Adamson Nucleus Biology

NUCLEUS
English for Science and Technology
Donald Adamson /Martin Bates

NUCLEUS
ENGLISH FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BIOLOGY
Donald Adamson
Martin Bates
Series Editors
Martin Bates and Tony Dudley- Evans
Science Adviser to the Series
Arthur Godman C. Chern. , MRIC
. ..
~
......
~~~
Longman
Contents
page
U nit I Properties and Shapes I
Unit 2 Location 7
Unit , 3 Stru cture 15
U nit A Revision 22
Unit 4 Measurement I 26
Unit , 5 Process 1 Function and Ability 34
Un it 6 Process 2 Actions in Sequence 39
Unit ' B Revision 47
U nit 7 Measurement 2 Quantity 51
Unit 8 Pr ocess 3 Ca use and Effect 58
Unit 9 Measurement 3 Proportion 66
Unit C Revision 74
Unit 10 Me asurement 4 Frequency, Tendency, Probability 79
Unit II Process 4 Method 87
Unit 12 Consolidation 93
G lossary 100
Unit 1 Properties and Shapes
Section 1 Presentation
I. Look at this diagram :
Living organisms
Anima ls Plant s
I
I I,
__1_ -
Vertebra te Invertebrate Non- flow ering Flowering plants
animals an imal s plants ( these have
( these have (these do not (these do not flowers )
vertebrae ) have vertebrae) have flowers)
e.q. a sna il e.g. a mu shroom
Now complete these sentences with words from the diagram:
a) Biologists st udy . . . . Zoo logists study . . . • whereas bota nists

study . .. .
b) Animals are divided into . . . and .
c) There arc two main groups of plants : and . . .
d) A lion is a It ha s ... .
e) A snail is It .
f ) A mu sh ro om It .
g) A sunflower . .. .
1
· .," - W>~
. . . . . . . . . . . &gaam:
Verteb rates
,.---- ---.JL -.
I
Warm -bl ood ed Cold· blooded
I I
I I I I
M ammals Birds Reptiles Fish
hair.and skin feathers and w ing s dry scales damp skin dam p sca les
lung s lungs lung s adults have lungs gills
on land on land on land the young have g ills in wa ter
on land and
in water
e.g . a cow e.g. a du ck e.g. a liza rd e.g . a ,frog e.g . a shark
~~
I
............_- -
Read these exam ples :
Mammals are war m-blooded vertebrates. Th ey have hair and skin.

T hey have lungs. T hey live o n land ,
A cow is a mammal. It has hair and skin. It has lun gs. It lives on
land.
Now make similar statements about birds, reptile s, amphibian s, fish ; a duck.
a lizard. a frog. a sha r k,
3. Look at Ihis example :
Birds are warm-blooded vertebra tes with feathers. wings and lungs. living
o n land.
Now make similar statements about the fo llo wing :
Rept iles ,
Mammals .
Fish . , , .
4. Answer these questions with information from the diagrams above:
a) Why ca n't fish breathe on land '?

b) Why can birds fly"
c) Why can small mammals live in cold climates?
d) Why can yo ung amphibians Jive in water '?
e) Why is the body of a cat warm ?
f) Why is the body of a sna ke co ld"
2
Section 2 Development
5. Look and read:
( 0 ~
a rod a chain
a commaS )
square -ended
( )
a spiral flagella
rou nd -ended
The shapes of bacteria

Bacteria (singular bacterium ) are very small o rganisms with single
cells. They can be divided into three groups according to shape.
Cocci (singular coccus) : These are spherical in shape. Some species

occ ur in groups ; some occur in chains (streptococci ); some have two
cells joined together (diploco cci ).
Bacilliform bacteria : Th ese are cylindrical or rod-shaped. Some are

round-ended rods ; others have square ends. Some bacilli have long
flagella.
Spirilla (singular sp irillum): These are spiral in shape. The bacterium

which cau ses cholera (Vibrio choleroev is comma-shaped with a single
flagellum.
Look at these bacteria :
Streptococc i Vibrio cholerae ototocoact
Spiroc haete Bacillus tub erculosis Salmonella typh i
Clostridium tetent
Escherichia c oli (wit h spore) Staph ylococci
3
a) List each bacterium under these headings:
Cocci Bacilli Spirilla
b) Now describe the appearance of each of the bacteria in the above

diagram s.
Section 3 . Reading
6. Look at these diagrams which illustrate "ords in the reading passage below:
~-:1
curved ribbon
flat
/' a cylind rical shape U
a rectangular shape taperi ng
segments
I
IL..--...II-L...--I a sphe rical sha pe V
8 swelling
(
a groove
a ~
a hook o: a ring
a transverse se~ a lo ng itudinal section ......~_,
the anterior end the posterior end These circles are 8venty spaced.
4
Now read these descriptions :
Two simple invertebrates

The tapcwonn is a para site which lives in the intestines of vertebrate
animals. Its body is flat and ribbon-like. The body is divided into
flat rectangular segments. These are smaller at the anterior end. The
head is small and spherical. It has four evenly-spaced suckers. which
a re circular in shape. On top of the head there is a curved projection.
Around this there is a ring of hoo ks.
The car thwonn lives in the soil. Its body is roughly cylindrical in
shape. The posterior end is tapering and slightly flatt ened. The
anterior end is slightly tapering. The body is divided by tra nsverse
grooves into about 150 rings or segments. Near the middle of the
body there is a swelling. called the c1itellum.
Look at these diagrams :
a) b) c)
5 I)
jJrn~-g)
0) " \
h)
j)
\
Now say what these diagrams show, choosing from the captions below. Give
reasons for yo ur choice. -.
5 Ex am ple .' Diagram (1) shows an earthworm . It is roughly cylindri-

cal in sha pe a nd one part is swollen.
5
The head of a ta peworm
The transverse section of an earthworm
The longitud inal section of a tapeworm
An earthworm
The longitudinal section of an earthworm
A tapeworm
The transverse section of a tapeworm
7. Match the following wilh the letters in diagrams (1), (5\ and (6) above.
a circular part a swelling
a spherical part ,a cylindrical segment
a ring of hooks a flattened part
evenly spaced parts a curved projecti on
a rectangular segment a transverse groove
Section 4 Listening
8. Look at these diagrams. Then listen to the sentences. Write down whether
each sentence is true or false.
Antelope
Snai l
...~l ·" "..

' ... • •
~
..
o,f"
,,
~ ~
~' .. . . .
.• , ... ...
~.
~ ..:
. - ~. '- "
........'t ••-:-
Hawk
Earthworm Tortoise
Now listen to each sentence again. Write them down, correcting the false
statements.
6
Unit 2 Location
I. Look and read :
superio r or above
latera l
\ A
th e tip ,.,..,~~=;p==~
the end B ) x between
inferior or below
2.1 the base
A is lateral to B. }
{ A proj ects laterallyfrom B.
A
. { SUperior 1O }
IS abo ve C.
C is { inf erior
below
to } A .
x is be /wee n A and C. Yis { ;:~~;~~1} at the base.
f ound
flo wer bud --' .K-~
N ow loo k at thi s diagram ;
f ruit
shoot
lat eral shoot

internode
leaf - - ....;::;;;;,y
stem -t-r-r 1.'-;'
gro und-Ievel ---_-hl-_~--
A flowering plant ( T'alinum triangulare s root

main or tap foot
7
Answer these questions :
a ) Where is the shoot usually found - above or below gro und-level?
b) Where is the roo t usually found ?
c) Which parts arc lateral to the stem?
d) Which parts are located at the tip of the flowering shoo t ?
e) Which part of the plant is situated at the base?
f ) What projects lat erally from the root ?
g) Where is the intern ode in relation to the nodes?
h) Are the bud s inferior to the stem?
2: Look and read:
, ~-
-:-_.- ~
the surface - - -+
x
:~
- .. _ , -
--. . -- ---- -'

_
J
_ _ ".. . . . . . .
,:
J
the centre
inner
middle
t layers
outer
x runs through the centre
Now look at these diagr ams :

vascular
cambium pith bundle cortex epidermis
xylem
'tl-~ p h l oe m :i~~~r--:ortex
~::\--,&: __cambium
.. . xy lem }'-"§
tIIIih'jf Phloem .c
'-Ph :·;]}
: 10
""" v-",:~" pericycle a
::--Q';;;~ ~
pith
epidermis hollow
Stereogram of a plant stem Transverse section o f a young
sunflower stem
Complete these sentences :
The . . . of a plant stem is a thin layer which is called the epidermis.
Inside the epidermis there are three . ..
The . . . layer is called the cor tex.
There is pith in the . .. .
... the pith and the cortex there is a . .. , which is called the ca m-
bium.
Some plants have a hollow in the ... of the stem.
The vascular bundles are tubes which run . . . the stem.
The xylem, the phloem and the pericycle a re situated .
The . .. is on the outside of the vascular bundl e, the is on the
inside and the .. . is between them .
a
3. Look at the diagram and read the text. Choose the correct words from the
pairs.
rJ'- - - - - --stigma} , 'I
It--_~----- style ptsn
stamen- - - - - -f-"" --\

-j~------ pe l a l
717'7"'-- - - - - - - - ovary
sepa l - - - - - - -- 'E::'"
-j-- - - -- - - - - recept acle
stem- - - - - - - - - - -tJ
Parts of a flower in longitudinal section
The flower is found at the end /ba se of the stem. It consists of a special
part of the stem/root which is ca lled the receptacle. and special
leaves called floral leaves. These are arranged in rings or whorls,
The sepals form the calyx. This is the lowest/highest and innermost/
outermost whorl.
The peta ls ofthe flower form the corolla. They lie inside/ou tside the
sepa ls and are attached slightly higherjlower on the receptacle.
The stamens, or male reprod uctive orga ns lie outside/inside the
petals. They arc outs ide/inside the pistil, or female organ. This rises
from the base/centre of the receptacle. It has an oval)' at the tip/base.
Below/a bove the oval)' is the style. At the tip/base of thc style are the
stigmas.
4. Look at these diagrams:
Hypogynous flower Epigynous flower
Perigynous flower
Variation in the shape of the receptacle in different kinds of flower
Now answer these questions :

Which part of the flower varies in shape?
Which part varies in position ?
Which kind of flower has a conical oval)' ?
9
5. Look and read:
upper part
behind
.i.->:
in front ,
side
lower part
In biology,special words are used for the position of parts of animals .

The upper parts of the body are superior to the lower parts , which
are inferior.
Posterior means behind and anterior means in front. Parts which
are at or ncar the back of the body are dorsal. Parts which are
opposite the back are ventral (i.e. near the stomach).
Thus in human beings, the ventral parts are anteri or and the dorsal
.parts arc posterior. whereas in o ther animals the ventral parts are
inferior and the dorsal parts are superior. The central part of the
body, running from head to tail, is called the median. Parts in this
region are medial, whereas parts near the sides of the body are later- .
Add labels and captions to these diagrams:
"
;J...
n
•
.,. •
i
,
·,1
.
OJ
10
6. Look at this diagram:
right pulmonary artery
anterior vena cava_ _

aorta
left pulmonary vein -
-
liver ________
posterior vena cava-e,
hepatic portal vein- 1'-- - "UI. -- - - left kidney
renal vein
intestine
Th e hum an blood system
Now say wheth er these statements are true o r fal se. Correct the false sta teme nts.
a) The auricles of the heart are superior to the ventricles.
b) Th e pulm onary vein enters th e heart by the left auricle,
c) The pulm onary artery takes blood from the left ventricle to the
liver.
d) The ao rta is posterio r to the heart.
e) Th e anterio r vena cava enters the heart by the right ventri cle
f) The kidneys are medial to the aor ta and posterio r vena cava .
g) In hum an beings, the anterior vena cava is inferior to the heart.
h) The blood from the intestine passes through the coeliac a rtery to
the liver.
i) The ju gular vein is in th e region of the neck,
j) The renal veins lie between the kidneys and the vena cava ,
k) In biological dia grams. organs o n the left side of the body are
shown on the right.
II
Section 3 Reading
7. Read this passage. The diagrams show the meaning of new words.
around This
contains a strand
this.
not
ex posed
Teeth
The lo wer part of a to oth is inside the jaw -bone, while the upper part
is expo sed. The exterior o f the ex posed part consists o f ename l. T his
is a very hard. no n-living material which fo rms a good surface fo r
biting.
U nder the enamel there is a part made o f a mat erial ca lled dent ine.
This is also hard but it is less brittle than enamel. It is like bone in
structure. It co ntain s living strands o f cyto plasm .
In the centre of the tooth there is a mat erial called pulp. T his
consists o f so ft connective tissue. Inside the pulp there are se nso ry
nerve endings and blood capilla ries.
The lo wer part of the tooth is called the roo t. It is held to the jaw-
bone by tou gh fibres.
Aro und the dentine at the root there is a thin layer of ce ment.
This is also a bone-like material.
T he flesh aro und the base of the ena mel is called the gum.
Now add these labels to the diag ra m below :
jaw-bone pulp cement

ename l senso ry nerve ending gum
dentine blood ca pilla ries roo t
a)
~~ b)
c)- -'ch :'< ~+-- h )
i)
Molar tooth (nerve shown on the right. blood capillaries on th e left)
12
8. Write short answers to these questions:
a) Which part of the tooth is outside the jaw-bone ?
b) What is there on the surface of this part?
c) Which two materials arc like bone?
d) What is on the surface of the lower part of the tooth ?
e) Where is the soft part of the tooth?
fj Which material is not living?
9. Look at these examples:

Simila rities: The leaves of a plant arc found above the ground.
The flowers of a plant are found abo ve the ground.
i.e. Both the leaves and the flowers of a plant are found
above the ground.
Differences: The shoot is found above the ground .

The root is found below the ground.
. ji,'hile "-
i.e. The shoot is found above the ground',\:rhereasfthe
root is found below the ground.

Now join these pairs of sentences with both . . . and or while/whereas:
a) The buds arc found at the tip of the shoot.
The flowers are found at the tip of the shoot.
b) The outer layer is called the cortex.
The middle layer is called the cambium.
c) The calyx is outside the reproductive organs .
The corolla is outside the reproducti ve organ s.
d) The stamen is a reproductive organ .
The pistil is a reproductive organ.
e) A hypogynous flower has a conical ovary .
A perigynous flower has a cup-shaped ovary.
f) The arteries take blood from the heart.
The veins take it back to the heart.
13
Section 4 Listening
10. Look at this diagram and then lislen to the passage. Number the words
below in the order in which ~·ou hear them.
antenna
thora~\:,..:::::::::::::::::======:::::::::::::::=- __ abdomen
- cercus
style
Jaw. " posmcn
. . 0f
(mandible)
spiracles
othe r
mouth parts tarsus
The cockroach (P eriplaneta americana : male)
tibia femur cockroach tarsus

thorax compound eye claw Jaw
fore-wing spiracles cercus
abdomen antennae style
Now listen to the sentences describing the parts of the cockroach. Say whether
they are true o r false. Write them down. co rrecting the false statements.
14
Unit 3 Structure
I. Look and read :
16
caudal
vertebrae
pelvic girdle fibula

.---:-- tibia
hind limb ~i'l:ol""...t~."
\
foot
pectoral girdle
Append icular Skelet on
Skeleton of a rabbit showing axial skeleton and left side of app endi-
c ular skeleto n
The skeleton consists of two sections - the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleto n.
The vertebral co lumn is made up of bony seg ments called. vertebrae.
The vertebral column is divided into five regions.
These region s include the cervical vertebrae. the thoracic vertebrae
etc.
The bone of the vertebrae surrounds the spinal cord (nervous tissue).
which runs through the centre of the vertebral column.
~
~ _ anterior view
."'". of ve rtebrae
-'
The skeleton is composed of a hard material called bone,

The body is supported by the skeleton.
r;::;:q
1J\7ff
support
15
The ribs are uuuched to the vertebral co lumn.
att
G: A'
detached
The limbs are connected to the axial skeleton hy the girdles,
GJ=rO
connection
The bones in the limbs are joined together. The regio ns where they
join arc called joilllS.
~
JOint

a) What docs the appendicular skeleto n co nsist o f'?
h) 0 0 the regions of the vertebral co lumn include the ribs?
c) What is the hind limb made up of?
d) Which pa rt of the hind limb is divided into several small bones?
e) \Vhich bones surro und the lungs '?
f) What is the spinal cord com posed of?
g) What is suppor ted by the cervical vertebrae ?
h) Which ribs arc atta ched at one end and detached at the other?
i) 1I0 w is the fore limb co nnected to the axia l skeleto n?
j) Which bo ne is joined to the pelvic girdle?

skull
neck ve rte bra e - -- - - - - --
sternum - -. - -
9 - ----- - - _ _ _ _ _ _ clavicle
spatula
--
ribs -=~ ' ---'----fj
- ----- :2I -l\-- - - - - t h oracic verte brae
(elbow joint) - - - - - -CW . -- - - - humerus
~ Iumbar verte brae

~--_.-
pelvi s r-'"'" - 'L
$,\.
,/,1
- - - - - -radius
---------ulna
.-- -_. . _ .- . - - "-

- - - -- I
I
femur -
pat ella - - - - ---
--_.-----
tibia -- -- --- ---- - .-
fibu la -~-.• '.--
----
- - --
The human skeleto n
16
Now co mplete these sentences with wo rds from the list :
arc attached to is connected to

cons ists of is co mposed of
are suppo rted by are joi ned to
include is divided into
joi nt
a) T he skeleton many bones joined together.

b) T hese bones the skull, the vertebral column, the pelvis etc.
c) The pelvis bone tissue.
d) The sku ll and upper parts of the skeleton . . . the vertebral co lumn.
e) The radius and the ulna . . . the humerus.
f) T his . . . is called the elbow.
g) Th e an ter ior ends of the ribs . . . the sternum.
h) Th e humerus .. . the vert ebral co lumn by the spatula.
i ) The vertebral column . . . neck vertebrae. thoracic vertebrae and
lumbar vertebrae.
3. Complele these sentences by saying what the parts are called. Nole the new
words iIIuslrated by the diagrams:
across
I' II
a bowl
= a series
1234 5
"" 1/
-- -- . disc
~
'
~
• •- / I'" arranged symmetrically
....
--
the hat covers the head
---I.-
~
~' \ not arranged symmetrically
Example : The part of the skeleton which is located above the spine
nown as } the skuII.

. { kcalled
IS
a) The large bowl-sha ped bone which surro unds the base of the
spme . . . .
b) T he two bon es in the lower part of the skeleton which are parallel
an d detached but joined at eac h end ....
c) The gro up of bone'S which a re arra nged symmetr ically on each
side of the vertebral column . . . .
d) The long flat bo ne located at the front of the upper part of the
skeleton , to which the ribs are attached . . .
e) The disc-sha ped bone which covers the fro nt of the knee-
jo int . . . .
f) T he bones which are con nected by the knee joint . . . .
17
g) The bones which sup port the pelvis . .. .
h) The two bones which run horizontally across the top of the
ribs . ...
i) Th e series of bones which ma ke up the spine . . .
4. Look at these examples :
The root of the tooth is emb edded in the gum.
contains }
The sto mach { IS. fill ed wun
. I food.
r::::::====:::o:-, __ cortex
The cortex of a plant stem is lined with
cambium .
cambium
Now read this :
The structure of plant cells

The outer layer of a plant cell is called the cell wall. Th is is composed
of a non-living ma terial ca lled cellulose. The inner surface of the cell
wall is lined with a layer of pro top lasm. The nucleus is embedded in
this layer. The pro to plasm which surrounds the nucleus is ca lled
cy toplasm. The cy to plasm so metimes co ntains chloroplasts. These
are small bod ies composed of pro tein. The surface of the cyto plasm
is co vered with a cell membrane. The centre o f a plant cell consists
of a cavity called the vacuole. It is filled with fl uid.
The walls of a plant cell are often joined to other cells which
surround it. Th e lining between the walls of two ce lls is ca lled the
middle lamella .
Now label the parts and com po sition of a plant cell in this diagra m using the
following words :
middle lamella chloroplast (cellulose)

cell wall nucleus (fluid)
vacuole cytop lasm (protein)
ce ll memb rane
a)
b ) ~_ ,,,
oj
!!U=- -
c) - - -+
IIIH-- - f)
18
d) - - '1 vacuole (fluid)
5. Look at these diagrams :
cyt op lasm cyt oplasm
nucleus
epiderm is cells
An imal cell ,iW}'-':"n uclei
cell walls ~> chloro plasts
- - palisade
cells
'. "
Leaf cells of a plant ,.
nucleus
"
--l:J ~_'.,-
,
cyto pla sm
nucleus
.,I cell w all

-'.
strands of cytopl asm !. vacuole
-~
';il-~;'~;
.. . '
Cells in spyrogyra Phloem cells of a plant stem
Now read these statements com paring the structure of the cell s :
Similarities : Both plant cells and animal cells conta in nuclei. A

plant cell contains a nucleus. An animal cell also
cont ains a nucleus.
Durcrellccs : Plant cells co ntain vacuoles. whereas animal cells

often do not have vacuoles.
Plant cells co ntain vacuoles. Animal cells. however,
often do not have vacuoles.
Now comp lete these comparisons:
a) . .. plant cells . . . animal cells contain . . . and . . .

b) Plant cells always co ntain anim al ce lls o ften .
c) Plant cells a rc surro unded by Animal cells. . . . • are not
d) Th e palisade cells of a leaf contai n . . . . The epidermis cells.

ho wever. . . . .
e) In plant cells ... anim al cells. the nucleus . . . by cytopla sm.
f) In the nucleus is embedded in the cyto plasm lining the cell
walls in . . . it is connected to the cell walls by . . . .
g) Cells in spyrogyra are joined end to end . Those in the phloem of
a plant stem . . .. Ho wever. the end walls of a . . . cell arc pe r-
fora ted (i.e, they cont ain holes). wherea s .
h ) In .. . the chloropl asts are spiral-sha ped in . . . they a re
round .
19
Section 3 Reading
6. Look and read:
palisade cell cut icle
tPalisade laver
} spongy layer
lower epidermis
stomata guard cells air space
The cell structure of the leaf
The surface of a leaf consists of a single layer of cells fitting closely

together with no air spaces between them. This outer layer is ca lled
the epidermis. Sometimes the upperepidermis is covered with a waxy
layer ca lled the cuticle, The stomata are located in the lower epider-
mis. The cells of the epidermis do not usually contain chloroplasts
and they arc transparent. The guard cells, however. do contain
chloropla sts. They are situated on either side of the stomata.
The middle part of the leaf. between the upper epidermis and the
lower epidermis, is made up of two layers ; the palisade laye r and the
sp ongy lay er. These two layers ma ke up the mesophyll.
Immediately below the upp er epidermis there is a row of tall
cylindrical cells. These co mprise the palisade layer. There are many
chloro plasts in the cyto plasm lining the walls of the palisade cells.
Chloroplasts are particles which are often disc-shaped . They are
composed of protein and contain chlorophyll.
In the spongy layer the cells do not all fit closely together and there
arc large air spaces between them. They contain fewer chloro plasts
than the cells in the palisade layer.
Now write co mplete answers to these questio ns :
a ) What th ree parts does the cell structure of a leaf consist of?
b) What is the mesophyll made up of'?
c ) Where are the stomata situated?
d) What are the cells on either side of the stomata called ?
e) Which cells contain no chloroplasts?
f) What is the upper epidermis sometimes covered with ?
20
g) What sha pe a rc the cells of the pal isade layer ?
h) Wh a t shape a re the chlo ro plasts?
i) What are chloroplasts made of?
j ) Where arc the large a ir spaces fo und ?
k) Which ce lls are not all joined together ?
7. Ma ke correct sentences from this table b)' putting the middle parts in the
right order :
a) The cytop lasm lining the walls of the cell s contains chloro plasts.
h) The cells surrounding the nucleus are called guard ce lls.
e) Th e wax y laye r co ntai ning large air spaces covers the surface of
the epidermis.
d) The protoplasm containing chlorophy ll is called cytoplasm.
e) The layer co mposed o f the spo ngy layer is kno wn as the
and the palisade layer spongy laye r.
f) The cells ca lled the cuticle do not contain
chlo ro plasts.
g) The part of the situated in the epidermis is known as the
leaf the mesophyll.
h) The walls on eac h side of the stoma ta make up the middle
lamella.
i) The part of the immediately below the epidermis is called the pali sade
leaf layer.
j) The particles o f similar cells joi ned to gether a re ca lled
chloropla sts.
Section 4 Listening
8. Listen to the text and number these words in the order in which you hear them:
consists of surrounded filaments fla gella

the centre co ntractile vacuoles the pyren oid attac he d
protein chlo ro plast ce ll wall eye-spot
Lahel th e dia gram with th ese words:
co ntractile vacuoles
cell wa ll
nucleus
a) 0)
pyrenoid
eye-spot I)
b)
chloroplas t
flagella ej j
Chlamydomonas (chlo roplast and cell wa ll in sectio n)
Listen to the senlences and say wheth er they a re true o r false. Wri te them
do wn. correctin g the false statements.
21
Unit A Revision
I . Look at this table :

The differences between animals and plants
A nimals Plants
N utrition is holozoic Nutrition is holophytic
(i.e. animals eat other (i.e. food is produced from
organisms) chemical substances)
No chlo rophyll Chlo ro phy ll present
Carbohyd ra tes sto red as glycoge n Carbohydrates stored as starch
Able to move F ixed
Usc a lo t of energy U se littl e ene rgy
Compact shape Sp readi ng and bran ching sha pe
Fixed num ber of parts Number o f pa rts not fixed
Growth takes place o nly during a Growth continues th rou ghout
limit ed pe riod of life life
(Note : There are some exceptions which a re not included here)
Now make complete sentences giving the differences between plants an d

an imals. Use the foll o wing expressio ns:
. a Is. . . .. { whereas}
In amm while . I
In p ants... .
In animals. . .. . In plan ts. {~~~~~e~~her hand} ..
ha ve
Anima ls are . .. . Plants. . . .
con tain
etc.
2. Read this text:
The structure of the eye in vertebrat es

The shape of the eyeball is spherical. The skin of the animal is con-
tinued over the eyeball as to ugh. transparent conjunctiva. The eye-
ba ll is ho llow, and its wall is made up of three layers of cells. Th e
outer layer is known as the sclerotic coal . T he anterior section of the
sclero tic coat fonns a tra nsparent windo w known 3 £ the cornea.
The midd le layer is called the choro id coal . In humans this forms a
blue or brown-coloured curtain or iris posterior to the cornea. The
22
-r,
inner layer or retina contains light-sensitive cells.

The optic Ilene passes through the retina in the lower posterior
section of the eyeball. The hole in the centre or the iris is called the
pupil. which is round in most animals. but in the cat is oval or slit-
shaped. In the an terior part of the eye. the place of the retina is
ta ken by the crys talline lens.
Now add these labels to the diagram below :
conjunctiva o ptic nerve

sclerotic coat crystalline lens
cho roid coat pupil
IfI S cornea
retina
i)
.)
I.--_-- h
)
b) ---/I
1 -- - - g)
c)
;::2'~--I)
d)
Section th rou gh human eye
3. No w complete the following sentences to match the idea in brackets :
a) The eyeball (shape)

b) The eyeball (structure)
c) Th e conj unctiva (prope rty )
d) The cornea (prapel'ty )
c) The iris (location)
f) The retina . " . (structure)
g) The point at which the o ptic nerve passes through the retina , ..
(locations ",
h) The pupil . .. . Uocatiom
i) Th e pup il , , . . (shape)
j) The crysta lline lens , " . (locutions
23
4. Look at these diagram s :
ep;derm;::;s~
collenchyma
cuticle
parenChyma-
1J~~~~~!!IIIIIIIIII~~i!
(
endode rmis ~:J-~{"~.~. iI'<?1';>'

lignin - - - - - - - - - :""'i",',-;.'r..;y";-j.
sieve tube
phloem par"e,~n~Ch~Y~m~a~: ;!;111.!ljl;~ij~!~~~j~~~~~
co mpanion cell
xylem parenchyma
pith pare nch yma - - -'I- v-..." /
Transverse section of a sunflower stem
cutic le lignin
cortex
s;eve \"Tomb,um
lig nin
companion cell
I tube
phloem paren chym a pith paren chyma
Longitudinal section of a sunflower stem
Now match these descriptions with pa ris of the stem in the diag rams :
a) A gro up of tough fibres. long and narrow in shape. Their walls

are th ickened with lignin and they help to suppo rt the stem .
24
b) Large thin-walled cells found a mong the sieve tubes of the
phloem.
c) These are relatively large in cro ss-section. Their walls arc hard
because they contain lignin. which is sometimes arranged in
spiral shapes.
d ) A single layer of cells which are rou ghly rectan gular in shape and
do not con tain chloroplasts.
e) A very thin layer of waxy material covering the surface of the
stalk.
f) This occupies the centre of the stem. It includes the largest cells
seen in cross-section.
g) A layer of small cells surro unding the parenchyma of the cortex.
h) A region just inside the epidermis which is made up of three
layers of tissue .
i) Large cells with thin walls and often with air spaces between
them. found in the pith. part of the cortex etc.
j) This consists of thin-walled cells lying inside the phloem. be-
tween it and the xylem.
k) Cylindr ical cells arranged end-t o-end in long rows. Strands of
cytoplasm run through very small holes in their end walls.
I) Narrow cells fi lled with den se cyto plasm. They arc attached to
the sieve tubes of the phloem.
25
Unit 4 Measurement 1
Section I Presentation
1. Look and read :
,
'" ,r. • 00' \0,
: height
I
~ O~~~
~:J~
~~ C>~
I o~ ,04",
I
I
l~
-v O~
, 0QoO "'~
D~o
I ~ ~l:)
I ~Ol:J 05'.:. _ ~~~'!. _ thic kn ess
;/,,-- - - - - - leng t h
: length ~~:ete" height [ - --- -- -- - "[he ight

width ~">,J---_...t
volume = length area = heig ht K lengt h
K height .. w id th
(volu me equa ls
leng th rimes
height times width)
-'"
c ross-sectio nal area

wingspan
surf ace area

(t he area of all the surfaces)
. . ' " . ,,)

body temperature weight
Co mmo n measuremen ts in biology
Units of meas urement

m met res m 2 sq uare met res
em centi metres m' c uh ic metres
mm millirnetres kg kilograms
Jl m microru ct res g grams
"C degr ees Ce ntigrade
26
Now ma ke sta tements like the exa mple. with the help of the diagra ms below :
Example : The height of a tree is measured ill metres.
aj gj
b) ( l , j E" '" J
cj ,,'
dl j)
Amoeba
ej
f) k)
2. Ask and ans wer quest ions like the exa mple. with the help of the
following diagram:
Example : Wha t is the approximate len gth o f yo ur thumb'!

The len gth o f my thumb is upproximutelv five cen ti-
metres.
,-
- I
head -
eve
1-.::7-- mouth
wa ist - H t---:'-1 for earm

hand
thumb
middle fi nge r
le9 - - + '. 'J t hig h
calf
foot
3. Now write five sentences like the foiloy/'jog:
Example : My thumb hus a length ul approximately 5 em .
4. Look al these diagrams:
111
Jellyf ish " 0 -2 Lizard " 0 ·33 Octopu s " 0 ·1
, ~/
Grasshopper )( 0 ·5
e-
Rat )( 0 -2 Butterfl y " O' 5
Shark" 0 ·0 1 Frog x 0 ·5
Threadworm x 10
,==.-.
Whale " 0 ·005 Bat )( 0 -25
Liver f luke )( 1
Cyc lops x 15 Wat er snail x 1

Hydr a " 4
28
Look at these exam ples :
.
The diagram o f a bat .IS drawn 10 a scale of{ nought point ti.ro five
. es} 1'/. .
tun one quarter 0/.
~ e st:e ,
The diagram of a liver fluke is drawn 10 life size ,

The diagram of a threadworm is drawn to a scale of ten l imes life
si:e,
In the diagram. the butterfly has a wingspan of app roximately 3 em .
It is drawn to a scale of olle half of life size. T herefo re the butte rfly
has a win gspan of approximately 3 em x 2 = 6 em.
Now make similar statements about the following :
the length of a lizard's tail

the length of a grasshopper's antennae
the diameter of a jellyfish
the height of a je llyfish, includ ing the tentacles
the width of a liver fluke
the wingspan of a ba t
the widt h of a shark's tailfin
the length of a threadworm
the length of a rat , excluding the tail
the height of a hydra
5, Look and read :
tail body
7cm
J ~
7 cm
whis kers
10 cm
I~
10 cm S cm
.- - - -.
12 cm
"--- ~7mm ~\
I
15 mm 10 mm
. ---,---~
A B c
overall length 14 em (7 + 7)
we ight 20 9 25 g 30 g
Varyin g sizes of hou se mice
The size of different organisms of the same species varies co nsider -

ably. For example. the diagrams show three adu lt ho use mice. Their
ages are the same and their habit ats arc similar. However. their
measu rement s are no t identical.
for example. the bo dy length of mouse: A is 7 em. whereas mouse
B has a bod y length of 10 em and the body of mo use C measures
12 em in length .
29
. . { l'OrieS bet u'ee'lL
In thi s gro up of mice, th e len gth of the body ranges fro m f
7 em { ~~u/} 12 em . T he maximum body len gth is 12 em a nd the

minimum is 7 em. The average body len gth in thi s gro up is therefore
7 + I ~~ = 9.66 em.
Now write simila r paragr aph s a bo ut th e follo wing va rying mea surements:
the length of th e tail

the len gth of th e whiske rs
th e overa ll length
the body weight
6. Find out the following measurements for each of your group of students.
Write sentences giving the range, the maximwn and minimum, and the al'crage
measurement for the group.
heigh t
a rm len gth
girth of th e wa ist
body weight

height (m )
u pper level 40
30
middl e level 20
10
lower level { :
6 10
.
20
,
30 40
w idt h / distan ce (m)
T ro p ical rain forest
30
Now say whether these sentences are true or false. Correct the false sentences.
a) Th e height of the trees ran ges fro m 0 to approx imately 45 m.

b) T he widths of the crowns vary most at the upper level.
c) The widt hs of the crowns at the upper level vary between exactly
20 m and exac tly 4 m,
d ) T rees at the upper level receive the minimum amo unt of light.
e) Th ere is maximum var iation in the heights of trees at the middle
level.
f ) T he average height of t rees at the midd le level is approxima tely
S m.
Section 3 Reading
8. Read this passage:
The length of the human small in-
testine. or ileum, varies grea tly. When
it is fully extended its length ra nges mouth- ----\o=.
from 4 to 8 me tres. In life. however.
the maximum length is approximately
4 .5 metres. T his is beca use the muscles
in the wall of the intestine are pa rtly
con tracted. When digestion is not
tak ing place. the int estine may be-
co me shor ter still. Th e lotal length
from mouth to anusmay then measure
as little as 2.5 metres. This is litt le U:::::\~ intestine
more than the height of a man.
V - j' - anus
The hu man alime ntary canal
N o w answer these question s :
a) What is the maximum possible length of the human small in-

testine ?
b) Why d oes it not reach this length '!
c) Is the intestine lo nger before or after eating ?
d) Why is this '!
e) How much do es the size of t he intestine vary in life?
31
9. Now read this :
circular
muscle
fold ed
absorbing
layer of villi
The inner surface of the intestine is folded. The surface of the folds is
covered with small, fi nger-like projections. Th ese arc called villi.
There are between 20 and 40 villi per square millimetre. The size of
the villi can also cha nge. Moreover. the villi them sel ves are co ve red
with minute. hair-like projections.
The effect of all these folds and projections is to increase the sur-
face area of the g ut eno rmo usly. The total surface area is approxi-
mately 3(x) squa re metres. This very large surface area ena bles the
inte stine to ab sorb food quickly.
Complete these sentences :
a) Foo d passes quick ly th rou gh the gut wall becau se . . .

b) Other name s for the gut are the ... and . . . ca nal.
c) The gut has a very large surface area becau se
( i) .
(ii) .
(iii) .
d ) Villi arc locat ed ...
e) Villi a rc sha ped like .
f) Vill i arc covered with .
g) Th ere arc between and . . . villi per squa re centime tre o f gut
wall. ( Carefut '}
h) In life. the intestine varies greatly in . . . and . . .
i) The size of the ... also varies.
32
Section 4 Listening
10. Listen tn the passage and enmplete this table:
Range of size and weight in living organisms
Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum

sIZe weight size weight
Plants (heigh') 83 m ( )
Animals ( ) ( )
a) What is the passage abo ut ?

b) What have the blue whale and the Ca lifornian Redwood in
common?
c) What have an amoeba and bacteria in co mmon?
d) What is the maximum lifespan ofa Californian Redwood ?
33
Unit 5 Process 1 Function and Ability
I. Look at this diagram :
mouth
salivary g'and-----~~~~7~I_-f~-----
secretion
of saliva
production of bile
storage of bile
'. ' "
churning of food
liver ~
};~::::'__ secretion of
bile duct - - - - - -t. gastric juices
gall bladder - - - -f
0 ""----;'1'+- - production of
sto mach ';lK~:;:::-J< pancreatic juices
pylor ic sp hincte r ;~";::6~;;:1---;r-l;;_- food
abSorPtion of
into th e
bl ood st ream
du od enum
-'\ ----t~ peristalsis
pancreas
/--~~~S;Y(--l~---.J\- absorpti on of t he
small intestine liqu id content of
(ileum) undigested food
larg e intesti ne \
(COIO n)~_-1,- -~;--_ _ - _ - - rejection
anus _ of faeces
T he human digestive system and d igestive processes

'.
Now as k and answer questions like the following :
Example: Where do cs secretion of saliva take place?

Secretion of saliva takes place in the mout h.
34
2. Look at these exa mples:
The JimClion a/ the salivary glands is 10 secrete saliva.

The salivary glands serve to secrete saliva.
" CIS } .
The anus { as a valve to control the cxcrcuo n of faeces.
serves
T he digestive system enables the body 10 d igest and abso rb food .
N ow say which parts o f the digestive syste m arc described by these sentences :
a) T his organ produces bile.

b) The walls ena ble digested food to be abso rbed into the blood-
stream.
c) Th is serves to con d uct bile to the d uoden um.
d) Food is chewed and mixed with saliva in this part.
c) This serves to store the bile.
f) T he function of this gland is 10 secrete an alka line fl uid which
passes into the duodenum.
g) The undigested waste (faeces) is rejected th rough th is sphincter.
h) This cannot abso rb much digested food but its walls serve to
absorb the liquid content of undi gested food .
i ) The walls are lined with muscles whose action serves to ch um the
food and mix it with gastric juices.
j) T his acts as a valve 10 control the passage of food from the
sto mach.
3. Look at this table :
D igestive Act ion
Digestive Action
Digestive Digesti ve Enzymes in Class of food Substance s
gland J UiCC the juice ac ted upo n produced
produced
Salivary Saliva Salivary Starch Maltose
glands am ylase
Gastric Gastric Pepsin Proteins Pep tides
glands (in JUIce
stomach
lining)
Pancreas Pancreatic Trypsin Proteins and Amino acids
JUice pcptides
, ---- - - - - ------ - ----- - - -
Amylase Starch Maltose
-- ----- - ------- ------- -
Lipase Fats Fatty acids
-' and
glycerol
35
Peptidase Pcptides Am ino acids
Glands in the Succus Lipase Fats Fatty acids
ileum lining entericus and
glycerol
Maltase Maltose G luco se
-
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and
fructose
Lactase Lacto se Gl uco se and
galactose
Make sentences about the function of different digestive JUIces. like the
following example :
The salivary glands serve } . .

{ The function of the salivary glands is to secrete saliva. This con -
tains the enzyme amylase . It acts upon starch in the food to produce
maltose.
Section 3 Reading
4. Look at this diagram and read the passage:
lateral line scales
dorsal fin
eye pupil
...
caudal fin
<,
ventral fin
/
anus
operculum
pectoral fin
pelvic fin
The external features of a fish and their function s
36
The nostr ils of a fish do not open into the back of the mouth. so they
arc not used for brea thing. They Icad into organs of smell which arc
very sensitive, A fi sh can th us detect food at con siderable distan ces,
The eyes of a fish have large round pupils which do not vary in
size.
Hearing : fish have no external ca rs but they ca n hear by the tra ns-
mission of vibrations through their bodies to the inner ear.
T he mo uth serves to ta ke in food a nd water fo r brea thing .
Say whether these statements arc true o r false. Co rrect the false statements.
a) A fish breathes with its nostr ils.

b) The nostrils arc co nnected to thc back of the mouth.
c) A fish is ca pa ble o f smelling food at a co nsiderable distance.
d) The pupi l of a fi sh 's eye has not thc ca pacity to change size.
e) One function o f the mouth is to ta ke in air for brea thing.
f) T he mou th is also used for taking in fo od .
5. Look aga in at the diagram of a fish and read this passage :
T he sea les ove rlap eac h other and serve as a protective cove ring,
Th e operculum is a bon y structure which covers and protects the
gills.
The gills arc used for breathing. The walls of their filaments arc
very thin. T his enab les the o xygen in the water to be abso rbed
ra pidly into thc blood .
Thc lat eral line is a fluid-fill ed tube j ust below thc skin. Its funct ion
is to detect mo vem ents in the water. With the aid o f the lateral line
a fish can detect the d irection and intensity of wa ter mo vem ent s.
T he fins give sta bility and co ntrol direct ion of mo vement dur ing
swimming. By means o f its fins a fish can co ntro l the mo vem ents o f
its bod y. T he Iins also ena ble a fish to control its speed.
Now com plete these sentences :
a) The fins serve to contro l . . .

b) Th e fi ns arc also used for . . , .
c ) Th e sensi tive organs of smell enable . . .
d) The function o f thc operculum , , .
c) T he scales act as ... .
f) By means o f the inner ea r .. . .
g) The thin walls of the gill filaments , , .
h) The lateral line serves . . ..
i) With the aid of its mout h .. ,
j) The mou th also enables . . . .
.17
Section 4. Listening
6. Look at this diagram :
0 - - - - - - - - vill i
epithelium- - -{t
Stereog ram showing structure of ileum
Now listen to the passage and number the foll owing in the o rder in which you
hear them:
a ) the size of the ileum

b) the shape of the villi
c) the function of enzymes
d ) inside the villi
e) the function o f the a limentary canal
f) properties of the epithelium
g) the funct ion of the ileum
7. Now listen to the passa ge aga in and complete these sentences :
a) D igestio n occurs with the aid of . . . _

h) Most of the . . . of d igested food take s place in the ileum .
c) The walls of the ileum have special . . . by means of which it can
a bsorb __. food rapid ly.
d) T he ileum has a la rge absor bing . . . _
c) The villi on the . . . surface of the ileum an: small projections,
f ) The thin epithelium enables . . . food to pass rapid ly the walls.
g) Each villus con tains a dense netwo rk of blood .
h) T he small mo lecules of digested food con sist mainly of amino
acids and . . . .
Unit 6 Process 2 Actions in Sequence
I. Look aod read:
time
A B o
---~~ ---~~ -----~
c
Bef ore
Bef ore B occurs. A occurs. Prior to
} the occurrence of B. A occ urs.
Aft er A has occurred. B occurs.

Ajier
z- II . } the occur
. rence or A.
r O o Wing
B occurs.
As A occurs. }
During the occurrence of A. C occurs.
While A is occurri ng.
First' }A Then. } B
Initially. occurs. Sub sequently, occurs.
Later, }
S ubsequently. D occu rs.
Eventua lly,
Meanwhile,
A occurs. At the same lime.
}c occurs.
39
Now look at this diagram :
thunderstorms
~
'
nitrogen
dioxide
I f.
nitrogen in air I~--,
p,oduced /.,~ , 0If
action
Jf,r.r;f'~,
" ~ ~ ~1.~f;;0'" nitrogen. fixing
bacteria
dissolved in in soil and
rain roots of legumes ~_-l _ _,
I nit ric acid ente rs soil I
dead plants and animals decay
tissues decompose
ammon ia ( NH:J)
enters the
soil
nitrites I • converted ~---'

are formed ..., to nitrates -
'---~
- v- '
action of nitrifying bacteria
an imals
excrete
herbivorou s
Kant:
j
animals die animals
. 2Hh plant s take up

nitrates
plants
die
The nit rogen cycle
Answer these question s :
a) What is produced du rin g th understo rms ?

b) What happens to nitrogen d ioxide as rain falls'!
c) What occ urs prior to the decay of organisms ?
d) What follows the decay of organisms'
e) Wh at occurs after ammonia has entered the soil and befo re the
formation of nitrates?
f) What happens while dead organisms are decaying?
g) What happens to nitrites following the action of bacteria ?
h ) What do an ima ls do after ea ting '
40
2. Now describe tbe following processes, using the connecting words given :
a) Processes which occur duri ng and after thu nderstorm s :

First. . . . .
Th en. . . ..
Subsequentl y... .
b) The o ther way in whic h atmos pheric nitrogen enters the so il, and
the release of nitroge n gas into the air :
Fo llowing the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria . .. .
Meanw hile. following . . ..
c) The cycle in which nitrogen leaves the soil in the form of nitrates
and eventually returns to it, following the deat h of herbivore s :
Initially, . . . .
Subseq uently, .
Even tua lly, .
Fo llowing this, . . . .
At the same time, .
Subseq uently, .
3. Look at these diagrams :
a) O~cJ) b) GB- @J c) . - ..
ferti lised egg
d) ( . .
~xternal gil ls ~
)~
t~~
. ~mouth
At time of hatching T w o days after hatching
......- coiled intestine

g) ~ h~...- "'!lIii.ll
external gills
Four days after hatching
i)
~opercul u m
Eight days afte r hatchin g
Early stages in the grow th of a tad pole
41
Match these fi gures with the lett ers (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (I) in the text and
com plete their labels.
Example : a) After the egg has been fertilised, the cell divides.
By this time the externa l gills are fully developed.
As the egg elongates (grows longer), a head and tail become visible.
About four days after hatching, a long coiled intestine has de-
velo ped .
After the egg has been fertilised, the cell divides.
When the tadpole hatches. its mouth has not yet o pened.
Two to fo ur days late r, the operculum com pletely covers the gills.
Within two days of hatching. however, the mou th has o pened and is
used for feeding.
Cell-divi sio n co ntinues until the egg co nsists of many tiny cells.
Meanwhil e, as the interna l gills develop , the exte rnal gills begin to
shrivel and the operculum grows ov er them .
The external gills appea r shortly before the tadpole hatches.
Section 3 Reading
4. Read this passage :
Further growth and metamorphosis of a tadpole

Within one week of hatching. the external gills have disappeared and
the tadpole breathes by means of its internal gills. Water is taken in
th rou gh the mouth and expelled thro ugh the spiracle on the left side
(figure a).
Du ring the next six o r seve n wee ks the tad pole grows co nsiderably.
The eyes and nostrils can clearly be seen at th is stage (fig. h).
At eight weeks from hatching the lungs have begun to form. At
abo ut the same time the hind legs appear . These grow rapidly and
are fully formed within a few days. Mea nwhile, the forelegs begin
to grow beneath the operculum (fig. c).
Appro ximately nine weeks after hatching. the front legs break
th rou gh the ope rculum. the left leg emerging fi rst th rou gh the
spiracle (fig. d). The right leg breaks the o perculum sho rtly afte r-
wa rds . At this point the tail is still used for swimming (fig. e) .
Within a few days of th is. however, the tail has been re-absor bed
into the bo dy (fig. f) . Just before leaving the water the toad sheds its
ski n and its mouth and eyes become bigger.
Finally, the metam or phosed toad climbs out on to the land.
42
Match these figures with the letters (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (I) in the text and
complete their labels.
the _ breaks th e _ _
- --
._
~ _.~ 7
. 1. ~< ,-««~~
the _ _ the _ _
growing beneath _ _ have developed '- - _. __.:~ ..- ,~
the tail has been _ _
the _ emerging throug h th8 _
5. Say whether these statements are tr ue or false. Correct the false sta tements.
(Note : A precedes B = A occurs before B.

AlaI/oil's B = A occurs after B.
A coincides with B = A occurs at the same time as B.)
a) Cell-division co incides with fertilisation.

b) When the egg begins to elonga te, it already consists of many cells.
c) The appearance of the external gills precedes the opening of the
mouth .
d) The o perculum begins to grow after the external gills have
shrivelled.
e) Full development of the internal gills occurs within four days of
hatching.
f) The growth of the lungs occurs at approximately the samc time
as the appearance of the legs.
g) Thc forelegs appear first, followed shortly afterwa rds by the hind
legs.
h) The toad keeps its tail unt il it climbs onto the land.
i) The toad sheds its skin du ring metam orphosis.
43
Section 4 Listening
6. Read this passage. It contains new words, which )'00 will subsequently hea r
in the listening text :
Seed structure in a dicotyledon
The inner part of the seed is divided into several parts which eventu-
ally grow into the root. the stem and the leaves, i.e. the embryonic
root, stem and leaves .
The largest part consists of one or two cotyledons. These are
leaves which contain food reserves used du ring the early stages of
ger mina tion. They arc the first parts to emerge from the so il and
will eventually fall off. In a dicotelydon the other parts of the em-
bryonic plant arc attached to the cotyledons by two short stalks
called the cotyledo n stalks.
The embryonic stem of the plant is situa ted between the co tyledon
stalks. The upper part, above the attac hment, is called the epicoty!.
At the tip of the epicotyl are the embryon ic foliage leaves, or plumul e.
The lower part of the stem, inferior to the cotyledon stalks, is called
the hypocotyl. This is continuous with the embryo nic roo t. or
radicle. whic h is situated below it.
The outside of the seed is covered by a hard layer called the testa.
T his pro tects the seed from fungi . bac teria and insects . There is a
small hole in the testa opposite the tip of the radicle. which allows
water to enter the seed. This is called the micropyle.
Now label the diagra ms below with these words :
a) d) plumule
b)
epicotyl
microp yle
e)
cotyledon
radicle
hypocot yl
testa
oj cotyledon stalk
Longitudinal section
f)
g)
h)
i)
Dicotyledon seed with testa removed
44
7. Look at the diagrams as you listen to the passage :
hypocotyl
straigh te ning foliage
cotyledo ns leaves
becoming developing
hypocotylgreen\
cotyledon
elongating shrivell ing
'orr ~
,I
m
" " " " " ','
• .>.. "
root
hairs
-
lateral
" roo t
radicle
emerging
through the
testa
Ge rmination of a dicot yledon ( Vigil" unginculata)
Now listen to the passage aga in and show the order of the processes below
with these signs:
A precedes B : )
A follows B: (
A coi ncides with B: ( )
A B
swelling of the seed abso rption of wat er by the seed
breaking of the testa gro wth of roo t hairs
a bsorptio n o f wa ter thro ogh ab sorpt ion of salts t hrou gh
root hairs root hairs
growth of root system gro wth of stem
emergence o f hypocotyl ' stra ightening of hypocotyl
growth of plumule shrivelling o f co tyledon s
digestion of food reserves enzymatic action
development of pho tosyn thesis d igestion of food reserves
45
8. Now mak e true sta tements from this tabl e :
root. plumul e. shrivel and fall o lT.

lower stem. cotyledons. develop into the full
lea f system.
upper stem, epicotyl becomes the supe rior
eventua lly part of the growing
The embryo nic or
subseque ntly shoot.
first leaves. radicle grows down into the
soil.
foliage leaves. hypoco tyl pulls the co tyledon
out of the soil.
Unit B Revision
I. Read this passage:
The common pond snail lives among vegetat ion in pond s and
streams. It has one shell. approximately 3 em long. arranged in a
spiral of approximately 6 turns. The body is protected by the shell.
There are two flexible tentacles projecting from the anterior pa rt of
the head . Each of these has a simple eye at the base. The mouth is
situated below them . The snail moves by means of its foot which is at
the base of the body. It is able to move upside down on a surface film
of water.
The snail feeds on water plants. lt remo ves pieces of wat er plant
with a horny tongue. or rad ula. situated in the lower part of the
mouth. The radu la has 500 rows of small teeth.
Add labels to this diagram :
aj
b)
d)
The co mmon pond snail (Limnea stagnalis )
2. Now complete these sentences to match the Mea in brackets :
a) The shell of the snail . (measurement)

b) The shell of the snail . (s/rape)
c) The function of the shell . (funct ions
d) The tentacles . (property)
e) The snail . (ability)
f) The foot . (fun ct ion)
g) The radu la . (location)
47
3. Write full sentences giving the following measurements. with the aid of these
diagrams and the one on the previous page:
f-----<
6 mm 2mm
Eggs in egg-case
50p on wa ter plant Embryonic snail
Part of radula stem inside egg -she ll
Example:
'1{ has a length of approxima tely
The shell o f the snau v . . I h .
IS approximate y t ree cenn-
three ce ntimetres.
long.
metres { In
. Iength .
a) the width of the tooth d) the diameter of the egg

b) the length of the tooth e) the length of the foo t
c) the width of the egg-case f) the height of the egg-case
4. Look and read:
antenna base of
compound eye antenna
proboscis
in coiled
position
The cabbage white butterfly tP ieris brassicae)
Hahttut :Th ere are three distinct stages in the life of this butterfly.
The larva. or ca terpillar. lives on cabbage leaves. The pupa. or
ch rysalis. lives in a dry, sheltered place. The adult (imago) is able to
fly.
48
Structure of adult : It has a thin cylindrical body. which is clearly
divided into head, thorax and abd omen . There are two pairs of
wings. covered with very small scales. The fore wings of the female
have two dark spots which are a bsent in the male. The head carries
a pair of long anlennae. Each one has a swelling at the tip. There is
also a pair of promin ent compound eyes.
Movement : It cannot fly very fast because the wings are not stro ng.
When at rest they are folded in a vertical position.
Nutrition : It feeds on nectar. which is taken from flowers through

the prominent pro boscis situated under the head.
Respiration : The butterfly breathes by means of tracheae. or

breath ing tubes. These have openings, which are called spiracles, on
the sides of the abdo men and thorax.
Now answer these question s :
a) Which stage precedes the pupa stage in the life of the butterfly?
b) What is the larva of a butt erfly called?
c) What do the wings of the adult ena ble it to do ?
d) How many parts does the ad ult body consist of?
e) Wbat difference is there between the appearance of the male and
female adu lts? (Use whereasi
f) Which parts of the butterfly are anterior to the head ?
g) Deseribe the position of the coiled proboscis in relation to (i) the
compound eyes, (ii) the head . (iii) the antennae.
h) Describe the shape of the antennae.
i) What is the function of the proboscis?
j) What are the spiracles used for ?
k) What is the wingspan of the adult butterfly?
5. Look and read :
head
11'1'i: .
10 days ~~~~l· 1 1 month
antenn thoracic \ claspers
spin neret legs prolegs spiracle eye of adult ....,~\{
mandib le LA RVA (caterpillar) dorsal spine
size 3 ·5 em wing ":
l1lb EGG spiracle _ "...
, mm PUPA
~----'\ 7, '
(chrysalis)
length 2 em
1 wee k 3 w eeks
IM A GO
body leng th ' ,5 em
Reproduction and life-cycle of a butterfly
49
After mat ing. the female lays the eggs under cabbage leaves. d uring
the summer. They hatch out into caterpillars. These a re cylind rical
animals with a thorax and abdomen which are similarin appea rance.
The head is distinct and carries a pair of small a ntennae. eye-spots
and a pair of strong mandibles. used fo r biting and chewing the
cabbage leaves. The labium is situated between these and act s as a
spinneret, for producing silk. The whole of the body is hairy.
After continuous feeding and after moulting (cha nging its skin)
several times. the caterpillar reaches full size. Then it moves to a
sheltered place and attaches itself to the surroundings by mean s of
silk. This is the beginning of the pupa stage, du ring which it develops
into an adu lt. The imago fi nally emerges from the dorsal surface of
the pupa case.
a) In what way is the body of the caterpillar similar to the body of

the imago ? (Use boIIJ . .. and .. . j
b) Describe one property of the surface of the caterpillar.
c) What occurs prior to egg-laying?
d) What are the maximum and minimum sizes of the insect during
the cycle from egg to adult?
c) What are the functions of the mandible and 'the spinneret" (Use
while} .
f) What does the caterpillar do while it is growing?
g) When does the caterpillar produce silk and what is its function"
6. Match the sentences on the right with the words on the left :
Initially, ... the ca terpillar develops to full size.

Within one week, . the female lays eggs.
Ten days lat er, . the adult butterlly emerges.
Subsequently . the adults mate.
Meanwhile . it moults abou t 6 times.
At the same time. . . . the pupa stage begins.
Later, . . . the eggs hatch ou t into caterpillars.
Following this, . it feeds continuously on cabbage leaves.
Du ring this stage . the caterpillar changes into a pupa.
Eventually, .. . the caterpillar attac hes itself to its surround-
ings by means of silk.
50
Unit 7 Measurement 2 Quantity
I. Look and rcad :

6% Kev to shading
~ carbo hydrates
~S> lipids
~ protein
f==t.. . . water
Groundnut Tomato
T he com posi tion of two kinds o f food

(traces of minerals a nd vita mins are too sma ll to be shown)
. f amOUnl }
G ro und nut con ta ms a lar ge1.Quilm it)' of wa ter .
. a re IatH't!)'
I t con tains · I Iarge { amo tity 0 rni p i·dS.
quanunl}
. a conSI·derable { aq mOUnl
I t a Iso co n tums uant ity } 0 r pro Iem
· a nd a re I£1-
. {amount}
nvetvsmatl qu antity of ca rbohyd ra tes.
. '·er\,
" small} amount .
Toma to co ntains a nunute { . l or prot em.
{ negI19· l-bl e quant ity]
It contains no lipids.
G ro und nu t is rela tively rich in lipids but relat ively poor in carbo-
hydrates,
There is a high concentration o/ Iipids in groundnut.
There is a IoU' concentration a/ protein in tomato.
Lip ids a re present ill groundnut, in rela tively lar ge f1..aq mounts}
uantitics .
but they a rc abseil! in tomat o .
51
Now pra ctise each of the abo ve expressions in describing the composition of
the food s sho wn in these diagrams :
3%
Eggs Cow's milk Fresh fish
18%
--l l i
Lean beef Rice Palm oil
2. Look again at all the diagrams (including tomato and groundnut) and sa)'
which food is described b)' each of these sentences:
a) This food is composed of a very large quantity of water. a rela-

tively small amount of carbo hydra tes and a minute quantity of
pro tein . It contains no lipids.
b) Ca rbohydra tes. lipids and pro teins arc all present in this food
but in relatively small quanti ties. It is largely composed of water .
c) Thi s food contains the same substances as lean beef. bUI the latter
is richer in lipids than the former.
d) Th is food has a similar composition to beef and fish. but it also
includes a very small quantity of ca rbohydrates. which are a bsent
in the former.
c) This food consists almost entirely of one substance. namely
lipids. ..
f) This food possesses the highest concentration of carbohydrates
of al1 those which are sho wn.
g) This food is the richest in protein.
52
3. Look at this tahl e:
Vitamin Considerable Effects of further notes
quan tities fou nd in deficiency
A milk . butter, reduced resistance Vita min A is sto red in
fresh vegetables to disease. poor the liver
night-vision, bad
teeth
B, yeast ; the ' germ' lack of a ppetite. Extreme deficien cy
(embryo ) of rice fatigue. nervous causes the disea se
and wheat and di gestive ' beri-beri' ,
trouble
B, yeast. milk, meat. skin d isea se,
green vegeta bles nervo us tro uble
C fresh fruit and anaemia. poo r Lack o f vita min C
green vegeta bles heal ing of wo unds. causes 'scurvy' .
reduced res ista nce Vitamin C is
to disease destroyed by cooking
ID arr .
D liver, milk, poor growth of Vitamin D is made by

egg yolk bones sunlight from body
fats .
E wheat germ. reduced fertility Effects o f deficien cy
butter have been shown o nly
in rats.
K some green failure of the Vitami n K is
vegeta bles blood to clot normally prod uced in
the int estine by
bacte ria .
T he sou rces of vita mins and the effects o f vita min deficiency
Loo k at these examples :
An adequate amo unt} . . . .

A sufficient q ua ntity of vitarnm A in food IS necessary for hea lthy
teeth .
. . ff. ' {amo

A n utsujjtctent unt } 0 f
quantity
vita min A ca uses bad teeth.
A luck of
A deficiency in
Make other sentences from the table like the examples.
53
4. Now say whether these sentences are true or false. Use the table to explain
your answers.
a) Milk is poor in vitamins A and B 2'

b) An adequate supply or vitamin C can be o btained from milk .
c) Fresh fruit contains a con side rable amount o f vitamin C.
d) An inadeq uate supply or vitamin D can lead to bone malform a-
tion.
e) Green vegetabl es prov ide more vitamin Caner they have been
coo ked.
f) If food contains insufficient vitamin A. vision may be affected.
g) It has been shown that lack or vitamin E reduces human fertility.
h) Eggs. milk and liver provide negligible quantities or vitamin D.
5. Answer these questions with information from the table :
a) What arc two po ssible reasons for reduced resistance to infec tion?
b) What sho uld we eat to ob tain sufficient amounts or vitamin C?
c) Why is wheat germ a very useful rood ?
d) Why do peop le who eat rioe without the husks sometimes get
'beri-beri" !
e) Why is vitamin D deficiency mo re likely to occurin cold co untries?
f') Why is vitamin K deficiency unlikely to occur?
Section 3 Reading
6. Read lhis passage:
Conditions necessary for plant growth
For the growt h or plants a con siderable num ber or factors must be
present. First or all. the plant requires sufficient light. water and
car bon dioxide for the process or photosynt hesis to take place. By
means or this process the plant must produoe eno ugh carbohydrate
to provide energy for chemical reactions within the cell and to build
new cell ular material.
In addition to these factors, a plant must obtain an adequate
amount o f so luble salts containing the clemen ts so dium. sulphur.
magnesium. iron. calcium. potassium and nitrogen. A lack of nitro-
gen in the soil slows down growth and causes chlorosis or yellowing
in the older leaves. Th is is becau se the chlorophyll-cont aining cells
arc destroyed as the prote in is bro ken down. to supply nitrogen to
the growing tissue. Chlorosis is also caused by a shortage or mag-
nesium and by iron deficiency. Plant gro wth is reduced if not enough
potassium. sulphur or sodium is present. When phosphorus is lack-
ing there is an even greater reduction. and if there is too little ca lcium.
growth SlOpS almost completely.
A plant also requires minute quantit ies of certain elements known
as trace clements. These elements include manganese. zinc. copper
and boron. Th ey are extremely important for plant growth. a nd any
shortage will be harmful; for examp le. boron deficiency causes the
decomposition of internal tissues.
54
No w co mplete these sentences :
a) The first paragraph is about . . . which are necessary for the

process o f . . . .
b) The substa nce pro duced by this process is . . . .
c) This substance is importa nt becau se it pro vides . . .
d) T he seco nd pa rag raph is abo ut necessary elements co ntai ned
In .. . .
e) A shortage of . .. •. .. or ... causes chlo rosis.
f) If there is a lack o f .. . almost no growth can occur.
g) If the soil lacks nitrogen. the plan t has to prod uce it from its
o wn .. . .
h) T he third paragraph is abo ut the impor ta nce of .. ..
i) These elements occur o nly in . . . quant ities. but pla nts are ha rmed
if the .. . in them.
7. Look at this diagram and read the second paragraph of the passage agai n:
chlorosis
y Olde, leaves
l --- . w
solution no N e no... no... na.: no Fe no... no K

containing
all necessary
eleme nts
Bean plants growi ng in different so lutions
Com plete the labels below the diagram with the symbo ls for the clements :
S. Ca. Mg. N. P
Co mplete this sentence :
The above diagram sho ws the importance of certain elemen ts fo r the

. .. of plants. and what happens when o ne of these elements is . ...
55
8. Now read this passage :
The effects of excess on the health of orga nisms

Plants a nd a nimals may be ha rmed not only by insuffi ciency but also
by excess. Th us. if the supply of wat er is deficient. a pla nt will wilt
a nd eventually die . On the ot her ha nd. if too much wa ter is p resent
in the so il. the roots will suffer from lack of air. Again. plan ts
requ ire an adeq uate amount of ca lcium for gro wth. but if the
q uant ity is excessive. chlorosis may occ ur. A wa rm clima te favours
the gro wth of plants. bu t there is a ma ximum tem pe rat u re beyond
which growth sto ps. Similarly. if the tem perature becomes too low.
cells may be damaged by the form at ion of ice crystals in them.
In hum an nutri tio n. it has been sho wn that bone malformation
can be ca used not only by insufficient vitamin D. but also by too
much of it. Certa in other vitamins may be harmful if ta ken in
excessive qu antities. and too much iron may da mage the liver. The
clea rest exa mple of excess in nutri tion is over-eating. which leads to
overweight a nd obesity. a nd may result in hea rt di sease.
Write twelve sentences from this tabl e using the infor mation fro m the two
readi ng passages (use each ph rase in the first column ollee o nly) :
Excess of
An excessive amount of vitamin C obesity
Lack of food bone malfo rmation in plants.
A deficiency in magnesium liver damage
Too little iron chlorosis
Too much phosph orus red uced growth
A shortage of tempera tu re causes anaemia
An excessively high water cell-damage
An excessively low boron wilting
I Insufficient calcium decomposition of in ani mals.
An insufficient qu anti ty of vitamin D interna l tissue
An inadequa te a mount of
Too great a quan tity of
Section 4 Listening
9. Listen to the passage and number these foods in the order in which you hear
them :
green vegeta bles n ee cas sava

tomat oes ya m fi sh-liver oil
ban an a bea ns millet
red palm o il ma ize
to. Number the ingred ients of food in order :
vita min B z ca lories protein

car otene (vit a min A) vita min B
56
II. Complete these sentences :
a) is deficient in protein .
b) does not provide an adequate amount of vita min 8 2 ,
c) contain considerable qu an tities or pro tein.
d) is rich in vitamin A .
e) diets usuall y lack vitamin B.
f') In man y people have insufficient calo ries.
g) In many peo ple eat food deficient in proteins and vitami ns.
57
Unit 8 Process 3 Cause and Effect
I. Look at the examples and complete the sentences. Most of the information
is from the previous unit.
cuuses }
Example : Lack of water results ill wilting in plants.
{ leads to
a) Lack of nitrogen in the so il causes . . . .

b) Lack of phosph orus lead s to .. . .
c) An excessively low tem perature may result in . . .
Example : Wilting in PlantS{~:'~;/~;~;:~ } laCk of water.

occurs as a result of
d) Chlorosis in plants may be caused by . . ..

e) Decom position of internal tissue results from .
f) Cell dam age may occur in plants as a result of .
Ex amp le : Healthy plan t growth depends ,Oil the presence of light

and water.
g) Healthy plant growth also depends on . . . .
Example: . { UI/OlD"!..
The presence of sunlight permitsJa plant to produce
food by photosynthesis.
The absence of sunlight prevents a pla nt from pr oducing

food by photosynt hesis.
h) T he testa on a plant seed prevents . .. .

i) The micro pyle allows .. . .
testa- - -I micrc pvte
(insects (w ater can
cannot eat enter the
the seed) seed)
58
2. Study this diagram :
Sunlight is absorbed W ith the aid of

by chlo rophyll sunlig ht.
in ch loroplasts. phot osynthesis
takes place and
ca rbohydrates are
prod uced .
Starch is
converted
'"a: IIa: into sugar
by enzymes.
.. w
":::> ....
~
'"
"a:
w
i Oxygen diffu ses

1<'->'11 through cell walls
aft er photosynth esis
and is released into
the atmosphere .
Water is absorbed
by roots and
diffused throug h
ce ll walls dur ing Carbon dioxide is absorbed
osmosis. from the atmosphere and
diffuses through the
cell wa lls.
Thc process of photosynthesis in thc Icaf
Now complete these sentences :
a ) Thc chlorophyll which is stored in the .. . enables the leaf .. .

b) The action of . _. permits water to enter the cells.
c) CO, enters thc cells as a result of absorption from the .. . and
diffusio n through the .. . .
d) The act ion of photosynth esis leads to thc production of . . . .
e) Enzymes act on . . . to produce . . . .
f) The chemical action of photosynthesis also results in the release
of . . ..
g) For phot osynth esis to occur• . .. must be present in the leaf. and
. .. and . . . must be present in the air.
59
semi-permeable membran e
wa ter molecules
can pass through
pores this size
sugar
mor e wa ter molecu les
molecules cannot
go this way pass through
por es
fewer wa ter
molecules
go this way
High concentration Low co ncen tration

of water molecules ofwe ter mo lecules
Possible explana tio n of os mosis
Now complete these sentences :
a) The pores allow . . . to pass, but . , . from passing.

b) T be . . . are too big to pass, wbereas . . . .
c) If the co ncentration of water mol ecules is high on o ne side of a
semi-permeable memb rane and low on tbe otber side, tben . . .
will occur, the molecules passing from the area of . . . to the area
of . . . .
A - - --)0 8 A{~::::r~ ;,J B. (A is the cause and B is the effect.)

A -- ~ B - -~ c - - ~ D A leads to D. (D is tbe final result ofa series
of actio ns.)
B<- - - A Bf~~~:~:j~:~ lA.

t ccurs as a result off
Now co mplete these sentences. using an appropriate verb :
a) A difference in wa ter co ncen tration on either side of the cell

wall . . . osmosis.
b) Tbe diffusion of CO , . . . tbe entry of CO , into the cell.
60
c) Th e absorption of sunlight , , , the action of photosynthesis.
d ) The forma tion of carbohydrates, , , the ac tion of photosynt hesis,
e) T he action of enzymes . . . the conve rsion of starch to sugar.
f) The prod uction of suga rs , ' , photosynthesis,
g) Osm osis through the cell membrane . . . a low concentration o f
wate r mo lecules in the cell.
h) Photosynthesis , , , the release of oxygen to the air.
5. Read this passage :
Turgor
A plant cell must have sufficient turgor (rigidity due to hydrostatic
pressure) to func tion adequately . Turgor is produced as foll ows :
The o uter layer of a cell (the cell wall) is perm eable. allowing
water and dissolved substa nces to pass freely, The inner layer of
cyto plasm. however. is sem i-permeable. allowing molecules of wat er
to enter the cell. but prevent ing larger mo lecules from leaving,
The process of ph ot o synthesis leads to an increased concen tration
of sugar within the cell sap (the liq uid substa nce inside the vac uo le),
Consequently, osmosis occurs and water enters the cell. The in-
creased vo lume of water within the ce ll cau ses an increase of pressu re
on the cell wall. thus producing tu rgor in t he cell,
Now answe r these questions using because o r because of:
a) Why can suga r and water pass th rough the cell wall ?
b) Why ca n' t sugar molecules pass o ut th rou gh the cytoplasm '!
c) Why do es th e sugar concentration in the cell sap increase?
d) Why docs osmo sis occur ?
c) Why doe s pressure on the cell wall increase')
6. Now read the passage again and look at this diagram:
d)
___ II
c)
d)
Plant cell surro unded by wat er
61
Mat ch these labels with the letters in the diagram:
There is an increased concentration of sugar here.

Th is layer is semi-permea ble.
The vacuo le expands and exe rts pressure on the cell wall.
T his layer is permea ble.
Water molecules en ter by osmosis.
No w put one of the above sentences in front of each of the following results.
and then put the resulti ng descript ion in the right order :
· so that water and dissolved substances can pass.

· with the result that the cell becomes turgid.
· As a result . os mosis takes place.
· so that only water molec ules can pass.
o • • • Consequently. the volume of water is increased.
A leaf takes in CO 2 eaSjly{~:,~:euse} it has a large surface area .

as
Theref ore,
Consequently,
A leaf has a lar ge surface area. Thus. it absorbs CO 2
Hence.
For this reason,
easily.
Cha nge the following sentences to the alterna tive form. using the wo rds in
brackets : .
a) Leaves have a large surface area because they are broad and flat.
(Th erefo re)
b) Photosynthesis does not take place in the epide rmis cells because
they do not contain ch loropl asts.
(Hence)
c) Sunlight ca n pass through the epider mis cells as they are trans-
parent.
(For th is reaso n)
d) T here are a large number of stomata on the surface of leaves.
Co nsequently. excha nge of oxygen and CO , lakes place easily.
(beca use).
e) Palisade ce lls receive a large amo unt of sunlight because they arc
near the surface of the leaf. .
(Th us)
f) Chloro plasts are especially numero us in the palisade cells. Thus.
they absorb a large amount of light.
(since)
g) W ater reaches photosynthcsising cells easily becau se leaves con-
tain a large net work of water-su pplying veins.
(Co nsequently)
Section 3 Reading
8. Read this :
The human skin and temperature control

The lemperature of the body is affected by va rious facto rs. (A) If the
temperature of the blood reaching the brain is excess ive, nerve im-
pulses are sent to the skin. p roducing two effects .
One effect is that the arterioles which supply blood to the ca pil-
laries beneath the skin dilate. or widen. (See dia gram in exercise 9.)
This causes more blood to flow near the surface. (B)
The o ther effect is that-sweating increases in respo nse to nerve
impulses. (C) As the sweat evapo rates it absorbs heat from the bod y.
(D) Any mo vement of air over the body helps to speed up the
eva po ratio n of the sweat. (E)
On the other hand. if the surro und ing air is very humid. eva pora-
tion may not occur qu ickly eno ugh to coo l the body adequa tely. In
this case the body temperatu re may rise to a dangerous level. (F )
Eac h of the following sentences will fit into one of the spaces in the a bove
passage which are marked by the lett ers A. B. C. D. E, F. Mat ch the sentences
with these lette rs.
a) For this reason. fans ha ve a coo ling effect on the bod y. though
they may not reduce the temperature of the room.
b) A layer of moisture is thus produced on the skin's surface .
c) A similar dangerous co ndition may occur after prol on ged sweat-
ing du e to physical ac tivity at high temperatu res. T his may cause
sweating to sto p.
d) Co nsequently. more heat escapes from the blood into the air.
e) Hence. the temp erature o f the body is reduced.
f) For exa mple. physical ac tivity or disease may bring abo ut ov er-
heating.
9. Now look at these diagrams and answer the questions below them:
very little heat radiated much heat radiated
-mwr 'flIt! I arterioles
Sec tion through human s kin
a ) In which diag ram arc the arterioles d ilated ?

b) Which diagram represe nts the skin of a healthy man In co ld
wea the r'?
c) Which diagram represents the skin of a man with fever "
d) What ca uses the co nditio n sho wn in the seco nd diagram '?
e) What is the o the r effec t o f over-heating in the brain '?
63
10. T his is a summary of the reading passage. including the sentences in exe rcise
S, but the points are listed in the wrong order. Put them into the right order.
T he effect of lack of evaporation o f sweat.

The cau se of sweat prod uctio n.
T he effec t of blood fl owing near the sur face o f the skin.
T wo fac tors affecting the tem perature of the bod y.
The effect of swea t evaporation.
The effect of lack of sweat production .
The effect of air movement.
1\. Look at this example:
Physical activity causes bod y temperature to increase.

i.e. Increase of bod y temperature is caused by physical activity.
Now cha nge these sentences in the same way :
a) Nerve impulses ca use the ar terioles to dilat e.

Dilat ion of th e arterioles . .. .
b) Over-heating causes the body to produce sweat.
Product ion o f sweat by the body .. . .
c) Movement of air over the bod y cau ses sweat to evapo rate .
Evapor ation . . . .
d) A difference in water concentrat ion ca uses osmos is to occ ur.
The occurrence. . . .
e) Photosynthesis ca uses compo und s to be decomposed.
T he decomposition . . . .
f) Pho tosyn thesis also causes oxygen to be released.
T he release . . . .
g) Photosynthesis also ca uses sugar mo lecules to be concent ra ted in
the cell sap.
T he co ncent ration . . . .
Section 4 Listening
12. After listening to the passage. look at this diagram and match the following
labels with the letters :
aj c)
aj
aj
c) aj
Plant cell surro und ed by a salt solutio n

The vacuole shrinks .
Higher concentration of water molecules here.
Water is dra wn o ut by os motic pressure.
Lo wer concen tration of water mo lecules here .
The cyto plasm is pull ed away fro m the cell wall.
13. Sa)' whether these statements are true or false. Correct the false sta tements.
a) For a plant to have turgor . there must be an adeq uate supply of

water.
b) Water maintains a pressure on the cell walls. thereby making the
plant will.
c) Wilting is due to loss o f turgo r.
d ) Plasmolysis is d ue to an inadequat e su pply of wat er.
e) Osmosis occurs d urin g both turgo r and plasmolysis.
f ) If the concentrat ion of water molecules is lower in the liqu id
surrounding a cell than in the cell sap. water will pass out of the
cell.
g) The shrinki ng of the vacuole is ca used by loss of water.
h) T he only result of loss of water in the cell is that the vacuo le
sh rinks.
65
;
Unit 9 Measurement 3 Proportion

Section I Presentation
I. Look a nd read:
,,
,
"" 5 cm ,,
21 em -,
,
---3 -em- .... '~
) "====,.,j
A B 7 em
The ratio between the length ami wid th of box A is 5 : 3. (th e to three)
The ra tio bet ween the length a nd widt h of box B is 3 : 1.
Box B is wide r than bo x A but its width is less ill projJofl ion to its
length .
Th e b B · { f e/ali re/\' narrow.

ere ore ox IS prapart ianatelv narrower.
Now loo k at these diagra ms :
Rhinoceros
Oak tree
~ .
Palm tree
Gazelle
T he relation between size a nd suppo rting strength

Now as k and answer these question s :
a) Which animal has a relatively heavy body '?

b) Which tree has relati vely light branches '?
c) What part of a rhinoceros suppo rts its weight ?
d ) Ask and answer the sa me question about an oak tree .
e) What is the approximate ratio between the length ofa rhinoceros's
legs and the th ickness of its body?
f) Ask and an swer the same question abo ut a gazelle.
g) Which ani mal has lo nger legs in proportion to the size of its body'?
h) \Vhat is the app roximate ratio between the thic kness and the
length of a rhin oceros's legs '?
i) Ask and answer the same questio n abo ut a gaze lle.
j ) Which ani mal has proportio nately thicker legs'!
2. :\la ke sentences from this table :
,,
gazelle. gazelle ,,
In comparison with a rhinoceros, a rhinoceros a
has relatively ,
Compared with an palm tree, an palm tree - ,
oak tree, oak tree ,
,
,
, body
thicker neck.
,
, heavy head and
a
proportionately
thinner legs.
,
,, light
- longer
branches trunk .
shorter
3. Now read these two paragraphs and add the missing words :
a ) We compare the bodies and legs of a rhin oceros and a gazelle a nd

observe that the legs of a rhinoceros arc relat ively short and thic k
in propor tion to its size. while those of a gazelle . . . . We con-
clude that the heavier anim al needs proportionately shorter and
thicker legs. whereas . . . . .
b) 71Je ex plana tion f or this is that short. thick legs arc stronger than
long. thin ones. since the strength of an animal's legs depends on
their width and their length . Supporting strength is directly pro-
portio nal to .. . and in versely prop ortional to Consequently,
file heavier the body of an ani mal. the . . . and its legs. and.
con versely; the lighter the body of an animal.
4. Now write two similar paragraphs co mparing a palm tree and an oak tree,
using the words in ita lics (abo. e). Substitute 'trunk' for 'legs' and ' branches' for
' body', and make an}' ot her necessar y changes.
67
5. Say whether these statements are true nr false. Correct the false statements.
a) The rat io between the height and width of a palm trun k is higher
than that between the height and width of an oak trun k. ( 1:3 is a
higher rat io than I :2.)
b) The trunk of an oa k has to support less weight than that of a palm.
c) The legs of an elephant have greater suppo rting strength than
those of a gazelle.
d) The strength of a tree trunk is directly proportio nal to its height
and inversely proporti onal to its width.
e) Compared with a palm tree. an oak has a relatively tall trun k.
f) The lighter the branches of a tree, the thicker its tru nk.
g) Simi larly, the heavier an anima l, the thinner its legs.
6. Read this, follow the instructions and complete the statements :
Surface area in relati on to size and shape

The ratio between the surface area and vo lume of an animal or a
plant is an impo rtant fac tor in its life. This surface area /vo lume ratio
depend s on the size and shape of the organism.
To show how surface area varies with size :

Ca lculate the volumes of the boxes illustrated below.
Calculate their surface areas (by add ing togeth er the areas o f their
six faces).
Find the ratio between surface area and volume fo r each box.
volume = vol ume =

surface area = surface area =
surface area/volume ratio = surface area/volume ratio =
Now co mplete these sentences :
a) By co mpa ring the ratio of surface area to vo lume for the two
boxes we o bserve that the . . . box has a higher surface area/volume
ratio .
68
b) We can conel ude that sma ller objects ha ve a .. . (grea ter ar
sma ller't) surface area in propor tion to volume than lar ger
objects .
c ) Applying thi s generalisation to biology. we can pred ict that a
large anima l will have a relatively sma ll surface area and a sm all
animal . . . .
d) For exa mple. . . .
7. Now complete these:
To sho w how surface area also varies with shape :

a ) These solids have the sa me volume but they di ffer in sha pe. Do
they have the same surface area'! Calculate the surface areas of
the cube a nd the rec tangular solid .
vol ume surface area
5 mrre
em
b) Th e sphe re. which has the mo st compact shape. has the sma llest
surface area in proporti on to vo lume. whereas the . . .. wh ich
has the least . . . has the . . . surface area in proporti on to vo lume .
c ) If we .. . the surface areas o f objects with the same vo lume but
difTerent sha pes. we will ... th at the more compact the sha pe.
d ) We ca n ... that . . . ra tio depends on ... as well as . . . .

e) Appl ying th is to biology. we ca n ... th at pa rt of an orga nis m
with a relative ly . . . sha pe will ha ve a proportio na tely .. . su rface
area than part wit h a relative ly flat shape.
f> For exa mple• . . .
Section 3 Reading
8. Read this pas.'iage and look at the illustrations :
The effects of the surface area /volume ratio in biology

T he rela tion be tween surface area and vo lume has many effects o n
the lives of plants and animals. For exa mple. the rate at which an
69
animal gains or loses heat throu gh its skin depends on its su rface
area/volume ratio. Heat transfer is directly proportional to su rface
area and inversely proportional to volume. Thus an animal with a
proportionately large surface area, such as a mouse. will lose or
gain heat relatively rapid ly. Co nversely, an animal with a lar ge
volume in relation to its surface area. such as an elephant. will retain
mor e heal.
Animals are protected from the cold by insulation. which may be
in the form of hair. fur or fat. Insulation is in inverse propo rtion to
heat t ran sfer.
in sulat ion
heat gain heat toss heat retent ion

~----v-~---_/
'--
heat' tra nsfer
Make tru e statements from th ese tab les :
Heat transfer air tempera ture .

H ~.i t
loss di rectl y insulation of the s kin.
IS proportio na l to
Hea t gain inve rsely surface a rea .
Heat retention volume.
The higher the ratio between surface
area and volume.
The lo wer the ratio between surface the mo re quickly it gains or loses
area and volume. heat.
The smaller the size of an animal. the more it retains heat.
The largcr the size of an animal. the faster the rate of heat transfer.
The thicker the insulation of an the less it retains heat.
animal's skin. the more slowly it gains or loses heat.
The more compact the shape o f part o f the slower the rate o f heat transfer.
an animal.
The Jess compact the shape o f part o f
an animal.
9. 1\'0 \\ read this passage :
The factors affecting the rate of heat transfer throu gh the skin also
determine the rate of diffusion of gases th rough the walls of the cells.
tissues an d organs o f plants a nd a ni ma ls. For exa m ple. o xygen a nd
ca rbon dioxide arc abso rbed th rough the walls of va rious organs.
T he g reater the surface a rea o f these o rga ns in relation to th eir
vo lume. the more of the surface will be exposed to the ga s. and hence
the faster the rate of diffusio n.
The following exam ples illustrate the effects of the surface area /volume ratio
on heal transfer and diffusion. Explain them by answering the q uestions :
a) Cold- blooded animals depend on the warmth of the sun to make

their muscles wor k. The wings of butterfl ies and the tails of
re ptiles se rve to abso rb wa rmt h. W hy is thi s '?
b ) Th e smallest humming-bird weigh s les s than 2 gram s. Wh y a re

humm in g-birds o nly found in hot co untries'?
71
c) In hot weather. hippopotamu ses and water buffaloes spend a lot
of time in the water. Why do they have to do this?
d) Why do anima ls sleep curled up in cold weat her hut stretched ou t

in warm weather'?
c) Why arc aqua tic wa rm-blooded ani mals in no rthern and so uthern
seas very large ? (whales. seals. dolphins)
f) Wby do bab ies suffer more from the cold than adults "
g) Why are leaves broad -a nd flat ?
h) Wby arc human lungs shaped like this?
i) Why do n 't micro-organi sms need special orga ns for the absorp-
tio n o f ox yge n ?
to. Complete the following sentences with these words or expressions :
depends on compared wit h rate

determines co nverse ly ratio
enable relatively fac tor
o bserve in proportion to concl ude
a) .. . an oa k. a palm tree has a . .. thin trunk .

b) The smaller an animal. the higher is the . . . of its surface a rea to
its vo lume the larger an ani ma l. the smaller its surface area
.. . its vo lume.
c) The ... of heat tra nsfer th rough the skin . . . the surface area l
vol ume ratio .
d ) If we compare the bones of land an d water a nima ls. we that
those of water animals are thinner . . . their size. and we that
water animals need less support.
c) Insulatio n of the skin is a . . . affecting the ab ility of an anima l
to retain heat.
f ) An elepha nt's ca rs . . . it to lose heat.
g) T he need to a bso rb oxygen easily . .. the sha pe of lun gs a nd gills.
Section 4 Listening
11. Listen to the description of the experiment and com plete this table:
Surface Average Average Approximate ratio of

area weight daity weight to food
food consumption consum ption
Mouse
Rabbit
12. Co mplete these notes, which give an outline of the description of the expert-
ment and the co ncl usions drawn from it.
a ) The purpose of t he experiment : to co mpare the .. . and . . . o f

different animals.
b) Stages in th e expe rime nt :
· . . , the . . . a nd . . . of the animals we re measured .
· the animals were fed and their was . . . .
· their food co nsumptio n was with the . . . betw een
their and their . . . .
c ) It was that the mo use with its larger surface are-do consumes
more its weig ht.
d ) The fro m th is expe rime nt: a n a nimal's food co nsu mption ...
its surface a rea.
e) The . . . : the . . . of small animals is greater . . . their . . . is
more ra pid .
73
Unit C Revision
I. Look and read :
inner ear containing fluid

middle ear cavity
semi-circular canals . containing air
...
ossicles of
middle ear
eardrum
bone of
skull
eustachian
tube to throat oute r ear pinna
Diagrammatic section of human ear
The ear in mammals

The ear is divided into three main regions (A). The outerear consists
of a tube which passes from the side of the head to the eardrum (B).
U sually there is also an external ea r, or pinna. surrounding the outer
end of the tu be. The pinna is made of cartilage and skin (C).
The middle ear is an air-filled cavity in the skin. which lies inside
the eardrum. It is connected to the back of the th roat by the eustu-
chiun lube (D ). Three small bones called ossicles form a chain acros s
the midd le ear. The o uter ossicle is attached to the eardrum a nd .the
inner one fits into the oval window (E).
The inner ear is filled with fluid and contains two main organ s.
One of these is the coiled cochlea. which contains cells sensitive to
vibration. The other part of the inner car consists of semi-circular
74
cana ls (F ). Each ca nal lies in a d ifferent plane. O ne is ho rizontal and
two a re vertical. but at right a ngles to eac h o ther. T hey are all
a ttached to a sma ll sac (G).
Ma tch the following phrases wit h the lett ers A. B. C. D. E. F. G in th e text :
a) a small o pening wh ich leads to the inner ear.

b) Th is is a mem brane stretched tightl y acros s the o pening.
c) T he sa c and the canals a rc full of fluid.
d) the outer, middle and inne r ear.
e) It serves to direct vibratio ns to the ear. and also helps the animal
to know the direction from which the vibra tio ns are coming.
o which contain cell s sensitive to position .
g) This allows air to enter the middleear. thus equalising the pressure
insid e and o utside the eardru m.
2. Describe the Iolle wing, using the text and the phrases in exercise 1:
a) The shape of the cochlea.

b) The con tents o f the inner ear.
c) T he function of th e pi nn a .
d) The position of th e pinna .
c) T he funct io n of t he eus tachian tube.
f) The sha pe o f the eusta chia n tube.
g) The structure and positio n of the ossiclcs .
h) T he position of th e middle ear.
i) The conte nts o f the semi-circular cana ls.
3. Now read this :
Sound vibrations travel down the o uter ear, thereby causing the car-
drum to vibrate. This in turn vibrates the ossiclcs and results in slight
movement of the oss icle fitted to the ov al wind o w. As a result of
this. fluid in the inner ea r vibra tes, so that the sensory cells in the
cochlea receive the stimulus. Impulses travel to the hrain from the
senso ry ce lls in the eighth cranial nerve.
The semi-circular canals enab le the ani mal to maint ain its balance .
As the animal mov es. the fluid in its semi -circular cana ls also moves.
so that the senso ry ce lls a re sti mu la ted . Impulses are then carried to
the hrain. thus ena bling the ani ma l to know wh ich way up it is.
Hence. it is able to remain balanced on fo ur or two legs.
75
Now ma ke true sentences from this table and put them in the order of occur-
rence:
Vibration of the
fluid in the im pulses withi n the bra in.
mner ear
Stimulati on of the stimulation of the senso ry cells
senso ry cells in in th e cochlea .
the cochlea ca users)
External sound prod ucers) movement o f the ossicle fitted
'vibra tions leads to to the oval window.
Vibratio n of the vibration of the fl uid in the
eardrum mner ea r.
Movement of the
ossicle fitted to vibration of the ea rdrum .
the oval wind ow
4. :\Ia ke true sentences from this table:
Th e semi-circula r ca nal the anima l to locate the source of sounds.

The coc hlea sound vibratio ns to enter the inner ea r.
ena bles
The pinna the animal to maintain its balance.
allows
The eustachia n tu be the-animal to hear sounds.
The ova l windo w air to enter the middl e ear.
5. Look and rea d:
pi t u ita ry--------+-~
thyro id
f\
76
The endocrine glands
T he endocrine glands produce chemical substances called ho rmo nes.
Th ese substa nces regulate many chemical processes within the bo dy.
The pituitary gland controls the other endoc rine gla nds. If the
pitu ita ry glan d is removed fro m a yo ung an ima l, growth ceases and
the animal does not develop sexually. In humans the pituitary is
on ly abo ut 2 em in diameter.
T he thyroid gland pr oduces th yroxine, a co mplex chemical con-
taining iodin e. If an animal's diet is deficient in iodin e. the thyroid
gland may not he a ble to produce sufficient th yroxine. On the ot her
hand, if th yroxine production is excessive, the animal burns food as a
result of a n increased rate of metabol ism , a nd loses weight.
The adrenal glands, situated near the kidneys. produce several
hormones. including adrenalin. This hormone enables the muscles
to o btain extra energy in time of dan ger,
The pancreas lies close to the duodenum. It produces insulin.
which assists in the process by which sugar is stored in the bod y. If
there is an excess or deficiency of insulin. the amount of sugar in the
blood increases, an d the disease ca lled dia betes results.
Put th e follow ing in th e or de r in which th ey occur in th e passage :
the fun ction of insulin

the result of iod ine deficiency
th e effects of remova l of th e pituitary glan d
th e process leading to loss of body weight
the functio n of ho rmones
the functio n of the endocri ne glands
the cause o f dia betes
th e fun ctio n o f th e pi tuitary gland
the loc ation of the pancreas
the function of ad renalin
th e size of th e pituita ry glan d
6. Say whether these statements are true or false. Correct the false statements.
a) T he sha pe of th e pit uitary gland is roughly spherical.

b) Removal of th e pituita ry gla nd results in excessive growt h.
c) The thyroid gland serves to produce insulin.
d) Most diets co nta in a sma ll a mo un t of iodine; co nsequently, pr o-
d uct ion o f th yroxine can tak e place.
e) If insufficien t thyroxine is produced, an ani ma l loses weight.
f) When an animal is in danger. its production of adrenalin increases.
g) The gland which produces insulin is situated ncar the duodenum .
h) Lack of insulin results in increased levels of sugar in the blood.
leading to diabetes.
i) The faster the production of thyroxine. the slo wer the rate of
meta bol ism.
77
7. Look at these diagrams:
175 boys
150 /-- girls
./
125
100
,
1,..-;'
E j
u 75
e /
E SO
-~ 25
c
o 5 10 15 20
age in years
Graph showing the
increase in height
of boys and girls
Changes in the proportions of the human body during growth

,.....--- -
at birth at 2 ye ars at 6 yea rs at 14 yea rs at 20 years
No w answe r these questions :
a } At what age a pproximately docs a human being reach maxim um

height ?
b) Is the rate o f grow th co nsta nt du ring childho od '?
c) When is gro wth faster - im med iately after birth o r 10 years
later?
d ) When is the rate of grow th slo west du ring child hood ?
e) When does the rate of grow th increase agai n ?
f) When docs the head reach maximum size ?
g) When is it biggest in propo rtio n 10 the rest of the bod y?
h) At what age approxi mately is the nec k thinnest in relati on to the
rest of the bod y?
i) Is t he girth of the waist propo rtio nately bigger or smaller at birth
tha n at 20 years?
j) Wha t can you observe a bo ut the length a nd thic kness o f the legs
in ea rly childh ood and at 20 yea rs'!
k) Wha t con clu sio n can you d raw from this ? (The expla natio n is that
the bon es are rela tivel y son at birth and beco me hard o nly
slo wly.)
Unit 10 Measurement 4 Frequency,
Tendency, Probability
t. Look and read :

AI/ living orga nisms need food.
L·Wing
. o rga nisms
. {ohm)"s}
invariablv necd f 0 od .
.
Nearly all mammals are vivipa rous

(i.e. the y do not lay eggs).
Mammals arc nearly always viviparous.
M ost mammals live on land.

[usually l .
Mammalslgenerallyfh ve on la nd .
Mammals lend 10 live on land .
M any bacteria cause disease.

Bac tcna
.{jif
.
ien
requently
} ca use dirsease.
S ome birds feed on fish .

Bird s sometimes feed on fish.
A f ell' mammals live in wat er.

Mammals occasionally live in water.
Feu' mammals live in very co ld climates.

~ammals{:=;;~,J-live in very cold clima tes.
79
Very few mam mals are oviparo us (egg-
laying).
rarelYl .
Mammals are very { seldon{ oviparous.
No mammals are co ld-b looded.

Mammals are n" 'er cold-b looded .
Now co mplete the se statements with one of the following:

all nearl y all most man y some a few few no
a) Birds arc oviparous.
b) Sna kes are warm-blooded.
c) Mammals ha ve tails.
d) Plants possess chlorophyll.
e) Birds have wings.
f) Birds can fly.
g) Bacteria are harmless.
h) Fish can survive out of water.
i) Humming-birds are found in cold climates.
j) Spiders (Arachnida) have eight legs.
k) Insects possess wings.
I) Plan ts need light.
m ) Carnivo res (meat-eaters) feed on grass .
n) T rees have aerial roots (i.e. above the gro und).
0) Microbes repro d uce sexually.
p) Living organisms need oxygen.
2. Now complete the above statements with adverbs of frequency (always etc.
in place of all ele.):
Examples : (note the position of the adverb):
Insects usually possess wings.
A lgae are of tell found in fresh wate r.
Plants can seldom live und er water.
3. Look at these examples :
[tend 10 live in warm climates.
Very small mammalsl1end not 10 live in co ld climates.
i.e. This is usually true. but there are some ex ceptions.
Now say whether these statementsare true or false. Correctthe false sta teme nts.
.
a ) Insects tend to have wings.
b) Humans tend not to have wings.
c) Carnivores tend to eat meat.
80
d) Living o rganisms tend to need oxygen.
e) Birds tend to possess wings.
f) Amph ibians tend to repro duce in water.
g) Bacteria tend to be harmless.
h) Mammals tend to live in very cold climates.
i) Birds tend to be ab le to fly.
4. Look at this table :
Differences between plants and a nimals

An imals Plants Exceptions
Nutrition is holozoic Nutrition is hol ophytic Sapro phytic (feed ing o n
(i.e. animals eat (i.e. simple mat erials decaying matter) and
o ther organisms). are changed into parasitic plants e re not
substances which holophyt ic. Tapeworms
can be used as food ). and insect ecto -
pa rasites (i.e. para -
sites living on the
outside of their hosts)
take in their food o nly
in liqu id form.
No chlorop hyll . Chlorophyll present. Fungi, bacteria and

some o ther plan t
pa rasites have no
chlorophyll.
Ca rbo hyd rates stored Carbo hydrates stored Glycogen is found in

as glycogen . as starch yeasts and ot her fungi.
Lipid s sto red as fat . Lipids stored as oil. T he cocoa 'bean ' stores
food as fat.
Us ually no cell wall. Cell walls of cellulose Fu ngal cell walls are not
If present , it is present . made of cellulose
never mad e of
cellulose.
If cell vacu oles arc Cell vacuoles in

present. they are mature cells are few
numerous and small. and large.
Abl e to move. Use a Fixed . Use little Matu re barnacles a nd

lot of energy. energy. spo nges a re fixed.
Stop growing when Unlimited growth . Some fish and lizard s

adult. continue to grow
thr ou ghout life.
Co mpact shape. Spreading and Polyps (animal) are

branching shape. branched.
Fixed numbe r of parts. Number of parts not

fixed.
8\
Now make statements from the ta ble like the following example :
In animals, nutrition tends to be holozoic . However.

{ Animals tend to eat other organisms. with the exception of
tapeworms and insect ecto parasites l kc i . .

tapew orms and insect ectoparasites, whichJ ta C In their food In
liquid form.
(Note: If there are no exceptio ns. use invariably or nn er instead of tend to.)
5. Loo k and read :
o
man
• hippopotamus t--~
horse t--_
lion
cow t-
r:::::::--
dog r--_
cat
mouse
f=::;:::-
60
20
A life clock
82
Maximum possible ages : man 120 years
hippopotamus 54 years
horse 52 years
lion 29 years
cow 40 years
dog (black lab rador ) 27 years
cat 33 years
house mouse 3.5 years
Now read these examples :
II is impossible that a man \l'il/live for 200 years.
It is highly{::;;;;:i~ble} tha t he will live for 100 years.
It is possible that he will live for 70 years.
It is-0'7~;b1e}that he will live for 20 years.

A man might live for 100 years . but it is unlikely.
He may live for 70 years.
He will probably live for 20 years.
There is a very slight possibility that he will live for 100 years.
"U )ussibilily f Ila t he WI'11 rrve "or 100 years IS

T hJlikelillOod} . IOIl'.
The chances thai he will live for 20 years arc high.
Now choose the cor rect words in these sentences:
a) It is likely/unlikely/impossible that a hippopotamus will live for

50 years.
b) There is no/a slight/a stro ng possiblity that a house mouse will
live fo r 5 years.
c) A dog may/might/will probably live for 13 years.
d) A cow might /may/will not live for 30 years.
e) The possibility that a lion will live for 15 years is high/lowjnon-
existent.
f) A cat has a good /a slight/no chance oflivi ng to an age of 10years .
g) It is possible/improbable/probable that a horse will live for 10
years.
h) The likelihood of your learning English is low/non-existent/h igh.
83
hawks
1
/ snak\~
field mice lizards toads birds snai ls
""'//
herb ivorous insects
1
green plants
A food-web
Look at these examples:
Possibility: G reen plants may be eaten by herbivorous insects or

they may be eaten by field mice. Th ey may also be
eaten by snails.
Probability : Field mice are likely 10 feed on green plan ts.
Now make ot her statements about possible and probable feeding ha bits of
the following :
snake s/haw ks
field mice/sna kes/hawks
snails/green plants
herbiv0 rous insects/toads/sna kes/bird slliza rds
lizards/herbivorous insects
snails/snakes
Section 3 Reading
7, Read this passage:
Blood groups
In the human body there are a num ber of com plex chemical sub-
stances attached to red blood ce lls. The se substances are known as
blood gro up antigens. A person 's blood group depends on the type
of antigen which his blood contains. T he simplest classification of
these antigens gives four blood gro ups : A, AB, B, O. The followi ng
table shows that the percentage of people in each blood group
varies in different parts of the world .
84
Area Blood Group
0 A B lAB
Africa 43 28 25 6
America 52 34 II 3
Asia 36 28 28 8
Euro pe 40 43 12 5
Oceania 47 39 10 4
Wo rld 39 31 23 7
T he blood group percentages for the total hu man populati on
Now complete these statements:
a) The rarest blood group is . . . a nd the commonest is .. .

b) Blood gro up 0 is found most frequently in .
c) Gro ups A an d B have the sa me freq uency in .
d) Gro up 0 tends to be most frequ en t. except in .
e) An indi vidu al is most likely to belon g to gro up AB in ...
f) In . . . . there is a one in four chance that an individual wilt belo ng
10 blood group B.
g) In Ocea nia. the possibilit y that A will occur is nearl y . . . times
higher than the possibility that B will occur.
H. Read rhls passage:
Every ind ividual inherits two blood group genes. one from eac h
parent This inherit ed co mbi natio n is know n as the individua l's
genotype .
It is possible for indi vidu als belonging 10 the sa me blood gro up
to have d ifferenl genot ypes. Thus. blood group A may be ca used by
the co mbina tion AA. but can also result fro m AO. Similarly. B
results from BB o r BO. On the other hand. blood gro up AB ca n
result o nly from the genoty pe AB .
Blood gro up 0 can on ly be p roduced when two 0 genes are in-
herited. i.e. fro m the co mbination 00 . Th is mean s tha t the 0 gene is
recessive 10 A and B.
Answer these questions :

.
a ) If one pa rent has the genes AB and the other has the genes 00.
their child may have the genotype AO or BO. Which blood
gro ups ca n result from these combinations?
b ) Why can't the child inherit the genot ype OO'!
85
Now comp lete this ta ble :
Genotypes Possible geno types Resulting blood

in parents in children gro ups
Parent I AB
Parenl200
Parent I AO
Parent 2 BO
Parent I AB
Parent 2 BO
Parent I AA
Parent 2 BB
Look at this diagram :
Most probable genoty pes in children whose parents have the genes
AOand BO
N ow answer these question s :
Example.' What are the chances of an A gene occurring in a child ?

The chances of an A gene occurring arc I in 2.
c) What is the probability of a B gene occurr ing?

d) What is the likelihood of an 0 gene occurri ng?
e) What are the chances of a child belonging to blood group A?
f) What is the probab ility of a child belonging to blood group B?
g) What is the likelihood of a child belonging to blood gro up AB?
h) What are the chances of a child belonging to blood group O ?
9. Read this :
Natural selection
The theory of natural selection can be summarised by the following
o bservatio ns and inductions :
Observations : The offspr ing of animals tend to outnumber their
parents .
One pair of rabbits may produce a large number of
offspring.
The numbers of a species tend to remain the same.
Inductions : Animals often die before they reach matu rity. There
is usually a struggle for survival and many offs pring
do not survive long eno ugh to breed.
86
Now read the passage agai n. introducing each sentence with an a ppro priate
co nnecting word o r phrase. choosing from these:
Nevertheless. For exa mple. Beca use of this, it is assumed that . ..
It is o ften o bserved that. .. In o ther words.
Read th is :
Observations : There are differences between individual members

of a species.
Inductions .' So me individua ls arc better adapted to their en-

viro nment than others.
The bet ter adapted individuals will lend to live
longer.
T hey will ten d to produce mo re offspring.
The o ffspring will lend to inherit some of the bene-
fieial characteristics of their pa ren ts.
These offspri ng will tend to live longer.
The population will tend to change grad ually as
more beneficial characteristics en ter it.
The change in the population will tend 10 produce a
new species.
Now introduce the sentences abo ve with phrases chos en from the following :
Consequently. This suggests that . .. Mo reover. As a result.

It is also observed that . .. Eventually. Thus. T herefore.
N ow say whether these statements arc true. pro bably true or possibly true:
a) The num ber o f offspr ing is usually greater than the number o f
parents.
b) If we count the number of animals in a species. we sha ll observe
that the number decreases.
c) If membe rs of a species live in the sa me place. some membe rs will
o btai n sufficient food and shelter while the others will not.
d) As a result o f differences between individuals, so me individuals
are better adapted to their environment than oth ers.
e ) An animal which is well adapted to its environment will live for a
rela tively long time .
f ) A well-ada pted a nima l will produce the sa me number of o ffsp ring
as a less weil -adap ted o ne.
g) Animals which inherit good characteristics are likely to live lo nger
than ot her anima ls.
h) A new species )-ViII ap pear as a result o f the increase in beneficial
characteristics .
87
Section 4 Listening
10. List en to the te xt and then a nswer t hese questlona:
a) Wha t is a mutati on '?

b) What mutat ions are most lik ely to be pa ssed o n to offsp rin g?
c) When are recessive characteristics likely to be fully expressed '?
d) Wha t is the freq uency of mutation mention ed in the (ext '?
e) What effect docs rad ioact ivity ha ve on the cha nces of mu tation
occurring?
J I. Lis ten to the text again a nd replace the phrases in ita lics with wo rds used
in the tex t:
a) Harmful mutations will probably not be handed on.

b) Beneficial mutatio ns are sometimes passed on.
c) Ge ne mutation s are usually recessive.
d) Recessive cha racteristics II'HI possibl y 1101 be expressed .
c) There is a possibility of two recessive genes co ming toget her.
f) IVe may dete rmine the freq uency of gene muta t ion.
88
Unit 11 Process 4 Method
I. Look and read :
Procedure for testing leaves for sta rch
To obtain samples To kill t he leaf

aft he leaf. sections.
cut ou t small d ip them in boiling

circular sections. 1 w at er, 2..
To remove t he gr een To avoid t he use o f

colour, a d irect flame.
•
w ate r
-
et hano l --lt~~;''f=d
soak the sectio ns
in boilin g ethanol
3. use a wat er bath. 4.
To remo ve the
et ha no l,
s. To test for the
presence Of~
e'
1----=-) 6 \l
: blu e- black
1I'--"'.'-::::-:'-~ co lo ur
• • ~ starch present
ad d iodine solut io n and
observe the cha nge in
wa sh in cold wa ter. 5. colo ur. ~.
Now ask and answer qu estion s like this:

-
What is the purp ose of dipping the leaf sections in boiling water?
T he purpose of dipping the leaf sections in boiling water is to kill

them.
89
2. Ask and answer questions like this:
How should samples of the leaf be obtained'l
Samples of the leaf shou ld be obtained by cutting 0 111 small circular

sections o f the leaf.
3. Look and read :
to obtain a coarse foc us. to examine t he object.

t urn th e coa rse adjustment look through th e eyep iece
wheel 1
~ to c hange th e po we r of magni f icat ion,
rotate th e objective lenses
to examine objects at low power,
to obtain a fine focus. use t he lo w power lens
tu rn th e tine adju st ment
wheel
to examine objects
at hig h po w er.
use th e high po w er
lens
t o f i x the slide to co ntrol

in pos ition
place it under ~~~;~~~;r;\---
;,:
t he quantit y of light.
adj ust t he
the slide holde r apert ure control
coverslip
object
to illuminate t he
'-'<::<7- slide object. switc h o n
t he light
to support t he object to be exam ined , place it in a drop of water

on a slide and cover it wit h a c oversli p
T he student microscope
Ask and answer qu estions like th is :
H OW{~I~;'} the o bject be examined'!
The obiect
J
JLmay - look ing throu gh the eyepiece.
can }be examined bv J
90
4. Complete these sentences, then rearrange them into the correc t order:
Instructions for the use of the student microscope
Th e apparat us is now read y, and the object can be exami ned by . .. .
Nex t, the slide should he . .. by placing it . . . .
If necessa ry, th e qu an tit y o f light ca n be co nt rolled by . . . . .
During the initial examinatio n at low power, a coarse foc us is
o btai ned by . .. .
First of all, the object to be exa mi ned sho uld be suppo rted by .
T he o bject is subseq uently exami ned aga in at high power by using .
Before examining the o bject. the light must be . . . in order to .
The object is usually first examined at low power of magnifica tion
by mean s of ....
During the seco nd examinatio n, a fine focus is ob tained by _
In order to change from low to high power. the object ive lenses .
Section 3 Reading
5. Read Ihis passage :
Biological experiments
Expe riments are ca rried o ut in the laborato ry in order to o bserve the
effects of changes in the environment on o rganisms. Two similar
orga nisms may be stud ied in the experime nt. One of these is ke pt in
a no rmal environment. This is call ed the co ntrol. The other orga nism
is placed in an environment in which one co ndition. such as tem-
perature. is changed . The results are then co mpared. The contro l
pro vides a standard aga inst wh ich changes in the o ther o rganism may
be measu red.
Co mplete th ese sentences:
a) T he purpose of experiments in th e la bo ra tory is . . .

b) T he o rganism which . . . is ca lled th e co ntrol.
c) Dur ing the experiment o ne o rganism . . . while the o ther . . . .
d) ... is a n exa mple of a co ndition which may he cha nged in an
experime nt.
c) T he pu rpose o f th e con trol . . .
6. Look and read :
An experiment to Invest igate the effect of light on photosynth esis
! Plant A Q ! ~ starch present
! PlantB
~ no starch
91
Two similar green plants are used in this experiment. One plant (B )
is kept in the da rk for several days. The ot her plant (A) is exposed to
sunlight for the same period . Both plants arc kept at the same tem-
peratu re and wat ered daily. The leaves of both plants are then tested
fo r starch.
It can be observed that the leaves of plant B do not co ntain starch.
whereas starch is still present in plant A. We can conclude that the
plant which was kept in the dar k was unable to prod uce starch. The
reason for th is is that energy from sunlight is necessary for ph oto-
synt hesis. During photosynthesis sta rch is prod uced in the lea ves of
pla nt s.
a) Wh ich plant is used as a control?

b) What co ndition is different for the two plants?
c) What co nditions are the same fo r both plants?
d) What difference is observed after the experiment"
c) Why must green plants be used in this experiment?
7. Now read this :
Reporting experiments
A report of an experiment should usually include the following :
a) a statement of the purpose of the experiment ;
b) a descript ion or d iagram of the apparatus or equipment used ;
c) a report of the procedure followed in the experiment ;
d) an o bserva tion of the results;
e ) conclusions drawn from the experiment. or facts demonstrated
by the experiment ;
f) an explanation of the results. where this is known .
Now match the stages in the report of an experiment (a- f) with different parts
of the report of the experiment on photosynthesis (exercise 6).
92
8. Look and read :
T o show that carbon dioxid e is needed for photosynthesis
Air is drawn through eac h ja r by a f ilter pu mp .
to filter pump air

Two destarched. potted plants The con trol has free
are w atered and placed access to air
u nder bell jars with t he
soil and po ts covered.
as shown in th e
diagram.
pot and
soi l
co vered . I
: :'
Con tro l
W itho ut carbon dioxide. starch Sample leaves from each plant are th en
is not produced. Therefore tested fo r sta rch.
carbo n dio xide is necessary
for photosynthesis. The leaf from the bell jar w hich does not co ntai n ca rbo n
dio xide d oes not t urn blu e. whereas th e leaf f rom t h e
co ntrol turns blue.
Du ring phot osynthesis. plan ts use carbon dio xide absorbed from
th e air to provide starch .
Now write a repo rt of the experi ment, placing the a bove sentences in the co rrect
order , with the following head ings :
Purpose
Description ofapparatus
Procedure (5 sentences)
Observation oj result
Conclusion
Exp lanation
Section 4 Listening
9. Listen to the first par agraph of the text and complete this chart :
Sodium citrate
+
+
= Benedict's solutio n +
... < ... precipitate
cup ro us oxi de
Copper sulphate
93
Now listen to the text a nd number th ese diagra ms in the o rder in wh ich they
a re described :
:(/ .(Y
~
6. bo il for two mi nu tes ~dd ,ocm" ~d
'i
o pass through • Wter
"< cuprous oxide
crush leaf c ells

Sodium ~: 6.
bicarbonat .r' bo il for eig ht minut es
Listen to the text again a nd th en a nswer these quest io ns :
a ) How ar e the j uices extrac ted fro m the leaves?

b ] How is th e acid neutral ised ?
c) \Vha t is the pur po se o f bo iling the solutio n fo r two minu tes?
d) Wh a t is the purp ose of add ing Benedict's solutio n and bo iling
fo r eight m in utes?
e ) \Vha t co lo ur s will appear if the lea f co nta ined suga r'?
f) In wha t fo rm is the suga r at the beginn ing: and end of the test '?
94
Unit 12 Consolidation
\. Read this passage: .
T here are man y different kinds of an imals a nd pla nts. These can be
a rra nged in groups an d sub-gro ups. Such gro uping is ca lled classifi-
catio n. Organisms are classified after observing their properties.
Plants or an ima ls which possess fea tures in co mmon a re placed in
gro ups. Th ese fea tures distinguish them from organisms which
belon g to o ther groups.
The la rgest gro up of orga nisms is called a kingdom, of which t here
a re two: a nima ls an d plants. An ima ls are divided into phyla (sing ular
phylum) a nd pla nts are d ivided into d ivision s. Orga nisms which
belong to one of these gro ups have a similar general structure. An
exa mple of a phylum is Arthropoda, a nimals with jointed lim bs a nd
a n external skeleto n.
Phyla and divisio ns are sub-divided into classes, eg Insecta, jo inted-
lim bed a nimals with 6 legs. Eac h class in turn is divided into di ffe ren t
o rders. such as Diptera, 2-wingcd insec ts. Each order co nsists of one
or mo re families. An example of a family is Muscidae, house flies.
Mem bers of a family a re very similar in structure a nd a ppea ra nce.
A family includes o ne or more genera (singular genus), eg M usca,
the hou se fly.
Finally, genera are sub-divided into species, such as Mu sca
dom estica, the common house fly. A species is made up of all indi-
vid uals which arc ca pa ble of breeding togeth er an d reproducing
th eir own kind .
An o rganism is named with Latin words. the genus name first.
with a ca pital leiter, followed by the species na me, with a small leiter.
Now complete this chart:
Kingdom e.q.
e.q .
e.g .
e.a.
e .g.
e .g .
e.q . Musca domestics
Levels of biological cla ssificati on
95
2. Now' answer these questions :
a) What must be done before classifying organisms?

b) What is the smallest gro up of organisms called ?
c) What distinguishes members of a phylum ?
d) What a re families sub-di vided into ?
e) What do es a class consist o f?
f) What is a single o rganism belonging to a speci es ca lled?
g) Which class includ es the o rder Dip/era ?
h) What is made up of d ifferent classes of plants?
i ) What are the species a nd the ge nus of On iscus asellus't
3. Read these sentences and then match the letters with the missing phrases
below to make a complete text :
Woodli ce and evolution

Woodlice are a gro up of Arthropods which live on land (A). T hey
belo ng to the orde r lsopo da. Wo odlice are an interesting gro up to
st udy from the point of view of evolution (B).
Many land animals have reduced water loss by evolving a har d
o uter layer. or integ ume nt (C ). However. this so me times ca uses
problems with the exchange of gases (D). The integument also pro-
vides suppo rt but restricts growth (E) .
The nature of the integument is an impor tant fac to r in the ecol o gy
of terrestrial art hropods . Th ese may be divided into two gro ups : (F).
Woodlice lack a waxy ou ter cuticle and hence belong to the group
which do not po ssess an impervio us body-co vering. Th ey c on se-
quently lose water quickly in d ry air (G ).
a) tho se with an im pervio us bo dy-covering and tho se witho ut one.

b) as the co mmon spe cies sho w varying degrees of ada pta tion to
conditions on dry lan d.
c) except by moulting.
d ) but they are related to so me similar water animals.
e) by inhibi ting the d iffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
f) Th e rate of water lo ss va ries fro m spec ies to spec ies.
g) whic h is impervious to wa ter vapo ur.
4. You will hear a description of the structure of one species of woodlouse. Listen
10 the passage and add the labels to the diagram :
a)_-=:::j::;;~ f) flageII um
b) ~?<~;::g) dorsal view
c} pereipod
compound eye
pleop ods
pcreio nites
anten na
e ,..=:::::::~~ ve ntral view
""'-=-'''-- j) pleonites
antennule
Oniscus asellus, sho wing dorsal and ventral sides in two halves
96
5. Read this passage:
The life cycle of a woodlouse

The life cycles of several species of woodl ice have been studied. The
number of eggs ranges from seven per brood in one species to onc or
two hundred in anot her. The fema le Oniscus carries its eggs inside a
thoracic brood pouch. or mar supi um. which is attached to the
pereion .
After hatchin g. the you ng of Oniscus remain in the marsupium for
a maxi mum of three days. They are released th rough an opening in
the marsupium. The first moult occ urs within twenty-four hou rs of
this. The yo ung arc now in danger. since if the environ ment is too
dry at this time. they will quickly lose water and d ie. On the o ther
hand. if it is too wet. they are liable to be attacked by fungi .
The lifespan of woodlice varies from species to species. but most
do not breed until thei r second year. Moulting ta kes place in two
stages : the outside of the anterior part of the body is cas t so me time
after the poste rior part. This helps 10 protect the animal from
predat or s.
Now nu mber these points in the order in which they occur in the pa ssage :
the effect of lack of moisture on the young

the variation in the number of yo ung in different species
the time of the first moult
the time of the first breeding
the location of the marsupium
how the yo ung arc initially protected
the purpose of mou lting in two stages
the function of the marsupiu m
how the yo ung leave the mother
the result of exce ssive moi sture
the variation in the lifespan of woodlice
the meth od of moulting
6. Now read this:
Water loss
Loss of water is an important factor in the survival of terrestrial
isopods. Since the integument lacks an impervious cov ering. water
may be lost through the body cove ring. T he rate at which this occurs
will be affected by (i) the size of the anima l. (i i) its behaviour and
(iii) the relative dryness of the surrounding air. Evaporation ta kes
place more ra pidly from a la rger surface than from a sma ller surface.
By rollin g into a ball. a .wood louse can reduce its exposed surfaces
and thereby reduce the rate of evaporation. Rema ining close to-
gether in groups has the same resu lt.
97
a) Wh ich part of an iso pod is the integument ?

b) What does 'impervious' mean '!
c) If the surrounding air becomes dr ier, will the rate of water loss
be reduced o r increased '!
d) What is evaporation directly proportional to?
e) Describe two ways in which the wood louse redu ces the ra te o f
water loss.
f ) Why is water loss greater from a flat shape than from a com pact
one ?
g) Why do you think woodlice tend to remain in gro ups and in
narrow, dar k places?
7. Look and read :
It is probable that o ne of the most important factors affecting the

woodlouse's choice of habit at will be humid ity (the amo unt of water
vapo ur in the air). This assumption can be tested in the laboratory by
using an apparatus like the one in the dia gram . This gives the a nimal
a choice between a wet and a dry place.
. plast ic Petri d ish
ope ning
upper between,_
chambers --I..c;;;;;;;;;i1~'U:~:~'~:~'~:..~:~"
;. 0':. : ';.:: 0 .. ,
hole
---- w oodfolice
r insert ing
' ~oo
0 0 <>0<> 0 0 0
." Q o Q~
.0 0
.. 000 0
0 ''':'0 0 0
.0"o perfo rated zinc
o 00
•0 0 0 0
000
000
0'"
•• 0
Cho ice chamber construc ted from two plastic Petri dishes
w elded by solvent plastici ne plug

~alt t hiocyanate
rubb.rband--
--- -,[::Jr-'i"'
I"---~ +-- paper
-- - - ---- ---- - - - -- -- - - - )- - - perforat ed zinc
damp cotton . f~"""n <f'6 )£":'ii,- • calcium ch loride
w oo l
Section throu gh choice chamber
The appa ra tus consists of two pai rs of plastic Petri dishes j oined
together. A hole is cut in each of the inverted upper dishes. and the
dishes are connec ted by holes in the sides. A sheet of perforated zinc
separates the upper sections from the lower sections, and the appa-
ralus is held together by rubber bands. One of the lower sections
contains anhydrous CaCl r which absorbs water from the air ; the
other contains damp cotton woo l.
Wood lice of the sa me species and size must be exposed to the same
humidity for several days before the experiment. Five of them are
98
then int roduced to each of the upper sections and the holes at the
top arc filled with a mat erial which holds th iocyan ate paper to check
the humidity of the two sectio ns. After 15 minutes. the number o f
wood lice in each dish is noted. Th e expe riment should be repeated
several times usin g different wo odl ice.
Now answer these question s :
a) What is the purpose of this exper iment?

b) Which part of the apparatus gives the animal a cho ice between
a wet and a dry place ?
c) What is the functio n of the holes at the top of the dishes'!
d ) What allows the wood lice to pass fro m one dish to the other '!
e ) What prevent s them fro m en tering the lower sectio ns'?
f) Why is the sheet of zinc perforated ?
g) How is one side made wet and the o ther side made dry'?
h) How does the scientist ensure that the wood lice will have the
same need fo r humidity ?
i) What proc edu re is followed during the experiment?
j) What
is the function of the thiocyanate paper?
k) is observed at the end o f the experiment ?
What
I) will pr obably be the result of the experiment?
What
m) conclusion is likely to be drawn fro m the result ?
What
n) What explanation may be given fo r this?
8. Look at these gra phs:
Taiga (sub - Arctic coniferous forest) Tropical rain forest

em 'C em 'C
36 36 36 36
34 32 3' 32
32 28 32 28
30 24 30 2'
28 20 28 20
26 16 26 16
24 12 2. 12
22 8 22 8
20
•o 20
•o
'8
6
4
2
-.
8
-1 2
18
16
14
12
....1 -4
-8
12
o 16 10 - 16
8 - 20 8 - 20
6 -2' 6 - 24
4 - 28 4 28
-
2 - 32 2 - 32
o - 36 o - 36
J FMAMJJASO N D J FMA M J J A SO N D
M onths M onths
99
Tund ra ( Arctic) Middl e-l atitude deciduous forest
em 'C em ·C
36 36 36 36
34 32 34 32
32 28 32 28
30 24 30 24
28 20 28 20
26 16 26 16
24 12 24 12
22 8 22 8
20 4 20 4
18 o 18 0
16 -4 16 -4
14 -8 14 -8
12 - 12 12 - 12
10 - 16 10 - 16
8 - 20 8 -m
6 - 24 6 - 24
4 - 28 4 -28
2 -32 2 - 32
o J FMAMJ J A S 0 N 0 -36 o J F M A M J J A S O N 0 -36
M onths M onths
M iddle - latitude grassland Midd le- latitude desert

em 'C em 'C
36 36 36 36
34 32 34 32
32 28 32 28
30 24 30 24
28 20 28 20
26 16 26 16
24 12 24 12
22 8 22 8
20 4 20 4
18 o 18 o
16 4 16 4
14 -8 14 -8
12 -12 12 - 12
10 -1 6 10 16
8 -70 8 20
6 -24 6 24
~~:
4 28 4 26
2 - 32
OJ F M AMJJ A SON 0 -36
2
o:IIW
J FMAM JJ A SOND
~.
32
36
Months M onths
The range of temperature and rainfall thro ugho ut the year in di fferent
kinds of hab itat
100
Now say which regio ns arc described by these sentences:
a) The climate is extremely cold, and rarely exceeds O'c.
b) This region is in the so ut hern hemi sph ere. The c1ima le is usuall y
excessively humid. especially during the summer.
c) The temperature is never excessive. but there is a co nsidera ble
rainfall during mo st of the year.
d ) During most of the year the amount of rain is negligib le but the
temperature ranges over approxima tely 25°C .
e) This region has a minimum temperature of - 2"C and a maximum
temperature of 22'C.
f) The temper ature varies very little and is always ext remely hot.
g) The temperature ranges fro m -1 2' C 10 16' C.
9. Now read the following descriptions of plants and animals and say in which
regions the y are likel y to be found, and where they are not likely to be found :
a ) Lich en s : th ese can surv ive in very cold clima tes. Th ey have very
low growth a nd ca n live in exposed places.
b) Grass : does not grow well in excessively dry or excessiv ely wet
climates. 11 has narrow leaves and hence a small leaf surface.This
reduces water loss. It has an extensi ve fibrous root system for
water absorptio n.
c) Lianas: need a hu mid clima te, grow high up and usc ot her trees
for suppo rt. They have adve ntitio us roots which absorb wa ter
fro m the a tmos phere, growi ng fro m nod es a long the stern.
d ) Squirrel : thi s a nimal feeds on the bark of trees and pla nt shoo Is
and seeds. It escapes from predato rs by climbing trees. It ca n
survive fairly cold winters by hibernatin g .
e ) Reindeer: has feet which spread out when it walks and prevent
it from sinking into the sno w. It feeds on moss and lichen s. It is
m igrato ry an d conseq uently needs open spaces.
f) Mon key : has prehensile limbs for hol di ng on to tree s. Generally
lives high up, feedi ng on fru it and sa fe from carnivores. M ost
species need a hot climate.
g) Biso n : feeds o n grass and migrates ac ross o pen spaces.The body
has a hairy co vering.
h) Oak tree : needs a clim ate witho ut excess ive heat or cold a nd
with sufficie nt rainfall in summer. Seedlings need space .
i) Spruoe tre e : has leaves which are narrow and cylindrical in
shape to prevent snow co llecting. T he leaves are pro tected from
the cold by a thick cuticle. Thi s also restricts water lo ss.
j) Ka nga roo rat: lives underg round to protect itself from the heat
during day-time. It searches for food at night, jumping long
dista nces with its long hind legs. It does not lose water as it has
no sweat glands, a nd produces a lmost d ry urine.
k) Cactus plant: the leav es a re reduced to spines. The stems con-
tain large cells for sto ring wate r. It has increased powers of
water abso rptio n.
I) Snow-shoe hare : lives underg ro und in winter . It has large flat
feet for plodding a bo ut in th e sno w.
101
Glossary
This list gives the pronunciations o f the techn ical and semi-technical words used in this
book and definitions of those words that are not fully explained in the text or dia gram s.
It also includes some common word-elements (prefixes. stems and suffixes) which are
used in biology. An asterisk (*) means that a wo rd in the definition is itself explained in
the Glossary. The number after each entry ind icates the unit in which the word first
appears .
Pronunciations are shown in the system that is used in the new Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English. The symbols are shown in this table, with a key word for each.
The letters printed in bold type represent the sound value of the symbol.
Consonants
p pea f rew 1 fishing h hot
b bay v view 3 pleasure m su m
t tea e thing tlchoo se n suu
d day 3 then d3 jump ~ sung
k key s soon I led J yet
g gay z zoo r red w wet
Vowels
u sheep or caught el make 10 here
ship o put ou note eo there
e bed u: boot at bite uo poor
e bad A cut au now elo player
0: calm 3: bird or boy ouo lower
0 cot 0 about ara tire
aua tower
"0 employer
Notes
1. A small raised nat the end of a word means that the {rl is pronounced if a vowel
follow s (at the beginning of the next word), but not otherwise. For example. f ar
Irotl means that f ar away is pronounced Ifo:e ~we l l bUlfar down is Ifo: daon j.
2. The italic I,}! means that the sound faj can be used but is often omitted. It may be
found before the consonants 1m , n, I), I, rl in certain positions. For example . travel
/'trrevalj means that the pronunciation /'trreval/ is possible but /' trrevl/ ma y be moore
common.
3. The mark j'f means that the following syllable has main stress, and 1.1 means that the
following syllable has secondary stress. For example. understand !.And;}'st<£ndj.
102
a-; an- no t, without [anhyd ro us "} bacilliform {b;,'sthf:mn l hav ing the sha pe
a b- from. away fro m (abse nt) of bacilli (rod -sha ped bacteri a) I
a bdomen I' rebd ;;lffi;Jn! in vertebrates : the bacillus tuberculosis fha,sllas
region con raining intestine", liver . tju,b3:kju'louSisl pl. bacilli
kid neys etc. : in arthropods : the tuberculosis rba. srlar tjo.barkj u'Iausis j
posterio r gro up o f segments similar to bacterium Jbcrk 'uarlam! pl. -te ria
each other 2 I-o on ol I
a bsorb l ~ b ' D :b , -' SJ:b! to take from barnacle l' oo :n ak.JI/ a small organism" in
surroundings by chemical or molecula r the sea with a shell, whic h attaches
ac tio n 4 itself to rocks and ships' bott oms 10
absorption !ob 'zo:pIan, -'so:p-I 9 bl- two (biped = two- legged animal)
adventitious !,redv;,n 'uI;,s! growing in an bile jball/ a green-brown liq uid which is
, unusual position : ad ventitious roots secret ed by th e liver and sto red in the
grow from the plant stem 12 gall-bladder; it break s up fat in to
adreoalin !;,'d ren;,lrn! C sm all pa rticle s" during d igestion 5
aerial l'e;,rl;,1! in the ai r 10 bio- life (biology ~ st udy of living things)
alga I'reldp l pl. algae I'reld3i:1 4 boro n I' bJ:r;m! (B) 7
aliment ary canal !a:lt,ment3r1 b 'nrel! 5 ca lcium I' ka::lsl;,mj (Ce) 7
amino acid !~ , m i ::n ;,u 'resld! an o rganic calory /,k:eIJ rI/ unit for measuring the
compound : during di gestion, proteins" hea t gained in the body d uring
are broken down into amino acids digestion of food and lost during
before pa ssing through the walls of the work 7
intesti ne " 5 ca lyx I'ketltksl 2
ammonia !a'm:mnla{ (N H 3 ) 6 cambium j' krem blJ mj 2
amoeba lo'mi:bol 4 capill ary /b 'p ll.m / a m inu te tube
amphibian !rem 'frblan! I receiving blood from a sma ll artery
amylase I' reffillels! an enzyme " wh ich [a rte riole") and re tu rni ng it to a sma ll
break s u p starch" o r glycogen" 5 vein; the excha nge of substa nces "
anae mia !a'n i:ml:,)! a lack of red cells in between blood and tissues- takes p lace
the blood 7 thro ugh capillary'" wall s 2
anhydrous !ren 'hald r;,s/ with o ut wa ter 12 carbohydrate /,ko : bJ u'ha ld renl
antenna lren'tena! . pl. -tennae I-'teni:! 2 com po und of carbo n , hydrogen and
antennule Iren 'tenju:l! 12 ox ygen atoms. including suga rs.
antigens I' renudy nzj 10 starch ", cellulose" etc. A
anus l' eIn;,sj 4 ca m - meat, flesh (carnivore")
aorta !eI''J:b{ I ca rnivore f' ko m Iv'JII an o rga nism"
a pertu re I' rep;,tI;,' j the openin g in a wh ich feeds on the flesh o f animals 10
microscope, ca mera etc. which lets cartilag e I' ko rt3hd3/ stro ng elastic tissue"
light in I I in vertebrates C
appendicular skeleto n {repen , d l kj u l ~ ca rotene I' k:er:ltim! 7
'skelnn j the skeleton of the limbs (leg, caterpilla r I' ka:tJ,pll;{f B
ann, wing) 3 caud- tail (caudal fin)
aquatic {;,k'wa:Uk/ living in wat er 9 cauda l fin I,ko:dl 'ftnl 5
arterioles ja :'tIJ rIJulz/ small b lood cavity I' krev;,u! a hollow space C
vessels" tak ing blood from th e' ce-llular j' seljuIJ'1 con ta ining o r
arteries" to the capillaries" 8 co nsisting of cells 7
artery I'o:t<lrl/ blood vessel" carry ing cellulose j' selj u l ~u s/ fibrous material in
blood from the heart to the tissue s" 2 wood and cell walls of plant s ;
Arthropoda l ,o :Oro' poud o! 12 consists of a long chain of glucose"
-ase an enzyme'" (amylase"} m olecules 3
-ate a sa lt wh ich con ta ins more oxygen cerc us j' s3: k;,s/ 2
than an other similar salt {nit ra te"} cer ea l j' s l ~ n ~ l / 7
atmosphere !' ;etmas fl;,r{ th e gases chara cteris tic / , k a: ldk t~ ' rIs u k / a feature
su rrou nd ing th e eart h 8 wh ich di stingu ishes one kind of
a uricle l' :m lk3)1 I o rga nism" from another 12
ax ialskeleton / , <r k s l ~ 1 'skehm j th e chloro- green (chlo ro phyll")
skeleto n of the head and body 3 chloro phyll l'klo r;,fI1 f green colouring
103
matter in plants enabling them to decay Id l'kell to decompose" and ro t as
ca rry out photosynthesis 3 a resu lt of the action of bacteria 6
chloroplast I' klo r. p l« Sl, 'kb :-/ 3 deciduous jd l' sldju:Js/ (tree s) sheddi ng
chlorosis jkb : 'r;}usisl 7 leaves at one season of the year 12
cholera I' k ol~ 1.j1 1 decompose l , d i :k~m ' p:)Ozl to break down
choro id coat I,b rr:lld 'k;}utl A chemica lly to simpler co mpounds" o r
clal'lcie I' klrevlkJI/ 3 elements 6
clitellum /k lal'tel;}ml I deficiency !d l' fJ r, nSl! 7
clostridium tetani Iklos,w d l;lm denitri fying l,d i:'naltn fal-ilJ l 6
' tetanaif pl. clostridia tetani -derm skin (ectoderm)
rklos.m dra 'tet;}nai/ I di- two (dicotyledo n"}
rottUs l'ko k;}sl pl. cocci I' ko ksal/ dia- th rough. across (diaphragm)
cochlea I' kokll. / C di- ; dis- sp reading. sca ttering (d ila te.
coeliac artery /,si:1Jrek 'o:t.1n / I d issolve)
cellenchyma Ib 'lelJklm;}/ plant tissue" diabetes I,dol. 'bi:) i:z! C
which gives support. co mposed of dicotyledon l.dalkolJ'li:d n/ large class of
cells with strong walls A flowerin g plants with two co tyled ons
colon I' k. ulo n/ 5 (seed lea ves) 6
com-: con- with . together diffuse Id l' lju:z/ to sp read ou t in all
compound j' ko mpaundl made up o f more d irections 8
than o ne part 2 diffusion IdJ' lj u=3Jnl 12
concentration l ,ka nSJn'treII.1n/ the dilat e !daJ'len l 8
rela tive amount o f one subs ta nce dioxide Ida l'o ksaldl 6
dissolved o r mixed with a nothe r (a diplo- two (diplococc us)
high/low co ncentra tio n = a relatively diplococcus f , d l pl ~u' k o k asl pl. -rocci
large/small amount) 7 ,., koksal/ I
coniferous j k ~ ' n l f,)f;}sl trees wh ich Diptera I'd lp l. r. / 12
rep rod uce" by mean s of co nes which dolphin I'd olfm! 9
conta in the seeds, e.g. fir. pine 12 dorsal l'do:"l/ 2
conjunct i"8 /,ko ndJAlJ k'lalva/ A duodenum I,dju::>'d i:nam/ 5
connective tissue Ib ,neku v 'tlI u:1 the e-: ex from . ou t of (evo lve. expe l)
cells o f the body which suppo rt. ecro- outside (ectoparasite)
co nnect and protect the o rgans" and ectopa ras ttlc / , e k t ~ll pa: r;l ' s , u k/ 10
o the r wo rking parts 2 elongate 1'i:1olJg.en/ to make o r become
contractile vacuole /b n,t rcektall lon ger 6
'v« kju. ul/ 3 embryonic I,embrl'o nlkf of the embryo
copper /'kop"/ ICu) 7 i.e. the young plant befo re it ha s fully
copper sulphate / , k o p~ 'S/dfe lt / germina ted. o r the young animal
(C u SO. ) II befo re it is born or hatched 6
cornea I' k::l:n la/ A endo- inside (cndodc nn)
cortex I' k:'l:teks/ 2 endocri ne glands / ' end ~u k ra ln gla:nd zl
coty ledon l,kot:t'li:d n/ 6 gla nd s which secrete directly into the
crania l f'k rernralf of the cranium or bloodstream C
skull ; in vertebrates the cranial nerve enzyme I'enzalml a protein" which acts
emerges fro m the bra in. inside the as a catalyst. assisting in chemica l
skull C react ion s ; metab oli sm" depend s on
crysta lline lens r'kns talain 'lenz/ A the presence of enzymes 5
cuprous oxide I,kju:p ras 'oksaid ] epl- on . over Iepigynous]
(C u, O ) II epicot)'l /,epl'ko tlll 6
cyctops I'sa lklops/ 4 epidermis l,ep,'d3:m lsf 2
cyto- cell {cytopla sm" ) epithelium /,ep l'Oi:llaml 5
cytoplasm j' sa lt aup l~lJm,' all the ethanol I'cd anol. 'i:9:>-/ ethyl alcohol
protopla sm- of a cell except the (C, H. O ) II
nucl eus 2 eustachian lu be /ju:,steII I;)n 'tj urbj C
de- to remove a property" from excrete /Ik 'skri:tl to pass o ut unwanted
something o r reverse a process products of metabolism". including
Idcsta rched. decomposes } waste matter a fter d igestion 6
104
faeces I'fi :si:zl waste matter excreted" hepatic Ih l'pa:tJkl of the liver 2
fro m the co lon a fter d igestion 5 herbi- grass, plan t (herbivorous)
rotigue /f. 'ti:g/ loss of energy, ti redness 7 herb ivorous I h 3 : ' b l vc1 r~s l 6
femur I' fi mt~ rl 2 hind- ba ck (hind-legs)
-ferous bearin g, ca rrying {co niferous "} hippopotamus l , h l p~ ' p D {~m~sl 9
fertilise I' f'3 :t ~la lzl to make fema le holo- whole, complete (holozoic)
reproductive" cell fertile by un ion with holophytic l,ho IOl'fllTkl A
male cell 6 holozoic l , h ol~ ' z~U l kl A
fibula l' f1 bjul./ 3 honnone l ' h:J:In~onf subs tance-
fibre I' fa l ~ r! elongated" cell with tough produced fro m gland s and
walls and tape ring ends, fonning part transported to other parts of the
o f support tissue " o f plants 2 organism" where it has an important
fibrous I' falbr;,sl 10 effect on d ifferent processes C
filament I' fJ l~m~mtl very fine thread or humerus I' hj u :m., r~sl 3
thread-like pa rt of an o rganis m" 5 humid I' hjurffild / 8
flagellum /O~' d3el~m f pl. flagella humidity I hj u : ' m ld ~ul concentra tion" of
jfl. 'd3el. / long threads a tta ched to the wa ter d roplets in the ai r 12
bod ies of some micro-o rgan isms", hydra I' hard r. / 4
used for movement 1 hydr o- wa ter, liq uid (hyd rostatic)
Ioli- lea f (fol iage" } hydrostatic pressure ! , ha ld ~u, stzU k
foliage I' f~u h. ld31 all the lea ves of a ' p reJ~ rl the pressure caused by a n
p lan t 6 unmoving (sta tic) liqu id 8
fore- fro nt (fo re-wing} hYJM>- under (hypogynous) 2
fructose I' frA k t~usl form of sugar (six hypocetyl I' harp. u,kD. I! 6
carbon a to ms) fou nd in fruit and other hypogynous /har'pod3In. s/ 2
parts of plants 5 ileum I' J II ~m l 4
rungi I'fAQgaJ/ 6 imago Il'melg;lu! B
ga lactose I g~ ' I a: k l ~usl a form of sugar, a lmpervlous I l m ' p3:V I~sl not allowing
constituent of lactose" 5 fluids to pass throu gh 12
gall bladder 1'g:>: I ,bla:d . ' / 5 induction Im'dAkIanl drawing a
gastric I' g~ s t rJ k l o f the sto mach 5 conclusion from evidence ; a
gene Id3iml the unit of the materia l of gene ralisa tion ba sed on o bservatio n
inherita nce, passed from pa rent to offacts 10
children 10 inherit Im'herItI to receive gene tic
genetic /d3;J 'neUk/ 10 characteristics- from paren ts to
genot ype I' d3en. talp/ 10 Insecta /In'sekt./ 12
germination l ,d33:rm 'nelfon/ the first insulation l,msju'leII,ml material which
stage in the growth of a plant from a prevents o r red uces the transfer of
seed 6 hea t, elect ricity etc. 9
gill /gIll I insulin I' lnsjuhnl C
girdle /g3:dl/ 3 integument I ID ' tegj um~m tl 12
girth /g, :fJ1 4 Inter- between (internode)
glucose I' g l u :k ~)Us / a six-ca rbo n atom internod e I' lD t~n~udl 2
sugar : a co nstituent of sucrose". intestine Im'testlnl the pa rt o f the
sta rch". cellulose" and glycogen" ; a alimentary can al between the stomach
product o f pho tosy nt hesis in plants 5 and the anus I
glycerol r'ghsc rof 5 Iodine I'arad imf (I) C
glycogen I' g la l k ~ud3Cn l sta rch" in the iris l' a l ~ C1 sl a part o f the fron t o f the
fo rm in which it is sto red in the liver eye A
and muscle A a plant I I
-gra m; -graph writing, draw ing iron I'aron/ (Fe) 7
[sre reogram", phot ograph) -ite a salt which co ntai ns less oxyg en
gua rd cell I'gard sell 3 tha n another similar salt (nitrite)
-g)'IIOUS; lo'n· female Ihypogynous. -ject throw (reject)
gynaecology) jugular vein ! , d3Agjll l~ 'vem! 2
habitat " he bne u rbe place in which an ka ngaroo rat l , k ~lJ g~ , ru : 're u 12
organism- usually lives 4 labium " I e l bl ~m ' the lower lip of an
105
insect B micropyle I' m aikraupa il/ 6
lactase j'lrektels! enzyme* whic h splits millet /' m rlIt! 7
lactose" into glucose" a nd mmeral j'mrnsralj 7
galactose" 5 minute (adJ.) !mal' nj u :t/ extreme ly
lactose I' l rek t~l)s! fo rm of suga r occurring sma ll 4
in milk 5 moisture I' m::)J s t J~f 1 8
lamella ! b ' mel~! 3 molecule I' mohkj u:11 5
larva ! I o rv~! B mono- one (monocotyledon)
legume l'I egju:m! any plan t of th e fami ly morph- sha pe, form (metamorpho sis")
Leguminosae (e.g. pea , bean) which multi- many (m ult i-cellula r)
has seeds in a pod a nd nodules on th e Musca domestica 1 ' l1lt\sk~ da'mesuka/ 12
. roots con ta ining nitrogen-fixing Muscidae j' l1lt\skldl:j 12
bacteri a 6 mut- change {muta tion"}
liana I h ' a m~1 12 mutation Imj u:'teTJa n / cha ngi ng ; begin-
lichen j'la lb n, ' InI anl 12 nin g of a new cha ra cteristic'" in a n
lign- wood (lignin") offspring whi ch is not inhe rited bu t is
lignin I' hgn m! complex substance" whic h passed on to descend ants to
forms th e woody cell wall s of p lants nectar I' ne k t~r/ sugary fluid in flowers
together with cellulose" A wh ich a ttracts insects B
lipase !'Ilpeis. 'Ial-I enzymesw bich splits neutralise I' nj UItrJ la lz/ to add aci d to
esters of fa tt y acids into alcohol and alka li o r a lka li to ac id a nd produce a
ac id 5 neu tral substance" II
lipid /,IIpld / fa t 7 nitrate I' na n reltl 6
liver I' hVdr ! 5 nitric acid j,naltrl k 'resld ! (HN0 :J,) 6
longftudlnal j.Iondgr'tj urd mf along the nitrifying {'naltn fa l-ll)/ 6
lengt h I nitrite I'nalt raltl 6
lumbar /'I Am b;}'! 3 nitrogen I' naItr:K13an! (N) 6
-lumia- ligh t (illumi na te) node I n~ud! 2
magni- big (magnificatio n) nostril /n ostril/ 5
magnesium !m reg'ni:zIam! (Mg) 7 nutrition Inj UI' trlJanl feedin g B
maize I' melz! 7 . Oniscus asellus /~ . n l sbs er'selasr 12
mal- bad (malformation) operculum l~u ' p3 :k l u l ~m / 5
maltase I'm J:1tels! a n enzyme" whic h optic I' opu kl of sight or vision (o ptic
brea ks down maltose* into two nerve) A
molecu les o f glucose" 5 organ {':>:g;}n! a multicellular part of a
maltose I' m ;) :It~us ! suga r formed fro m plant o r a nima l whi ch form s a
th e brea kd o wn of starch": present in str uc tural a nd functio na l un it. e.g.
germina ting seed a nd dige stion 5 leaf, kidney 5
mandible I' m rend;}bJ lf 2 org anism /' :>:g;m lu m/ a living th in g ; a n
manganese I' mrel)g;}ni:zl (Mn) 7 ind ividual ca pa ble of growth a nd
marsupium /ma :'sj u:plam! 12 reproduction" I
medial f'm hdra lj 2 -ose suga r [lactose" = the suga r o f m ilk)
membrane I' membre m/ a thin la yer of -osj s di sease (chlorosis)
tissue" 3 osmosis / oz ' m ~\}sl sl if a stro ng so lutio n
meso- midd le (mesophylJ) and a weak solution a re separated by
mescphyll f'mesaf'rf 3 a membran e," the solvent (e.g. wa te r)
meta- ch an ge (meta morphosis"} passes th rough the memb ra ne fro m
metabolism Im a'treb:>lIzam ,l all th e the wea k to th e stro ng solutio n . the
chemi ca l cha nges. break ing down a nd solut ions tend to become eq ual in
building up substances. " wh ich tak e concentration" 8
place in the body C os.s icle j' oslkal/ C
met amorphosis ! . met~ · m ;) :f~s l s l period of ov- egg (oval I'a uvsf = egg-sha ped)
transformation from la rval to adult ova ry 1'::llJwm / 2
fo rm 6 over- excessive (overheating)
micro- minute* (mic ro-orga nism} ; o ne oviparous /au'vlpilras/ to
millioneth (m icrometre) pallisade cell j .pe h'serd sef 3
microbe I' malkr::mb/ 10 palm /po nn j 9
106
pancreas I' p<rlJ k rI ~s/ 5 pleonites I' pl i ~ n a lt sl 12
-par- giving birth (vivipa ro us) plcopods /, pli:>podzl 12
parasite I' p<r r~sa lt ! a n organism" living plumol e /, plu :mjo:11 6
on o r in a nother organismIthe host) pol)'p I' po llpl kind of aqua tic" a nimal
from wh ic h it o btai ns food 1 with a cylind rical bod y which is
parasitic I . p~ r;) ' s l tl k l 10 fixed 10 rock etc. a t one cnd a nd has
parenchyma l , p<erl lJ ' k a l m ~1 A the mouth at th e other end 10
parenchymatous 1 , pa::n lJ ' k a l m ~t ~1 A pore lp:>:rl a minute hole. especially in
particle I'po :u k<1l/ a very sma ll o bjec t. skin . for the passage of swea t 8
forming pan of a larger o ne 3 -pose put. place (expose. position)
patella I p~ ' t e l ;>l 3 po tassium (pa'nesramj ( K) 7
pectoral fin l , pe k t Jr~ 1 'fJO! 5 pre- be fo re (predict)
-pel to push. force (expe l) preclpitation Ip rJ,slpa'telfJ n/ the
'peb tc tin I,pelvlk 'f m l 5 formation of a n inso luble solid whic h
pelvis I' pelvls/ 3 fa lls to the bottom ora liq uid
pepsin I' pcpsml a n enzyme " whic h splits precipita te I p rJ' s l p~ t e lt l I I
pro teins " in acid solu tion 5 predator I' p redat:{ 1 a n a nima l which
peptidase I'pcptldcls,' a n enzyme " wh ich feed s on o the r a nim als. but not a
splits peptides " 5 pa ra site" 12
peptides I' peptaldz! compou nd s" o f two prehensile !p n :'hcnsa ll! adapted fo r
o r morc am ino acids 5 taking hold of branches. etc. 12
per- th rough (pe rfo ra te) pro- fo rwa rd s (prAjection*)
perfo ra ted J' p3:f;>rellldl 3 proboscis Ipr.t'b oslsf B
peri- around (perigynous) property !,p ro p;>t11 a quality belonging
pericyele J'pe rlsa lkal/ 2 be longing to a n individua l or cla ss I
perig)'oous Ip;)'n d31O;>s! 2 proportionately /pr;)' pd:f<1ndth/ 9
per elopod /p;;l'ra l;:lpod/ 12 protein /' pr;;luti:n ! a complex o rga nic
per eion /p:>'fa l:>nf 12 co mpo und " o f a m ino acids : th e main
pereionites IpJ'ra m lts! 12 c hemical su bstance" of living matter 3
peris talsis l,pe rI'strelsls/ regula r move- proto- o riginal. first. sim plest (protozoa)
ment of muscles in the walls of the protoplasm I' pr;>utJ plrel .m1/ the
intest ine." whi ch m ix a nd move along substa nce of which living cells a re
th e contents 5 mad e 3
permeable I' P3:tTI IJ hJ I/ a ble to pulmonary !, palmanar t! I
be pe rme ated. a llow ing fluids etc . to pop;l lpjo:pJ II A
pass thro ugh 8 pylo ric sphincter !pa l,lon k ' s fl lJ k t ~r l 5
-phage something which ca ts o r destroys pyreneld I' palr;>n3Id / 3
(bac teriophage) rad - root (rad icle)
phloem 1'f1 ;>o-em l 2 radiation I,reld l'el!a n! sendi ng o ut wa ves
phosphorus /'fosfJ T>S! (P ) 7 o f hea t. ligh t etc. 10
photo- ligh t (pho to synt hesis) radicle I' ra:d lkal/ 6
photosynthesis /,f;)ut:Ju'smO:Jsls! 6 rad io-ac tivity l,rcld l:Ju rek'uvdu /
-phylllea f Ichlcrophyll") radi a tion " of electrically-cha rged
phylom /,fall, m! pl. ph)"> /, fa,I, ! 12 particle s" as a resu lt of the brea k u p
-phyte plant (holophytic) o f a to ms in so me ma te rials to
pinna r pm;>1 C radius I' re l d l ~s l 3
pist il j' Plstl J 2 ra dula I' ra-dj ulal B
pith ip l9/ 2 ratio I' r;'II laul 9
pituitaf)' gland Ip l'tj w t rl glrend ! C re- again {reprod uce") back (recessive ")
-plasm su bsta nce of living thi ngs receptacle lr;>'scptakall 2
(protoplas m .) recessive !rl'scsIV/ (gene") no t d omi nan t :
plasma /, pla:nn al 5 a recessive ch a ra cteristic" does not
plasmol ysis I p l a: z ' m ol ~s l sl shrink ing of appear if a n oppo site (do minan t)
cyto pla sm " away fro m the cell wall 8 cha rac teristic is present 10
-plas t sma ll body of den se matter in a region / 'n :d33n / la rgc area . di stinct
ce ll. with specia l fun cti on (c hloroplast) pa rt of the body 3
pleon /, pli:on! 12 renal l' ri:n l! o f the kidne y 2
107
reproduce f,ri:pr;),dju:s! to produce spirillum /spa l' n laml pl. spirilla
offspring B jspa l'n b! I
reproduction f,ri:pr, 'd' k! nf B spiro- spiral (sp irochaete)
reproductive organs !. ri:pid'dAktlv spirocha ete l , spa I J ~ ' k i :t1 I
,:J:g~ nzl organs-for producing yo ung 2 sponge /SPAl]d31a sea-anima l with a
response In 'spons! (in response to) the fibrous skeleto n full of boles: hen ce
way in wh ich an o rganism- responds spo ngy = soft and able to abso rb -
o r react s to a co ndi tio n in the wa ter like a spo nge 10
en vironment ; co nverse of stim ulus - 8 spore /sp:J:r/ a microscopic reproductive
retina I' re lJ n~ / A body o f bacteria. fungi etc . which
rhinoceros I ra l ' n osJ r~s ! 9 becomes detached from a pa rent .
rigidit), I TI ' d3 Id ~ t1! sta te of being rigid. producing a new indi vidu al I
i.e. stiff. not flexible 8 spyrogyra I,spalara'd;yu ara! a kind of
saliva ry gla nd I's.e1l v.m ,gl:end ! 5 a lga . minute plant in the sha pe o f a
sa lmonella typhi / sre l m ~ , ne l~ 'tarfaf filament- 3
pl. salmonellae typhi Is:elm;l,neli: squlrre l I'skwrraf 12
'talfall I sta lk I s t~ : k/ plan t stem 6
saprophytic l , s re p r~'l\l ' fIlI kl 10 stamen "stermen/ 2
sclero- ha rd (sclerotic coat) sta phylococc us l ,sta:fll;)'kokJs! pl.
sclerotic coa t I s k l ~ , f()lI k ' k ~u t ! A -coccl I-'koksall
-scope instrument fo r looking sta rch /sta :tI! an insoluble ca rbo-
(microscope) • hydrate" compo sed o f amylose and
sec retion/sl'kmr.m ! the passa ge of amylo pectin : a main reserve food
ma te rial out of a cell (usually a gla nd - material in plants 5
cell) th ro ugh the walls 5 stereo- three-dimensio na l (stereog ram")
seed ling f'sl:dlll]' a yo ung recent ly stereogra m r'stena gre rn. 'st!;)-I a d rawing
germinated plant 12 in which o bjects a ppea r to be see n
segment I'segm;Jnt! a part. one of the three -dimensiona lly 2
d ivisions of a jointed an imal 3 sternum I'st3rr1amf 3
semi- partly. half (semi-permeable"} stigma I'stlgma! 2
sensor)' nerv e ending l ,sensJrl 'n3:V stimulus J'stlmjulas/ pl. stimuli
,end llJl the ends of the nerves which I'su mjulat/ something in the
registe r sensations (light . tou ch etc.) enviro nment influencing the activ ity
and pass them to the brain 2 o f a n o rga nism . produci ng a
sepal "sepal. 'si: p,JI/ 2 response C
shrh'cl l'J lvalj to shrink a nd beco me stoma I'st;,um;,j pl. sto mata
wr inkled (stop being smooth and flat) I' st :;)u m J t ~ 1 3
with loss o f moi stu re 6 streptococcus I .strepta'knkas/ pl.
sieve tube I'slv tju:bl A -coccl (-'koksal/ l
soda -lime /,s:lUd J ' !;,u m l mixture of sub- under (subc uta neo us) ; pa rt o f (sub-
quicklime (e aO ) a nd cau stic soda gro up)
(Na O H) \I substance I'SAbst;,ns! a kind o f matter
sodium I'soudl, m/ (Na) 7 whose chemica l composit ion is definit e
sod ium bkarbo na te I,SJoo lom and p redic ta ble (e.g. sucrose"). as
bar'korbanen. -b,n'I/(NaIl CO, ) II d istinct from a material {e.g.
sod ium ci tra te 1 , ~lId l~m 'sttren! II wood ) 10
spatula I' spa: tIllI~ f 3 sucke r I'sAk;:,' / an o rgan - by which an
species I'sp i:Ji:Z1 sec un it 12 exer cise I 4 animal sticks to a surface I
spinal cord I,spaln) 'b :dl the pan of the sucrase I'sju:krcls. 'su:·1 [invertase.
vertebrate" centra l nervo us system saccha rase) an enzyme" which splits
inside the vertebra l (spinal) co lum n. sucrose- in to glucose" and fructose" 3
including bund les o f fi bres- like co rd sucrose I'su.:.krdus! can e sugar. co m mon
(thick string ) 2 in plants. a compound of glucose" 5
spinneret j,spm;l'ret! B sulphur 1'" lf, 'I (Su) 7
spiracle "sparrcks f the external opening symmetrica lly ISI'met Tl klll in a reg ular
of an insect's breathing-lu be 2 forma tio n ; each side the same size.
spiral I'spa tcraf I sha pe etc. as the opposite o ne 3
108
syn- together. with (synthesis) villus I' vlb s/ pl. villi j'vlla ll 4
tarsus I' ta:s~s l 2 vision I'VI330/ sight. the ability to see 7
tenta cle l ' ten t ~ k (Jlj a lon g flexible organ* vitamin "vnamm, 'val-! organic sub-
used for tou ching or ho lding B stance" whic h an organism -mu st
terrestrial It;,'restrl;>11 living on land obtain from its environment and
(opposite ofaquatic*) 12 which is necessary fo r health in sm all
thiocyanat e paper f , €I a l ~tl ' sa l ~n el t amo unts 7
.perpa'j paper containing thiocyanate. vlv-: vlt- life. living (viviparo us,
a salt or ester of th yocyani c acid vita min")
(HSCN) 12 viviparous IVI'vlpilr;ls! 10
thoracic j€lJ::'rreslkl 3 -vore ; -vorous eating (carn ivore"
thorax 1'9J::rreks! 2 herb ivo ro us)
thy roid gland l' €Ia lrJld glrend l C wax y I' wreksl/ like wa x, i.e. very smo oth.
thyrox ine j€la l'rn ksm! C shiny and impervio us* 3
tibia /,ublOl 2 whorl /w3:1f 2
n ssue l' uJu :1living matt er con sisting wilting !'wlllllJ! th e effect of loss of
mainly of cells of the same kind 6 turgor" in a plant, causing the stem
to rto ise ! ' tJ : t ~s/ I and leave s to hang down 7
trace I' trelsj extre mely sma ll quantity wound !wum d! a cut or tear in the ski n
(of element s essent ial for healthy or tissue of th e bod y 7
life) 7 x-ray j' eks rell 10
tracheae !tr;;l'ki:;;ll B xylem /' z.,loml 2
trans- across (transverse) yeast !j i::stj 7
transpar ent I t rre nz ' pre r~n tl allowing light zinc IZlij kl (Z n) 7
through sufficiently so th at we can
see th rou gh it 3
transverse Itrrenz'v3::s! across the width
or diameter I
trypsin /'trIpsml an en zyme* which
splits proteins* and peptides* in Lon gman G ro up Limited
alkaline so lution 5 London
turgor I' t3::g;;lr! the stiffening of the wall of
a cell cau sed by int ern al water Associated companies, branches and
pressure 8 represen tatives throughout the world
-ule sma ll (antennule")
ulna I'AIn;}! 3 © Lon gman G roup Ltd 1977
ultra- beyond (ultra-viole t)
uni- on e (unicellular) All rights reserved . No pa rt of th is
vacuole I' v rej tl~ tl l! 3 pub lication may be reproduced , sto red
vascula r bundle ! , v&s kj u l ~ 'be nd f in a retr ieval system, or transmitte d
longitudinal* strand of cond ucting in an y form or by a ny mean s, elect ron ic,
(vascul ar) tissue - consi sting mainly of mechanical . ph ot ocopying. recordi ng. or
xylem" a nd phloem 2 othe rwise. without th e prio r permission
vegetation I,ved3 I'teJJ.m ! gro wing of th e Copyri ght owner.
plant s B
vein I' veml a b lood vessel" taking blood
fro m th e ca pillaries" to th e heart 2 First published 1977
ventral j'ven trof 2 Second imp ression 1977
ventricle "ventrtksf I
vena cava f,vi:n a 'kerva/ pl. venae cavae ISBN o 582 51302 2
I,vi:n i:: 'kclVi: / 2
vertebra I' v3:t1b r:Jj pI. -brae f-bri:1
vertebra te "v arttbren j
invertebrate /IO 'v3:l1b reItI I
vesscl rvess f a tube or canal in which a
bod y fluid is co nta ined or circ ulated A Pr int ed in Hong Kong by
\'ibrio cholerae "vrb rirou 'ko ulora ij I Sheck Wah Tong Pri nting Press Ltd
109
Bibliography
BAUSOR. i ., IIALL , W ., MOWL . n. Patterns 3 Energy. Schools Co uncil ln tegratcd Scie nce Project.
Longman , 1974
Bio logical Sciences Curricul um Stu dy. Pat terns in the Living World. Joh n Murra y. 1972.
CHUA II . n ., VEE, L. H ., LOURDUSAMY. A. Discovering Integrated S cience Book 3. Longman
Malaysia. 1974.
DA R lI I'GTO~ . A., IF.AlJLEV BROW S . A. One Approa ch 10 Er% KY. Longman, 1975.
DODDS. C., HURr-;, J. B. Practical Biology. Edward Arn old. 2nd edn. 1972.
H A ~ A l:ER . E. Biology M ade Simple. W . H. Allen. 1972.
JOHSSQN. R .. GO D \lA S. A . Junior Tropical Biology, Longman. 1970.
MACKEAN, D . G . Introduction 10 Biolog)' Tropical Edition. John M urray, 1969 .
M odern Biology f or M alaysian S chools Form V. Longma n Malaysia. 1974.
Nuffield Biology Texts I-IV. Lo ngrnanjPenguin Book s. 1966.
Penguin Dictionary 01' Biology . Penguin Book s. 1951.
PHILLI PSON, J. Ecolog ical Energetics. Edward Arnold. 1966.
SOLOMON. M. E. Population Dynam ics. Edward Arno ld. 1969.
STO:--E, R. H.• COZENS, A. 8. New Biology / or Tropical S chools. Lo ngma n. 1969.
The au thors sho uld like to thank the staff of the London Zoo for their help.
110

Adamson Nucleus Biology

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Adamson Nucleus Biology

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NUCLEUS

English for Science and Technology

Donald Adamson /Martin Bates

I. Look at this diagram :

e.q. a sna il e.g. a mu shroom

Now complete these sentences with words from the diagram:

a) Biologists st udy . . . . Zoo logists study . . . • whereas bota nists

e.g . a cow e.g. a du ck e.g. a liza rd e.g . a ,frog e.g . a shark

Read these exam ples :

Mammals are war m-blooded vertebrates. Th ey have hair and skin.

3. Look at Ihis example :

Now make similar statements about the fo llo wing :

4. Answer these questions with information from the diagrams above:

a) Why ca n't fish breathe on land '?

The shapes of bacteria

Cocci (singular coccus) : These are spherical in shape. Some species

Bacilliform bacteria : Th ese are cylindrical or rod-shaped. Some are

Spirilla (singular sp irillum): These are spiral in shape. The bacterium

Look at these bacteria :

Streptococc i Vibrio cholerae ototocoact

Spiroc haete Bacillus tub erculosis Salmonella typh i

Cocci Bacilli Spirilla

b) Now describe the appearance of each of the bacteria in the above

a transverse se~ a lo ng itudinal section ......~_,

Two simple invertebrates

Look at these diagrams :

5 Ex am ple .' Diagram (1) shows an earthworm . It is roughly cylindri-

...~l ·" "..

I. Look and read :

2.1 the base

lat eral shoot

A flowering plant ( T'alinum triangulare s root

2: Look and read:

--. . -- ---- -'

Now look at these diagr ams :

stamen- - - - - -f-"" --\

Hypogynous flower Epigynous flower

Now answer these questions :

In biology,special words are used for the position of parts of animals .

right pulmonary artery

anterior vena cava_ _

posterior vena cava-e,

hepatic portal vein- 1'-- - "UI. -- - - left kidney

Th e hum an blood system

Now add these labels to the diag ra m below :

jaw-bone pulp cement

c)- -'ch :'< ~+-- h )

Molar tooth (nerve shown on the right. blood capillaries on th e left)

9. Look at these examples:

Differences: The shoot is found above the ground .

root is found below the ground.

The cockroach (P eriplaneta americana : male)

tibia femur cockroach tarsus

I. Look and read :

pelvic girdle fibula

The skeleton is composed of a hard material called bone,

The limbs are connected to the axial skeleton hy the girdles,

Now answer these questions :

2. Look at this diagram:

neck ve rte bra e - -- - - - - --

(elbow joint) - - - - - -CW . -- - - - humerus

~ Iumbar verte brae

.-- -_. . _ .- . - - "-

pat ella - - - - ---

In animals. . .. . In plan ts. {~~~eher hand} ..