
ings and distinguish between them.
If one wants to refer The conceptual
to the physical reality, to nature of the
the actual production, the phoneme is more
term speech sound is used. fully developed in
Chapter 4.
From early to contempo-
rary publications, such phoneme realizations
have also been labeled allophonic varia-
tions (e.g., Shriberg and Kent, 2003; Trubetz-
koy, 1939) or phonetic variations (Grunwell,
1987). As far as notation is concerned, speech
sound productions are usually placed within

ch01.indd 4 7/12/2007 8:02:57 AM


brackets in phonetic transcription, whereas
phoneme values are symbolized by slanted
lines, or virgules. For example, [s] indicates
that it was a sound someone actually pro-
nounced in a specific manner. On the other
hand, /s/ signifies the phoneme “s.” Speech
sounds or phonetic variations can be exam-
ined without reference to a given language
system. This is not the case with phonemes.
When using the term phoneme, we refer exclu-
sively to the function of the sound in ques-
tion, to its ability to signify differences in
word meaning within a specific language. Two
words that differ in only one phoneme value
are called minimal pairs. Examples of mini-
mal pairs are dog versus log and dog versus dot.
See Table 1.2.
How do these terms relate to our clini-
cal decision making? Speech sounds as end
products of articulatory motor processes are
the units we are describing when we use pho-
netic transcription to capture an individual’s
actual productions on an articulation test or
spontaneous speech sample. Speech sounds
and speech sound errors relate to articulation
distortions. However, what if we notice that
a child’s productions of swing, sing, ring, and
wing all sound the same, for example, that
Table 1.2 Phoneme versus Speech Sound
Phoneme
The smallest unit within a language that is able,
when combined with other units, to establish word
meanings and distinguish between them
Linguistic unit
Used in reference to a particular language system
Basic unit within phonology
Notation is within virgules / /, e.g., “the /s/
phoneme”
ch01.indd 5
CLINICAL FRAMEWORK 5
they all sound like wing? The child is not us-
ing the necessary phonemic contrasts to sig-
nal differences between these words. Both
listener and speaker will probably not be able
to differentiate between these words because
they sound the same. Now we are analyzing
the child’s phoneme system, the child’s ability
to use phonemes to establish and distinguish
between word meanings. If this occurs consis-
tently throughout the child’s speech, we could
conclude that the child’s phoneme system is
limited—that is, restricted when compared to
the norm. Phonemes and difficulties in using
phonemes contrastively to distinguish mean-
ings relate to linguistic abilities, to the individ-
ual’s language system. This leads us directly
into a discussion of phonology, the language-
based study of sound systems.
PHONOLOGY AND
PHONOLOGICAL DISORDERS
The term phonology is basic to the understand-
ing of phonological disorders. Phonology, a
branch of linguistics, pertains to the description
of the systems and patterns of phonemes that
occur in a language. It involves determining
Speech Sound
Actual realizations of phonemes; referred to as
allophonic variations or phonetic variations
Concrete, produced, transmitted, and perceived
Can be examined without referring to a specific
language system
Basic unit within phonetics
Notation is within brackets, e.g., “the [f] speech
sound”
7/12/2007 8:02:58 AM
 6 CHAPTER 1
the language-specific distinctive phonemes
and the rule-governed nature of these systems
(Mackay, 1987). Phonology is the study of how
phonemes are organized and function in com-
munication (Lowe, 1994). Phonology includes
the inventory of phonemes of the language in
question, thus a list of all the vowels and con-
sonants that function in American English to
differentiate meaning. However, phonology
also focuses on how these phonemes are or-
ganized to convey meaning within a language
system. Such a description would include how
the phonemes can and cannot be arranged to
form meaningful words. Phonotactics refers
to the description of the allowed combinations
of phonemes in a particular language.
When an individual’s phonology deviates
enough from the norm, this could lead to a
phonological disorder. A phonological disor-
der refers to an impaired system of phonemes
and phoneme patterns within the context of
spoken language. The term represents an in-
dividual’s impairment of the understanding
and organization of phonemes within the lan-
Phonotactics of General American English include
the fact that some phoneme combinations do
not occur in American English words. An exam-
ple would be / ʃ / + /v/. General American English
does have other / ʃ / combinations, such as / ʃ / +
/r/ (e.g., shrink) or /ʃ/ + /t/ (e.g., wished). The / ʃ /
+ /v/ combination does, however, occur in the
phonological system of German. Words such as
Schwester (/ʃvεstə/) document this as a phono-
tactic possibility in German.
Phonotactics also includes that some conso-
nant clusters occurring in General American Eng-
lish are restricted in use to certain positions. For
example, the clusters “sk” and “ks” cannot occur
in the same places. Words or syllables can begin
or end with “sk” (e.g., skate, risk). This, though, is
not the case with “ks.” This cluster can occur only
at the end of a syllable or word (e.g., kicks). This
is a phonotactic characteristic of the phonological
system of General American English.
ch01.indd 6
guage system. It is hypothesized that a phono-
logical disorder reflects a language deficiency,
specifically a neurolinguistic dysfunction at
the phonological level (Grunwell, 1987).
Assessment of a child with a phonologi-
cal disorder would include gathering infor-
mation about all the phonemes that the child
uses to distinguish meaning—the phonemic
inventory. The phonemic inventory is the
repertoire of phonemes used contrastively by
an individual. When compared to the phone-
mic inventory of General American English,
we might find that certain phonemes are not
present in the child’s speech—that is, the
child’s phonemic inventory is restricted. In
addition, we might analyze the child’s phono-
tactics by examining the position in the word
in which these phonemes occur—at the be-
ginning, middle, or end of the word. Children
who have difficulties with the organization of
their phoneme system might not realize the
phonotactics that are typical for American
English. Their speech may demonstrate pho-
notactic constraints; in other words, the pho-
neme use is restricted, the phonemes are not
used in all possible word positions.
CLINICAL APPLICATION
Inventory and Phonotactics
Jeff was referred to the school speech-language pa-
thologist by his kindergarten teacher, who was wor-
ried about the lack of intelligibility of his speech. The
clinician noted that Jeff’s phonemic inventory was very
restricted. The following phonemes were present in
Jeff’s speech: /p, b, t, d, k,
, m, n, ŋ, f, v, h, w/. Jeff’s
phonemic inventory did not include the following
phonemes: /s, z, ʃ, , θ, ð, j, l, r,
, /. In addition, cer-
tain phonotactic constraints were noted. At the begin-
ning of a word, Jeff realized the above noted speech
sounds. However, at the end of a word or syllable, only
voiced sounds were used. Jeff’s phonotactics did not
employ voiceless sounds to terminate a word or syl-
lable. Not only was Jeff’s phonemic inventory limited,
but phonotactic constraints were also discovered.
7/12/2007 8:02:58 AM
 CLINICAL FRAMEWORK 7

Phonology is closely related to other phonologist. The phonologist considers the

constituents of the language system, such as
morphology, syntax, semantics, and prag-
matics. A child’s phonological system, there-
fore, can never be regarded as functionally
separate from other aspects of the child’s lan-
guage growth. Several studies (e.g., Edwards,
Fox, and Rogers, 2002; Morrisette and Gierut,
2002; Paul and Jennings, 1992; Ratner, 1994;
Rescorla and Ratner, 1996; Roberts, 2005; Scar-
borough and Dobrich, 1990; Stoel-Gammon,
1989; Storkel, 2001, 2003, 2004; Storkel and
Rogers, 2000) have documented that delayed
phonological development occurs concur-
rently with delayed lexical and grammatical
development. Although the direct relation-
ship between phonological and grammatical
acquisition remains unclear, interdependen-
cies certainly exist between these areas.
PHONETICS VERSUS PHONOLOGY:
FORM AND FUNCTION
The speech sounds which are investigated
within the area of phonetics have a great many
acoustic and articulatory properties which are
all important for the phonetician. . . . How-
ever, for the phonologist most of them are to-
tally irrelevant as long as they do not function
as distinguishing marks between words. There-
fore, the speech sound of the phonetician does
not coincide with the sound segment of the
sound segment only insofar as it fulfills a cer-
tain linguistic function. (Translated from Tru-
betzkoy, 1939, p. 14)
Any understanding of phonology presup-
poses its distinction from phonetics. The differ-
ence between form and function has often been
used to characterize this distinction. Whereas
phonetics emphasizes the form of speech
sounds, that is, their concrete actualities, pho-
nology stresses their function as phonemes
within the language system. See Table 1.3.
How do we practically differentiate be-
tween the form and the function of a specific
sound segment in question? When analyzing
the speech sound form, a clinician examines
all the distinct properties that are associated
with its production. It might be noted that [ʃ]
is produced without the normal lip rounding
or that [s] is produced with the tongue too far
forward. The phonetic inventory is the rep-
ertoire of speech sounds for a particular client,
including all the characteristic production fea-
tures the client utilizes.
On the other hand, if the phoneme func-
tion is the goal of the assessment, the clinician
would examine the child’s phoneme system to
determine whether specific phonemes are used
contrastively—that is, for the purpose of dif-
ferentiating between word meanings. A pho-
nemic analysis ignores detailed production
characteristics of the sound segment except

Table 1.3 Phonetics versus Phonology

Term Major Emphasis Examples

Phonetics The actualities of speech Describes how individual speech sounds are produced,
production their form

Phonology The function and organization Includes inventory of phonemes within a specific language
of phonemes within a given that functions to differentiate meaning in that language
language system Examines how phonemes can and cannot be arranged to
establish meaningful words, i.e., phonotactics

ch01.indd 7 7/12/2007 8:02:59 AM

 8 CHAPTER 1
those that distinguish between word mean-
ings in that language. In a phonemic analysis,
if a child produces [ ʃ ] without lip rounding
but the sound segment is still perceived as /ʃ/,
then the lack of lip rounding would not be
relevant. However, if the child’s production of
[ ʃ ] is so far off that it is perceived as /s/, this
would be important. Its importance lies in the
fact that /ʃ/ and /s/ are two separate phonemes
in American English; they can be used con-
trastively to differentiate word meanings, as
in ship versus sip. A phonemic analysis would
also examine the phonotactics of a particular
client to determine if all sound segments are
used in all possible positions.
ARTICULATION DISORDERS VERSUS
PHONOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Although the term phonology has been a con-
ceptual entity for linguists at least since the
beginning of the twentieth century, it is only
within the last few decades that it has gained
wide usage by speech-language pathologists.
For example, describing phonological processes
when analyzing a child’s speech sound error
patterns or diagnosing a child as having a pho-
nological disorder have their theoretical basis
in phonology. In addition, a gradual shift oc-
curred in the 1970s and 1980s away from the
label articulation disorder to using the term pho-
nological disorder. For some, this change was
considered necessary as “phonological no-
tions provided a much richer framework for
describing normal and disordered speech de-
velopment” (Kamhi, 1992, p. 262). However,
for many, this change in terminology created
confusion. One reason for this confusion was
the various ways in which the term phono-
logical disorder was defined. Another unclear
issue related to how these new theoretical con-
cepts were to be applied to the assessment and
management of children with speech sound/
phoneme difficulties. Based on the concep-
ch01.indd 8
tual framework discussed earlier, articulation
disorders were defined as disturbances in the
relatively peripheral speech motor processes.
They result in sounds that are notably differ-
ent from norm productions. When comparing
these characteristics to the previously given
definitions, it becomes clear that articulation
disorders are phonetic in nature.
On the other hand, phonological disor-
ders represent impairments of the understand-
ing and organization of phonemes within a
language system. They result in an inadequate
phoneme system or in phoneme patterns that
are different from those normally noted within
a particular language. Phonological disorders
are seen as deficiencies in phoneme function.
For example, the child may demonstrate the
ability to produce the sound in question but
may be unable to use it appropriately within
the phoneme system. Phonological disorders are
phonemic in nature. See Table 1.4.
Although it does not seem difficult to sep-
arate an articulation disorder from a phono-
logical disorder definitionally, opinions vary
as to the relationship and interdependencies
between the two. The importance in distin-
guishing between the two terms within the
assessment and remediation process is ques-
tioned as well as preference among profes-
sionals for one term.
For specific speech sound problems, many
believe that the term phonological disorder is
a better label. First, it places speech sound
disorders into the broader framework of
language. Within this broader framework, at-
tention is focused on the whole system rather
than on only one part of the system (Elbert,
1992). This viewpoint also seems more in line
with findings that suggest that phonologi-
cal performance is influenced by pragmatic,
morphosyntactic, and semantic levels of orga-
nization (e.g., Barlow, 2002; Gierut and Mor-
risette, 2005; Hoffman, 1990; McCune and
Vihman, 2001; Shriberg and Kwiatkowski,
1994; Storkel, 2001; Storkel and Morrisette,
7/12/2007 8:02:59 AM
 CLINICAL FRAMEWORK 9

Table 1.4 Articulation Disorders versus

Historically, the term articulation disorder has
Phonological Disorders
been used as a label for all clients who evidenced
speech sound production difficulties. Observed
Articulation Phonological
errors were thought to be caused by faulty con-
Disorders Disorders
trol of the peripheral articulators. Remediation
Phonetic errors Phonemic errors consisted of increasing precision, speed, and/or
mobility of these articulators within the context
Problems in speech Problems in the of speech production. This viewpoint did not em-
sound production language-specific phasize the decisively important fact that speech
function of phonemes sounds function within the language system as
phonemes. This limited understanding of disor-
Difficulties with speech Difficulties with dered articulation probably set the stage for em-
sound form phoneme function bracing a new, more encompassing concept.
Disturbances in Disturbances represent
relatively peripheral an impairment of
motor processes that the understanding cover term for any problem that involves the
result in speech of the organization of speech production process. Thus, both groups
phonemes within the of children, those with faulty control of the
language system articulators and those with faulty phonemic
Speech sound Phoneme difficulties system organization, would be considered to
production difficulties may impact other have a phonological disorder.
do not typically language areas such as Using the term phonological disorder in
impact other areas of morphology, syntax, or such a broad manner creates several theoret-
language development semantics ical and practical problems. Definitionally,
such as morphology, a phonological disorder represents difficul-
syntax, or semantics
ties with the organization and function of
the phoneme system. Does this mean that all
children who have speech impairments, even
2002; Storkel and Rogers, 2000; Velleman and those with so-called simple problems—for ex-
Vihman, 2002). Phonological development ample, a distorted [s] or an [r] that is not quite
is seen as directly linked to the child’s devel- correct—now have problems with the organi-
oping cognitive and language systems. In ad- zation and function of their phoneme system?
dition, it seems clear that some of the sound Certainly not. And what about those disorders
errors made by children cannot be due to that have historically been considered as ar-
faulty control of the articulators; that is, they ticulation problems, such as the dysarthrias or
cannot be viewed as articulation disorders cerebral palsy? Should these now be consid-
(Edwards, 1992; Fey, 1992). Although these ered phonological disorders, too? By labeling
children may demonstrate adequate produc- all children with speech production problems
tion of speech sounds, their rule-governed use as “phonologically disordered,” more confu-
in specific contexts or word positions is im- sion than coherence is gained.
paired. For these children, then, the speech The distinction between articulation and
sound form is adequate; speech sound func- phonological disorders remains decisively im-
tion, however, is not. portant. It keeps definitions clear and is practi-
In an attempt to resolve this labeling issue, cally applicable to diagnostic and intervention
Shriberg and Kwiatkowski (1982a) suggested procedures. For the purpose at hand, therefore,
that the term phonological disorder be used as a a distinction will be made between phonetic

ch01.indd 9 7/12/2007 8:02:59 AM

 10 CHAPTER 1
errors, those in which the peripheral motor
processes are disturbed, and phonemic errors,
those in which the organization and function
of the phoneme system is impaired. Although
this description of phonetic versus phone-
mic sound errors is not without problems, the
distinction between the two will be applied
throughout this text: Phonetic errors result in
articulation disorders, whereas phonemic er-
rors represent phonological disorders.
Delineating phonetic from phonemic
problems is clinically not an either/or prop-
osition. Often, a child will display character-
istics of both phonetic and phonemic errors.
Although this division between phonetic and
phonemic difficulties may remain at times un-
clear, a systematic attempt to distinguish be-
tween them is one important aspect of clinical
decision making.
There is no doubt that the application of
phonological principles has added consider-
ably to our understanding of speech errors
in children. However, by zealously embrac-
SUMMARY
This chapter refamiliarized the reader with
several terms that are fundamental to the as-
sessment and treatment of articulatory and
phonological disorders. Definitions and clini-
cal applications were provided for articulation,
phonetics, speech sound, phonology, and the pho-
neme as a foundation for this understanding.
Form versus function was used to distinguish
between phonetics, with its basic unit the
speech sound, and phonology, represented by
CASE STUDY
PHONETIC DISORDER
Sandy is a 6-year-old child who was seen in a
diagnostic session at the speech and hearing
ch01.indd 10
ing these newer concepts, many profession-
als have started to ignore phonetics due to
its alignment with traditional motor-based
approaches. The conceptual framework of-
fered by phonetics continues to be a central
portion of the assessment and treatment pro-
cess. “Clearly one cannot employ phonologi-
cal concepts and techniques without phonetic
knowledge, and that knowledge informs clin-
ical assessment and treatment” (Grunwell,
1997, pp. 63–64). Accordingly, after analyzing
various treatment perspectives, Shelton (1993)
concluded that “both articulatory and pho-
nological concepts contribute to the under-
standing of children’s speech-sound system
and related language disorders, but neither is
sufficient by itself as a framework for clinical
work” (p. 175). For decades, phonetic prin-
ciples have been the core of assessment and
treatment of speech disorders in children and
adults. Although phonological principles add
to our understanding, they do not replace the
valuable knowledge phonetics has to offer.
the phoneme. Phonetics emphasizes the form
of speech sounds, whereas phonology stresses
the function of phonemes within a language
system. Based on these definitions, a differ-
entiation between articulation disorders and
phonological disorders was presented. The
problems of such a division were discussed in
light of the diversity of viewpoints on the sub-
ject as well as of the clinical consequences of
such a separation.
clinic. Her parents were concerned about her
inability to produce an “s” sound. Based on an
analysis of a spontaneous speech sample and
7/12/2007 8:03:00 AM
 CLINICAL FRAMEWORK 11

an articulation test, it was found that Sandy
misarticulated “s” and “z” in all transcribed sit-
uations. The child was also able to differentiate
her mispronunciations from norm productions
of [s] and [z]. No other speech sounds were in
error, and language skills were found to be
within normal limits. Sandy used her distorted
realizations in every position in which [s] and
[z] should occur. Thus, she seemed to under-
stand the organization of /s/ and /z/ within the
language system. The clinician hypothesized
that this child was having difficulties with the
actual production level only, with the speech
sounds [s] and [z], whereas the understanding
of their phoneme functions was intact.
PHONEMIC DISORDER
Travis, a 6-year-old first-grader, was referred by
his classroom teacher to the speech-language
pathologist. The teacher said that although
Travis’s speech was fairly intelligible, she was
concerned about speech and language prob-
lems she had noticed in class. Her second
concern was that these difficulties might be
impacting Travis’s emerging literacy skills. Ac-
cording to the teacher, Travis was having dif-
ficulty distinguishing between certain sounds
and words as the class progressed with ele-
mentary reading tasks.
An articulation test and a spontaneous
speech sample were analyzed with the fol-
lowing results: Travis had difficulties with
s-productions. At the end of a word or syllable,
[s] was always deleted. At the beginning of a
word or syllable, [s] was produced as [ ʃ ]. Inter-
estingly enough, when the clinician analyzed
other words, she found that Travis could pro-
duce [s], but not in its proper context. Thus,
several words that contained [f] were articu-
lated with a normal sounding [s] realization.
Testing of minimal pairs containing /s/ and /ʃ/
revealed that Travis was having difficulty dis-
tinguishing between the phonemic value of
the two sounds.
On language tests and in spontaneous
conversation, Travis deleted the plural -s and
the third person singular -s (e.g., “He, she, it
walk”). Comprehension of these grammatical
forms was often in error.
The clinician hypothesized that Travis had
a phonological disorder—that he had difficul-
ties with the phoneme function and the pho-
notactics of /s/. This problem was impacting
his morphological development. Due to the
noted problems in discrimination, this could
also have an effect on his beginning reading
skills.

THINK CRITICALLY

The following small speech sample is from Tara, Which speech sound errors are noted in this
age 4;3. sample?
rabbit [wbət] ready [wεdi] Which sounds are substituted for the sounds in
feather [fεd
] arrow [εwoυ] error?
green [win] toothbrush [tutbwəʃ] Can any phonotactic restraints be noted in the
this [ðs] thinking [θŋkŋ] correct productions of “th” and “r”?
that [ðt] round [waυnd] Based on this limited information, do you think
rope [woυp] bridge [bwd
] the child has an articulation disorder or a phono-
rooster [wust
] street [stwit] logical disorder? Why?
bathing [bedŋ] thin [θn]
nothing [ntŋ] them [ðεm]
bath [bt] breathe [bwid]

ch01.indd 11 7/12/2007 8:03:00 AM

 12 CHAPTER 1
TEST YOURSELF
1. The definition of articulation includes which
one of the following?
a. describes the systems and patterns of pho-
nemes in a particular language
b. includes phonotactics
c. refers to the totality of motor processes in-
volved in speech
d. all of the above
2. The definition of articulation disorder reflects
a. peripheral motor processes
b. gradually developing motor skills
c. mainly peripheral motor processes
d. all of the above
3. Which one of the following is not included in
the definition of phonetics?
a. the production features of speech sounds
b. the organizational system of speech sounds
c. the transmission properties of speech sounds
d. the perceptual bases of speech sounds
4. Which one of the subdivisions of phonetics
would examine the frequency, intensity, and
duration of speech sounds?
a. articulatory phonetics
b. acoustic phonetics
c. auditory phonetics
5. If you were studying how foreign students
perceive various speech sounds of American
English, you would be in which branch of
phonetics?
a. articulatory phonetics
b. acoustic phonetics
c. auditory phonetics
6. If you were studying how the production of
[s] varies in American English versus Spanish,
you would be in which branch of phonetics?
WEBSITES
www.phonologicaldisorders.com
This website, created by the author of this text-
book, contains basic definitions and characteristics
of articulation versus phonological disorders. It also
provides references to articles and books which de-
lineate the two. Links are given to other websites
and resources.
ch01.indd 12
a. articulatory phonetics
b. acoustic phonetics
c. auditory phonetics
7. The definition of phonology includes
a. the description of the system and patterns
of phonemes within a language
b. the classification and description of how
speech sounds are produced
c. speech sound form
d. relatively peripheral motor processes in-
volved in speech
8. The allowed combinations of phonemes in a
particular language refers to the
a. phonetic inventory
b. phonemic inventory
c. phonotactic constraints
d. minimal pairs
9. Which one of the following is not included in
the definition of phonological disorder?
a. problems in the language-specific function
of phonemes
b. disturbances in the relatively peripheral
motor processes that result in speech
c. disturbances represent an impairment of
the understanding and organization of
phonemes
d. phonemic errors
10. The smallest linguistic unit which is able,
when combined with other such units to es-
tablish word meanings, is referred to as the
a. allophonic variation
b. speech sound
c. phoneme
d. phonotactic constraint
www.speech-language-therapy.com/phonetic_
phonemic.htm
This website distinguishes in an easy-to-read manner
between articulation and phonological disorders. Sev-
eral links are given to areas such as functional speech
disorders and a discussion group, which can be ac-
cessed from the author’s (Carol Bowen) website.
7/12/2007 8:03:01 AM

http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=articulation
%20and%20phonological%20disorders&hl=en&lr
=&oi=scholart
This website has a list of articles and books that
deal with articulation and phonological disorders.
Although many references are duplicated and more
than ten years old, there are over 5,000 references
on this website.
www2.hu-berlin.de/angl/ling_pages/phonology_
phonetics.html
This website has some basic definitions of phonet-
ics and phonology. It also lists information on sev-
eral branches of phonetics (articulatory, acoustic,
and auditory phonetics) as well as makes the dis-
tinction between segmental and suprasegmental
phonology. Several references are also included.
FURTHER READINGS
Ball, M., & Rahilly, J. (1999). Phonetics: The science of
speech. London: Arnold.
Catford, J. (2002). A practical introduction to phonet-
ics (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Handke, J. (2000). The Mouton interactive introduc-
tion to phonetics and phonology. Berlin, New
York: Mouton de Gruyter.
ch01.indd 13
CLINICAL FRAMEWORK 13
www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/filologie/mateescu/
pdf21.pdf
This website, among other things, distinguishes
between phonetics and phonology and defines ar-
ticulatory, auditory, and acoustic phonetics. The
definitions appear easy to understand. This appears
to be Chapter 2 of a book or manuscript from the
University of Bucharest.
www.answers.com/topic/phonology and
www.answers.com/topic/phonetics
These websites provide basic definitions and exam-
ples of phonology and phonetics. They also provide
links to related topics. The website for phonetics
gives definitions of articulatory, acoustic, and audi-
tory phonetics.
Mackay, I. (1987). Phonetics: The science of speech
production (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Reid, N. (with H. Fraser). (1996). Phonetics: An in-
teractive introduction. Armidale, Australia: The
University of New England.
7/12/2007 8:03:02 AM