Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
net/publication/226082014
CITATIONS READS
8 203
1 author:
Pierre L Ibisch
Hochschule für nachhaltige Entwicklung Eberswalde
162 PUBLICATIONS 1,807 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Pierre L Ibisch on 19 May 2015.
Environmental Issues in Latin America and the Caribbean Romero, Aldemaro; West, Sarah E. (Eds.)
2005, XXI, 299 p., Springer, Hardcover ISBN: 1-4020-3773-2
2 Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Pierre L. Ibisch1
1
Science Department, Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza (FAN, Bolivia), former Integrated
Expert, Center for International Migration and Development (CIM, Germany), Faculty of
Forestry - University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde, Germany, Alfred-Möller-Str. 1, 16225
Eberswalde. pibisch@fh-eberswalde.de
Abstract: Bolivia is one of the most biological diverse countries of the world
maintaining vast, intact humid and dry forest ecosystems; yet, it is the
poorest country in South America where both poverty and development
lead to biodiversity degradation and loss. Conservation efforts have
evolved rapidly from the first species-protection-laws in the nineteenth
century, to the creation of the first national park in the mid-twentieth
century, to the implementation of the U.N. Convention on Biological
Diversity, the formulation of a national biodiversity strategy, and a current
national protected-area-coverage of 16%. However, there are severe
conflicts with accelerating economic and development. Threats in the most
sensible ecoregions (e.g. population shifts from the Andes to the forest
lowlands, increasing agricultural activities, growing activities of the oil and
gas sector, deforestation, climate change) represent important conservation
problems. Based on the current institutional, social, economic and
ecological situation, the paper describes the general challenges for future
biodiversity conservation.
Key Words: South America, developing country, environmental policy, protected areas
1. INTRODUCTION: A CONSERVATION
PROBLEM ARISING IN A MEGADIVERSITY
COUNTRY
Bolivia is located in the center of South America, in a transition zone
between humid tropical and dry subtropical climates including lowlands
below 300 m above sea level (asl) as well as high mountains up to almost
7,000 m asl. It is one of the world’s top biodiversity countries, containing
3. Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia 3
1
Website UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) 2001. The state of world population
2001. Footprints and milestones: population and environmental change. New York (Social,
demographic and economic indicators:
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2001/english/indicators/indicators2.html).
2
Compare results from the census of 2001. Webpage INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística,
La Paz; www.ine.gov.bo): Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda de 2001.
4 Chapter 3
insignificant (Hindery 1997). Bolivia was a true Andean country until the
opening up of three roads towards the lowlands, in the 1930s. In 1959 a
road from La Paz reached Caranavi in the Andean foothills (Monheim
1965), today an important colonization area. In 1939 a road reached Villa
Tunari in the Cochabamba Andean foothills: this was the starting point for
the development of one of the most important colonization and drug
production areas of Bolivia, the Chapare region. Until the 1990s,
immigration was rather high. An annual deforestation rate of about 3%
between 1990 and 1998 was among the highest in the country (Bruckner et
al., 2000).
3
Partially reproduced in Ibisch (2003a).
6 Chapter 3
only exotic species like Eucalpyptus globules were used (Stolz et al., 1986).
Native tree species were not utilized before the 1990s.
1960s: In 1960/1961 a decree was issued to protect lowland animal
resources like crocodiles and in 1965 the first lowland protected area was
created: the large Isiboro Secure National Park (1.2 million ha; Suárez
1985). However, during decades this park existed just as a ‘paper park’
without management and protection.
1970s: The notion of sustainable development was introduced into
international development cooperation. German cooperation turned from
classical afforestation projects to more integrated erosion protection ones
and institution building: a forestry school was established in Cochabamba
and an ecology institute in La Paz (1978; Morales 1982, Stolz et al., 1986).
The latter was mainly proposed and promoted by Ellenberg whose
ecological research made clear the necessity of planning a more sustainable
development (Ellenberg 1981). The creation of the National Ecology
Institute marks the beginning of the systematic research of Bolivian flora
and fauna that soon was supported by other international institutions. Many
of the leading Bolivian biologists were trained there. In 1979 Bolivia
ratified CITES.
1980s: Nature conservation became more concrete and intensive. In
1982 the Beni Biological Station was created. For some time it was
considered as a model protected area funded, in part, by the world’s first
debt-for-nature-swap. Four years later it was declared as a Man and the
Biosphere-UNESCO reserve (Salinas 1995). In 1982, the first ecological
journal of Bolivia was established: Ecología en Bolivia.
The importance of lowland natural resources was recognized and the
protected area concept was discussed more intensively. In the mid-80s,
about 6.4% of the country was legally protected, but only three national
parks existed: Isiboro Secure, Huanchaca (today, Noel Kempff Mercado),
and Amboró. These protected areas were established without applying
scientific criteria, planning methods, or appropriate management until 1985
(Stolz et al., 1986, Baudoin 1995). In 1986, the first strategic analysis of
Bolivian protected areas is carried out in order to prioritize areas under
threats (Hanagarth and Arce, 1986); however, it failed to have any effect on
the development of the national protected area system.
Up to this point, almost exclusively, international institutions had
promoted the conservation idea in Bolivia (especially IUCN). Since the
national government could not carry out biodiversity conservation
adequately, several NGOs were established, such as the CDC in La Paz,
FAN in Santa Cruz, and PROMETA in Tarija. Initially they were mainly
dedicated to the promotion of protected areas, but soon became players in
the development of the national environmental agenda. In 1985 the national
environmental umbrella organization LIDEMA (Liga para la Defensa del
Medio Ambiente) was founded (Marconi 1992b).
3. Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia 7
4
Compare, e.g., unpublished report: Navarro, G. 1992. Estudio de parques nacionales y otras
áreas protegidas. Informe final. Proyecto de Protección de los Recursos Naturales en el
Departamento de Santa Cruz (Componente Proyecto Tierras Bajas). Cooperación financiera
del Gobierno Alemán. CORDECRUZ – KFW – Consorcio IP/SCG/KWC, Santa Cruz.
8 Chapter 3
manage the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (Justiniano 1998, Sánchez
de Lozada 1998). The co-management was clearly successful, especially
related to the development of funding mechanisms. The park was enlarged
and supported significantly through a project of the UN-Framework
Convention on Climatic Change. In the context of this project and other
initiatives, the park gained international attention. In 2000 it was a model
project of the World Exposition in Hanover and was declared the first
Bolivian UNESCO Natural Heritage Site. Despite these successes, a strong
mistrust towards national NGOs persists in governmental circles.
The most immediate consequences of the biodiversity convention were
decrees on the access to genetic resources and on biosafety in 1997 (yet to be
enforced). 1997 marks the beginning of the latest phase of conservation
policy in Bolivia. The change in government led to a loss of prominence of
environmental issues as part of the national political agenda: for example,
the above-mentioned environmental ministry was renamed the Ministry for
Sustainable Development and Planning. Also, several donors began to give
priority to other projects.
The biodiversity directorate, the former DNCB, was divided into two
authorities: the General Directorate for Biodiversity (Dirección General de
Biodiversidad, DGB) and the National Service for Protected Areas (Servicio
Nacional de Areas Protegidas, SERNAP). As a consequence the national
biodiversity authority as artificially split, impeding integral approaches.
This was especially counterproductive given the increasing need to establish
a regional biodiversity vision and to coordinate actions involving protected
areas and non-protected areas. In the mid-1990s international cooperation
started projects and funding programs supporting the national protected area
system (e.g. GTZ: MAPZA bufferzone project). Support from international
donors strengthened the SERNAP while the DGB was weakened.
Nevertheless, the DGB promoted the implementation of the Biodiversity
Convention. In 1998, at the Conference of the Parties in Bratislava, the first
national report on convention implementation was presented with the
participation of non-governmental organizations. From 1999 onwards, a
national biodiversity strategy was elaborated (MDSP 2002). A regional
biodiversity strategy among Andean countries that was elaborated shortly
afterwards did not have a similar effect and participation.
2000 onwards: Independently of governmental efforts, the discussion of
regional and transnational ecosystem conservation became significant. From
the late 1990s onwards there was a coordination of bi-national protection
activities (e.g. La Paz: Madidi, Peruvian border; Oruro: Sajama, Chilean
border; Tarija: Tariquia, Argentinean border; Santa Cruz: Noel Kempff
Mercado, Brazilian border). The World Wildlife Fund and others introduced
ecoregional and corridor planning (Ibisch et al., 2001).
At the same time the original monopoly of institutions from La Paz is
fading while strong players are emerging in Santa Cruz and Tarija. Some
3. Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia 9
indigenous peoples have become actual or potential allies because they are
the legal authorities of large territories (TCO: Tierras Comunitarias de
Origen). In some cases they promote protected area management (e.g.
Capitania Bajo y Alto Izozog, CABI, managing the Chaco National Park Kaa
Iya). The ‘municipalization’ of the country is an important process, giving
more political and economic power to smaller and more operational
administration units that are more accountable. They will be responsible for
the small-scale land-use planning. Recently, the first municipal protected
area was created: the Tucavaca Valley and Santiago Mountains area
(Robison et al., 2002). The Bolivian protected area system (16% of the
national territory) is characterized by integrating several very large reserves.
Only 6% of the protected areas of the world are larger than 1 million ha
(Green and Paine 1999). In Bolivia there are six protected sites belonging to
this category: Gran Chaco (about 3.5 million ha), San Matías (almost 3
million ha), Madidi-Apolobamba and Pilón Lajas complex (almost 2.8
million ha), Noel Kempff Mercado (about 1.5 Mio. ha), and
Amboró/Carrasco complex (about 1.25 million ha). The best represented
ecological regions are the subandean Amazon rain forests (belonging to the
southwest Amazon ecoregion) with 58% covered by protected areas. Other
well represented regions are Pantanal savannas (40.7%), Cerrado (39%),
Yungas (39.2%), Yungas Páramo (33%), and Gran Chaco (30.8%). Low
protected area coverage, e.g. in degraded Andean puna regions, are not
necessarily cause for concern. However, there are some regions where
representation should be improved, especially to guarantee long-term
viability of taxa and ecological functionality (e.g. Amazon gallery forests,
Ibisch 2003b).
The creation of the Tucavaca Valley and Santiago Mountains Municipal
Protected Area was made economically possible by a foundation created by
environmental organizations and energy companies (Ibisch et al., 2002b).
Especially since the oil and gas industry has become so significant, affecting
valuable and intact ecosystems, first experiences have shown how these
companies can participate in biodiversity conservation or mitigation
projects. Industrial activities and the involvement of industrial sectors in
conservation are polemic. In recent years the conservationist movement in
Bolivia has split into a fundamentalist faction on one side and a pragmatic
one on the other. The Chaco National Park was the first protected area to be
affected by a pipeline and receive compensation funding. Plans to explore
oil reservoirs by The Andina corporation within their legally assigned
concession in the Amboró National Park were rejected (after strong public
outcry). Simultaneously, concessions were awarded and exploited in other
protected areas. Unfortunately, legal provisions for protection of high
biodiversity areas with intact ecosystems are superseded by many oil and gas
concessions (Fig. 3).
10 Chapter 3
3. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
CHALLENGES
In many tropical countries conservationists are losing the battle against
deforestation and extinction (e.g., Whitten et al., 2001). In Bolivia, a
country with a very low population density and vast areas with practically
virgin forests, there is still much hope for biodiversity. However, after
recovering from extreme political instability that impeded investment and
economic development, Bolivia is discovering new resources like gas while
being depicted as a strategic bi-oceanic transport country, attracting
development capital that is rapidly changing the country’s realities without
necessarily reducing poverty.
Conservation action in Bolivia should be successful once: (a) the best use
is made of existing information on threats and values to prioritize most
urgent actions and conservation investments, (b) biodiversity conservation
becomes part of an integral policy and land-use planning, and, (c) more
funding generated by diversifying sources and partners.
and supported in establishing conservation areas that may fill critical gaps in
the national protected area system.
C. More funding from diversifying sources and partners: Today the
traditional charitable funding sources are not sufficient to cover conservation
needs. The two main financial challenges are to internalize the
environmental costs of development activities and to develop environmental
services that pay off. Bolivia does not assign developers their environmental
duty in an adequate and sufficient way. Special attention must be given to
oil and gas operations and to road construction projects.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author, from 1997 until 2003, was an Integrated Expert with the
Bolivian conservation NGO, F.A.N., is supported by the German
government (CIM/GTZ), and thanks all persons and institutions that made
possible the diverse insights and experiences related to Bolivian biodiversity
conservation during his work in and for Bolivia, since 1991. Helena
Robison revised the English manuscript. An anonymous reviewer provided
valuable suggestions.
REFERENCES
Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., 1998, Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development
Research and Policy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
Baudoin, M., 1995, Conservation of biological diversity in Bolivia, in: National Parks
without People? The South American Experience, Amend S. and T., eds., IUCN, Quito,
Ecuador, pp. 95-102.
Beck, S.G., 1998, Floristic inventory of Bolivia – an indispensable contribution to sustainable
development?, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy,
Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 243-268.
3. Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia 15
Bruckner, A., Navarro, G. and Fereira, W.J., 2000, Evolución del paisaje y alternativas de
ordenamiento sostenible en la región del Chapare, Bolivia, Revista Boliviana de Ecología
y Conservación Ambiental 7:47-65.
Camacho, O., Cordero, W., Martínez, I. and Rojas, D. 2001, Tasa de Deforestación del
Departamento de Santa Cruz, Bolivia 1993-2000, BOLFOR, Superintendencia Forestal,
Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
CUMAT (Centro de Investigaciones de la Capacidad de Uso Mayor de la Tierra), 1992,
Desbosque de la Amazonia Boliviana, La Paz, Bolivia.
Demeure, J., 1999, Agricultura, in: Bolivia en el Siglo XX. La Formación de la Bolivia
Contemporánea, Campero, F., ed., Harvard Club de Bolivia, La Paz, Bolivia, pp. 269-290.
DNCB (Dirección Nacional para la Conservación de la Biodiversidad), 1997, Working for the
Conservation of Bolivian Biodiversity, La Paz, Bolivia.
Ellenberg, H., 1958, Wald oder Steppe? Die natürliche Pflanzendecke Perus, Umschau
1958:645-648, 679-681.
Ellenberg, H., 1981, Desarrollar sin Destruir. Respuestas de un Ecólogo a 15 Preguntas de
Agrónomos y Planificadores Bolivianos, Instituto de Ecología, La Paz, Bolivia.
Fjeldså, J. and Rahbek, C., 1998, Priorities for conservation in Bolivia, illustrated by a
continent-wide analysis of bird distributions, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for
Development Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Germany, pp. 313-328.
Green, M.J. and Paine, J., 1999, State of the world’s protected areas at the end of the 20th
century, in: Partnerships for Protection. New Strategies for Planning and Management for
Protected Area, Stolton, S. and Dudley, N., eds., Earthscan Publications, London, UK, pp.
18-28.
Hanagarth, W. and Arce, J.P., 1986, La situación de los parques nacionales y reservas de vida
silvestre en el Departamento de La Paz, en el marco de una planificación regional,
Ecología en Bolivia 9:1-67.
Hanagarth, W. and Szwagrzak, A., 1998, Geoecology and biodiversity – problems and
perspectives for the management of natural resources of Bolivia’s forest and savanna
ecosystems, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy,
Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 289-312.
Herzog, S., 2003, Aves, in: Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado de Conocimiento y
Conservación, Ibisch, P.L. and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, pp.
141-145.
Hindery, D.L., 1997, A History of Tropical Deforestation in the Bolivian Amazon. Thesis,
Faculty of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, USA;
http://thefuturemall.com/academics/theses/tblcntnt.html.
Hutterer, R., 1998, Diversity of mammals in Bolivia, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for
Development Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Germany, pp. 279-288.
Ibisch, P.L., 1996, "Reparieren" von degradierten Agrar-Ökosystemen in den Anden
zwischen Theorie und Praxis - Beispiel Provinz Arque, Bolivien, Kritische Ökologie
14(2):9-15.
Ibisch, P.L., 1998, Bolivia is a megadiversity country and a developing country in:
Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and
Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 213-241.
Ibisch, P.L., 2002, Evaluation of a rural development project in southwest Cochabamba,
Bolivia, and its agroforestry activities involving Polylepis besseri and other native species
– a decade of lessons learned, Ecotropica 8:205-218.
Ibisch, P.L., 2003a, Historia de la conservación de la biodiversidad en Bolivia, in:
Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado de Conocimiento y Conservación, Ibisch, P.L.
and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, pp. 348-357.
16 Chapter 3
Ibisch, P.L., 2003b, Apuntes acerca de vacíos de protección en Bolivia, in: Biodiversidad:
Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado de Conocimiento y Conservación, Ibisch, P.L. and Mérida, G.,
eds., Editorial FAN, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, pp. 391-417.
Ibisch, P.L. and Beck, S.G. 2003, Espermatófitas, in: Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia.
Estado de Conocimiento y Conservación, Ibisch, P.L. and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN,
Santa Cruz, Bolivia, 103-112.
Ibisch, P.L., Beck, S.G., Gerkmann, B. and Carretero, A., 2003, Ecoregiones y ecosistemas,
in: Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado de Conocimiento y Conservación, Ibisch,
P.L. and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, pp. 47-88. (Ibisch et al.,
2003a)
Ibisch, P.L., Chive, J.C., Espinoza, S.D. and Araujo, N.V., 2003, Hacia un mapa del estado de
conservación de los ecosistemas de Bolivia, in: Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado
de Conocimiento y Conservación, Ibisch, P.L. and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN, Santa
Cruz, Bolivia, pp. 264-271. (Ibisch et al., 2003b)
Ibisch, P.L., Columba, K. and Reichle, S., eds., 2002, Plan de Conservación y Desarrollo
Sostenible para el Bosque Seco Chiquitano, Cerrado y Pantanal Boliviano, Editorial
FAN, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. (Ibisch et al., 2002b)
Ibisch, P.L., Müller, R. and Nowicki, C., 2001, El bio-corredor Amboró-Madidi – primeros
insumos botánicos para un Plan de Conservación, Revista de la Sociedad Boliviana de
Botánica 3(1/2):64-103.
Ibisch, P. L., Nowicki, C., Gonzáles, R., Oberfrank, T., Specht, C., Araujo, N. and
Minkowski, K., 2000, Identification of conservation priorities in the Bolivian Amazon - A
new biological-socioeconomic methodology using GIS, in: Knowledge Partnership.
Challenges and Perspectives for Research and Education at the Turn of the Millenium.
14.-15.10.1999. Session Biodiversity, Nature Conservation and Development, Proceedings
”Deutscher Tropentag 1999”, Humboldt-University and ATSAF, Berlin, Germany (CD-
ROM).
Ibisch, P.L., Nowicki, C., Müller, R. and Araujo, N., 2002, Methods for the assessment of
habitat and species conservation status in data-poor countries - case study of the
Pleurothallidinae (Orchidaceae) of the Andean rain forests of Bolivia, in: Proceedings of
the First International congress “Conservation of Biodiversity in the Andes and the
Amazon Basin", 24.-28.09.2001, Cusco, Peru, Bussmann, R.W. and S. Lange, eds., pp.
225-246. (Ibisch et al., 2002a).
Jones, J.C., 1995. Enviromental destruction, ethnic discrimination, and international aid in
Bolivia. In: Painter, M. and W.H. Durham (eds.): The social causes of environmental
destruction in Latin America. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, USA: 162-
216.
Justiniano, H., 1998, Friends of Nature Foundation (FAN Bolivia) – the involvement of
NGOs in conservation in Bolivia, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development
Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Germany, pp. 389-398.
Kessler, M., 1995, Polylepis-Wälder Boliviens: Taxa, Ökologie, Verbreitung und Geschichte,
Dissertationes Botanicae, Vol. 246. J. Cramer in der Gebr. Borntraeger
Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin, Stuttgart, Germany.
Kessler, M., 1998, Land use, economy and the conservation of biodiversity of high-Andean
forests in Bolivia, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy,
Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 339-352.
Kessler, M. and Driesch, P. 1994, Causas e historia de la destrucción de bosques altoandinos
en Bolivia, Ecología en Bolivia 21:1-18.
Killeen, T.J. and Schulenberg, T.S., eds., 1998, A Biological Assessment of the Parque
Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, RAP Working Papers Number 10, Conservation
International, Washington D.C., USA.
3. Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia 17
Köhler, J., Lötters, S. and Reichle, S., 1998, Amphibian species diversity in Bolivia, in:
Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and
Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 329-338.
Marconi, M., 1991, Catálogo de Legislación Ambiental en Bolivia, Centro de Datos para la
Conservación (CDC-Bolivia), La Paz, Bolivia.
Marconi, M., 1992a, ed., Conservación de la Diversidad Biológica en Bolivia, CDC, La Paz,
Bolivia.
Marconi, M., 1992b, Marco jurídico e institucional de la conservación, in: Marconi, M. (eds.):
Conservación de la Diversidad Biológica en Bolivia, CDC, La Paz, Bolivia, pp. 391-438.
MDSP (Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación), 2001, El Proceso de
Participación en el Diseño y Formulación de la Estrategia Nacional de Conservación y
Uso Sostenible de la Biodiversidad de Bolivia, La Paz, Bolivia.
MDSP, 2002, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad, La Paz, Bolivia.
Miller, K., 1980, Planificación de Parques Nacionales para el Ecodesarrollo en
Latinoamérica, FEPMA (Fundación para la Ecología y la Protección del Medio Ambiente,
Spain).
Monheim, F., 1965, Junge Indianerkolonisation in den Tiefländern Ostboliviens, Georg-
Westermann-Verlag, Braunschweig, Germany.
Montes de Oca, I., 1989, Geografía y Recursos Naturales de Bolivia. 1. edition, La Paz,
Bolivia.
Moraes, M., 1998, Richness and utilization of palms in Bolivia – some essential criteria for
their management, in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy,
Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 269-278.
Morales de, C., 1982, Presentación de Instituto de Ecología, Ecología en Bolivia 1:5-7.
Pacheco, P., 1997, La Deforestación y la Degradación de los Bosques en las Tierras Bajas,
La Paz, Bolivia.
Reichle, S., 2003, Anfibios, in: Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado de Conocimiento y
Conservación, Ibisch, P.L. and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, pp.
133-137.
Robison, D., Salas, H., Linzer, K., Saucedo, R. and Balcazar, K., eds., 2002, Plan de Manejo
de la Reserva Municipal del Valle de Tucavaca, F.A.N. and Municipio de Roboré,
Editorial F.A.N., Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
Salazar, J. and Emmons, L. 2003, Mamíferos, in: Biodiversidad: Riqueza de Bolivia. Estado
de Conocimiento y Conservación, Ibisch, P.L. and Mérida, G., eds., Editorial FAN, Santa
Cruz, Bolivia, pp. 146-148.
Salinas, E., 1995, Beni Biosphere Reserve and Biological Station: education and
development, in: National Parks without People? The South American Experience,
Amend S. and T., eds., IUCN, Quito, Ecuador: pp. 103-116.
Sánchez de Lozada, A., 1998, Conservation of biodiversity: a national task, in: Biodiversity -
a Challenge for Development Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and Winiger, M., eds.,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 369-388.
Seibert, P., 1993, Vegetation und Mensch in Südamerika aus historischer Sicht,
Phytocoenologia 23:457-498.
Steininger, M.K., Tucker, C.J., Townsend, J.G., Killeen, T.J., Desch, A., Bell, V. and Ersts,
P., 2001, Tropical deforestation in the Bolivian Amazon, Environmental Conservation
28:127-134. (Steininger et al., 2001b).
Steininger, M.K., Tucker, C.J., Ersts, P., Killeen, T.J., Villegas, Z. and Hecht, S.B., 2001,
Clearance and fragmentation of tropical deciduous forest in the Tierras Bajas, Santa Cruz,
Bolivia, Conservation Biology 15:856-866. (Steininger et al., 2001a).
Stolz, R., Beck, S., Espig, G., Hanagarth, W. and Roth, H.H., 1986, Möglichkeiten zur
Nutzung der Tropenwaldressourcen in Nord- und Ostbolivien unter Einbeziehung
ökologischer Aspekte, Forschungsauftrag des Bundesministeriums für wirtschaftliche
Zusammenarbeit, Bonn, Germany.
18 Chapter 3
Suárez M., O., 1985, Parques Nacionales y Afines de Bolivia, La Paz, Bolivia.
Villwock, W., 1998, Using Lake Titicaca’s biological resources – problems and alternatives,
in: Biodiversity - a Challenge for Development Research and Policy, Barthlott, W. and
Winiger, M., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 353-368.
Whitten, T., Holmes, D. and MacKinnon, K., 2001, Conservation Biology: a displacement
behaviour for academia? Conservation Biology 15:1-3.
Wilkes, D.R. and Lowdermilk, W.C., 1938, Soil conservation in ancient Peru, Soil
Conservation 4(4):91-94.
3. Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia
Figure 3-1
Chapter 3 Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia
.
Figure 3-2
Chapter 3 Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia
Figure. 3-3
Chapter 3 Biodiversity Conservation in Bolivia
Figure 3-4