Polystyrene

La circoncisione maschile (dal latino circumcidere, che significa "tagliare

intorno") consiste nella rimozione chirurgica (escissione) del prepuzio dal pene
umano.

In una procedura tipica il prepuzio viene aperto e poi, dopo l'ispezione, separato
dal glande; quindi lo strumento per la circoncisione, se utilizzato, viene
posizionato e in seguito il prepuzio viene rimosso, concludendo con una sutura
mucosocutanea. Una anestesia topica o locale iniettata pu� essere utilizzata per
alleviare il dolore e lo stress fisiologico. Per gli adulti l'anestesia generale
pu� essere un'opzione e la procedura viene spesso eseguita senza strumentario
specializzato. La procedura � pi� spesso eseguita per motivi religiosi o preferenze
personali, ma pu� essere indicata anche per scopi terapeutici e di profilassi. �
infatti considerata una opzione per il trattamento della fimosi patologica, della
balanopostite refrattaria e per le infezioni croniche delle vie urinarie. � invece
controindicata nei casi in cui siano presenti anomalie della struttura genitale o
cattive condizioni generali di salute.

Le posizioni espresse dalle principali organizzazioni mediche di tutto il mondo

sono variegate: in alcuni casi si ritiene che la circoncisione neonatale comporti
un modesto beneficio per la salute, comunque superiore ai lievi rischi legati
all'intervento; in altri casi, all'opposto, la si ritiene priva di alcun beneficio
e anzi significativamente rischiosa per chi vi si sottopone. Nessuna grande
organizzazione medica consiglia la circoncisione universale per tutti i maschi
neonati, fatta eccezione per le raccomandazioni promosse dall'Organizzazione
mondiale della sanit� per alcune zone dell'Africa; tuttavia nemmeno la sconsigliano
fortemente. Questioni etiche e giuridiche in materia di consenso informato e di
autonomia decisionale sono state sollevate a proposito della circoncisione
neonatale non terapeutica.

Circa un terzo dei maschi di tutto il mondo � circonciso. La procedura � diffusa

nel mondo musulmano e in Israele (dove � quasi universale), negli Stati Uniti, in
parte del sud-est asiatico e in Africa. � invece relativamente rara in Europa, in
America Latina, in alcune zone del Sud Africa e in gran parte dell'Asia. L'origine
storica della circoncisione non � nota con certezza e la pi� antica testimonianza
documentale provi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigation

Jump to search

For other uses, see Polystyrene (disambiguation).

Polystyrene

Repeating unit of PS polymer chain

Polystyrene ball-and-stick model

Names

IUPAC name
Poly(1-phenylethene)

Other names
Thermocol

Identifiers

CAS Number

9003-53-6

Abbreviations PS
ChemSpider
none

ECHA InfoCard 100.105.519

Properties

Chemical formula
(C8H8)n
Density 0.96�1.04 g/cm3
Melting point ~ 240 �C (464 �F; 513 K)[4] For Isotactic Polystyrene

Solubility in water
insoluble
Solubility Soluble in acetone [1]
Thermal conductivity 0.033 W/(m�K) (foam, ? 0.05 g/cm3)[2]

Refractive index (nD)

1.6; dielectric constant 2.6 (1 kHz � 1 GHz)[3]

Related compounds

Related compounds
Styrene (monomer)

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state
(at 25 �C [77 �F], 100 kPa).

Infobox references
Expanded polystyrene packaging

A polystyrene yogurt container

Bottom of a vacuum-formed cup; fine details such as the glass and fork food contact
materials symbol and the resin identification code symbol are easily molded
Polystyrene (PS) /?p?li'sta?ri?n/ is a synthetic aromatic hydrocarbon polymer made
from the monomer styrene.[5] Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General-purpose
polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit
weight. It is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapour and has a relatively
low melting point.[6] Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the
scale of its production being several million tonnes per year.[7] Polystyrene can
be naturally transparent, but can be coloured with colourants. Uses include
protective packaging (such as packing peanuts and CD and DVD cases), containers
(such as "clamshells"), lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, disposable cutlery [6] and
in the making of models.

As a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room

temperature but flows if heated above about 100 �C, its glass transition
temperature. It becomes rigid again when cooled. This temperature behaviour is
exploited for extrusion (as in Styrofoam) and also for molding and vacuum forming,
since it can be cast into molds with fine detail.

Polystyrene is slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy among

environmentalists. It is increasingly abundant as a form of litter in the outdoor
environment, particularly along shores and waterways, especially in its foam form,
and also in increasing quantities in the Pacific Ocean.[8]

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Structure 2.1 Polymerization 2.1.1 Atactic polystyrene
2.1.2 Syndiotactic polystyrene

3 Degradation 3.1 Biodegradation

4 Forms produced 4.1 Sheet or molded polystyrene

4.2 Foams 4.2.1 Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
4.2.2 Extruded polystyrene foam
4.2.3 Water absorption of polystyrene foams

4.3 Copolymers
4.4 Oriented polystyrene

5 Environmental issues 5.1 Production

5.2 Non-biodegradable
5.3 Litter
5.4 Reducing 5.4.1 United States
5.4.2 Outside the United States

5.5 Recycling
5.6 Incineration

6 Safety 6.1 Health

6.2 Fire hazards

7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links

History[edit]

Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, an apothecary from Berlin.[9]

From storax, the resin of the American sweetgum tree Liquidambar styraciflua, he
distilled an oily substance, a monomer that he named styrol. Several days later,
Simon found that the styrol had thickened into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide
("Styroloxyd") because he presumed an oxidation. By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist John
Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the same
transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen.[10] They called the
product "metastyrol"; analysis showed that it was chemically identical to Simon's
Styroloxyd.[11] In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of
metastyrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a polymerisation process.[12] About 80 years
later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that produces
macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger
(1881�1965). This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name,
polystyrene.

The company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about

1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many
applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that
extruded polystyrene through a heated tube and cutter, producing polystyrene in
pellet form.[citation needed]

In 1941, Dow Chemical invented a Styrofoam process.[13]

Before 1949, chemical engineer Fritz Stastny (1908�1985) developed pre-expanded PS

beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are the
raw material for moulding parts or extruding sheets. BASF and Stastny applied for a
patent that was issued in 1949. The moulding process was demonstrated at the
Kunststoff Messe 1952 in D�sseldorf. Products were named Styropor.

The crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta.[14]

In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded

polystyrene (EPS) foam under the trade name Dylite.[15] In 1960, Dart Container,
the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order.[16]

Structure[edit]

Polystyrene is flammable, and releases lots of black smoke upon burning.

In chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating
carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups (a derivative of benzene).
Polystyrene's chemical formula is (C
8H
8)
n; it contains the chemical elements carbon and hydrogen.

The material's properties are determined by short-range van der Waals attractions
between polymers chains. Since the molecules consist of thousands of atoms, the
cumulative attractive force between the molecules is large. When heated (or
deformed at a rapid rate, due to a combination of viscoelastic and thermal
insulation properties), the chains are able to take on a higher degree of
conformation and slide past each other. This intermolecular weakness (versus the
high intramolecular strength due to the hydrocarbon backbone) confers flexibility
and elasticity. The ability of the system to be readily deformed above its glass
transition temperature allows polystyrene (and thermoplastic polymers in general)
to be readily softened and molded upon heating. Extruded polystyrene is about as
strong as an unalloyed aluminium but much more flexible and much less dense (1.05
g/cm3 for polystyrene vs. 2.70 g/cm3 for aluminium).

Polymerization[edit]

Polystyrene results when styrene monomers interconnect. In the polymerisation, the

carbon�carbon p bond of the vinyl group is broken and a new carbon�carbon s bond is
formed, attaching to the carbon of another styrene monomer to the chain. The newly
formed s bond is much stronger than the p bond that was broken, thus it is very
difficult to depolymerize polystyrene. About a few thousand monomers typically
comprise a chain of polystyrene, giving a molecular weight of 100,000�400,000.

Polystyrene formation.PNG

Each carbon of the backbone has tetrahedral geometry, and those carbons that have a
phenyl group (benzene ring) attached are stereogenic. If the backbone were to be
laid as a flat elongated zig-zag chain, each phenyl group would be tilted forward
or backward compared to the plane of the chain.

The relative stereochemical relationship of consecutive phenyl groups determines

the tacticity, which has an effect on various physical properties of the material.
The diastereomer where all of the phenyl groups are on the same side is called
isotactic polystyrene, which is not produced commercially.

Atactic polystyrene[edit]

The only commercially important form of polystyrene is atactic, in which the phenyl
groups are randomly distributed on both sides of the polymer chain. This random
positioning prevents the chains from aligning with sufficient regularity to achieve
any crystallinity. The plastic has a glass transition temperature Tg of ~90 �C.
Polymerisation is initiated with free radicals.[7]

Syndiotactic polystyrene[edit]

Ziegler�Natta polymerization can produce an ordered syndiotactic polystyrene with

the phenyl groups positioned on alternating sides of the hydrocarbon backbone. This
form is highly crystalline with a Tm of 270 �C (518 �F). Syndiotactic polystyrene
resin is currently produced under the trade name XAREC by Idemitsu corporation, who
use a metallocene catalyst for the polymerisation reaction.[17]

Degradation[edit]

Polystyrene is chemically very inert, being resistant to acids and bases but is
easily dissolved by many chlorinated solvents, and many aromatic hydrocarbon
solvents. Because of its resilience and inertness, it is used for fabricating many
objects of commerce. It is attacked by many organic solvents, which dissolve the
polymer. Foamed polystyrene is used for packaging chemicals.

Like all organic compounds, polystyrene burns to give carbon dioxide and water
vapor. Polystyrene, being an aromatic hydrocarbon, typically combusts incompletely
as indicated by the sooty flame.

Biodegradation[edit]

Polystyrene is generally non-biodegradable. There are a couple of exceptions:

To quote:[18]

Methanogenic consortia have been shown to degrade styrene as sole carbon source
(Grbic-Galic et al. 1990). In this case styrene degraded to a range of organic
intermediates and carbon dioxide. Taking the carbon dioxide figures as a
representation of the amount of styrene that had completely degraded to gas as is
of interest here, rates of styrene degradation ranged from 0.14 to 0.4 a-1. This is
an order of magnitude faster than the most rapid rate of polystyrene degradation
identified (Kaplan et al. 1979, Sielicki et al. 1978). It is consistent with the
T2GGM polystyrene degradation model (Quintessa and Geofirma 2011b), which considers
the rate-limiting step for polystyrene degradation to be the breakup of
polystyrene, rather than the degradation of styrene.

In 2015, researchers discovered that mealworms, the larvae form of the darkling
beetle Tenebrio molitor, could digest and subsist healthily on a diet of EPS.[19]
[20] About 100 mealworms could consume between 34 and 39 milligrams of this white
foam in a day. The droppings of mealworm were found to be safe for use as soil for
crops.[19] Superworms (Zophobas morio) are also reported to eat EPS.[21]

Pseudomonas putida is capable of converting styrene oil into the biodegradable

plastic PHA.[22][23][24] This may someday be of use in the effective disposing of
polystyrene foam.

Forms produced[edit]

Properties

Density of EPS 16�640 kg/m3[25]

Young's modulus (E) 3000�3600 MPa
Tensile strength (st) 46�60 MPa
Elongation at break 3�4%
Charpy impact test 2�5 kJ/m2
Glass transition temperature 100 �C[26]
Vicat softening point 90 �C[27]
Coefficient of thermal expansion 8�10-5 /K
Specific heat capacity (c) 1.3 kJ/(kg�K)
Water absorption (ASTM) 0.03�0.1
Decomposition X years, still decaying

Polystyrene is commonly injection molded, vacuum formed, or extruded, while

expanded polystyrene is either extruded or molded in a special process. Polystyrene
copolymers are also produced; these contain one or more other monomers in addition
to styrene. In recent years the expanded polystyrene composites with cellulose[28]
[29] and starch[30] have also been produced. Polystyrene is used in some polymer-
bonded explosives (PBX).

Sheet or molded polystyrene[edit]

CD case made from general purpose polystyrene (GPPS) and high impact polystyrene
(HIPS)

Disposable polystyrene razor

Polystyrene (PS) is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery and dinnerware,
CD "jewel" cases, smoke detector housings, license plate frames, plastic model
assembly kits, and many other objects where a rigid, economical plastic is desired.
[citation needed] Production methods include thermoforming (vacuum forming) and
injection molding.

Polystyrene Petri dishes and other laboratory containers such as test tubes and
microplates play an important role in biomedical research and science. For these
uses, articles are almost always made by injection molding, and often sterilised
post-molding, either by irradiation or by treatment with ethylene oxide. Post-mold
surface modification, usually with oxygen-rich plasmas, is often done to introduce
polar groups. Much of modern biomedical research relies on the use of such
products; they therefore play a critical role in pharmaceutical research.[31]

Thin sheets of polystyrene are used in polystyrene film capacitors as it forms a

very stable dielectric, but has largely fallen out of use in favor of polyester.

Foams[edit]

Closeup of expanded polystyrene packaging

Polystyrene foams are 95-98% air.[32][33] Polystyrene foams are good thermal
insulators and are therefore often used as building insulation materials, such as
in insulating concrete forms and structural insulated panel building systems. Grey
polystyrene foam, incorporating graphite has superior insulation properties.[34]

PS foams also exhibit good damping properties, therefore it is used widely in

packaging. The trademark Styrofoam by Dow Chemical Company is informally used
(mainly US & Canada) for all foamed polystyrene products, although strictly it
should only be used for 'extruded closed-cell' polystyrene foams made by Dow
Chemicals.

Foams are also used for non-weight-bearing architectural structures (such as

ornamental pillars).

Expanded polystyrene (EPS)[edit]

In this photo, EPS is pictured. Thermocol slabs made of expanded polystyrene (EPS)
beads. The one on the left is from a packing box. The one on the right is used for
crafts. It has a corky, papery texture and is used for stage decoration, exhibition
models, and sometimes as a cheap alternative to Shola (Aeschynomene aspera) stems
for artwork.

Section of a block of thermocol under a light microscope (bright-field, objective =

10�, eye piece = 15�). The larger spheres are expanded polystyrene beads which were
compressed and fused together. The bright, star-shaped hole at the center of the
image is an air-gap between the beads where the bead margins have not completely
fused. Each bead is made of thin-walled, air-filled bubbles of polystyrene.
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam with a normal
density range of 11 to 32 kg/m3.[35] It is usually white and made of pre-expanded
polystyrene beads. EPS is used for food containers, molded sheets for building
insulation, and packing material ("peanuts") for cushioning fragile items inside
boxes. EPS is colloquially called �styrofoam� in the United States and Canada, a
genericization of Dow Chemical�s brand of extruded polystyrene.[36]

Sheets of EPS are commonly packaged as rigid panels (size 4 by 8 or 2 by 8 feet in

the United States).

Due to its technical properties such as low weight, rigidity, and formability, EPS
can be used in a wide range of applications. Sales are likely to rise to more than
US$15 billion by 2020.[37]

Thermal conductivity is measured according to EN 12667. Typical values range from

0.032 to 0.038 W/(m�K) depending on the density of the EPS board. The value of
0.038 W/(m�K) was obtained at 15 kg/m3 while the value of 0.032 W/(m�K) was
obtained at 40 kg/m3 according to the data sheet of K-710 from StyroChem Finland.
Adding fillers (graphites, aluminium, or carbons) has recently allowed the thermal
conductivity of EPS to reach around 0.030�0.034 (as low as 0.029) and as such has a
grey/black colour which distinguishes it from standard EPS. Several EPS producers
have produced a variety of these increased thermal resistance EPS usage for this
product in the UK & EU.

Water vapor diffusion resistance (�) of EPS is around 30�70.

ICC-ES (International Code Council Evaluation Service) requires EPS boards used in
building construction meet ASTM C578 requirements. One of these requirements is
that the oxygen index of EPS as measured by ASTM D2863 be greater than 24 volume %.
Typical EPS has an oxygen index of around 18 volume %; thus, a flame retardant is
added to styrene or polystyrene during the formation of EPS.

The boards containing a flame retardant when tested in a tunnel using test method
UL 723 or ASTM E84 will have a flame spread index of less than 25 and a smoke-
developed index of less than 450. ICC-ES requires the use of a 15-minute thermal
barrier when EPS boards are used inside of a building.

According to EPS-IA ICF organization, the typical density of EPS used for insulated
concrete forms is 1.35 to 1.80 pcf. This is either Type II or Type IX EPS according
to ASTM C578. EPS blocks or boards used in building construction are commonly cut
using hot wires.[38]

Extruded polystyrene foam[edit]

See also: Styrofoam

Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists of closed cells, offers improved surface
roughness and higher stiffness and reduced thermal conductivity. The density range
is about 28�45 kg/m3.

Extruded polystyrene material is also used in crafts and model building, in

particular architectural models. Because of the extrusion manufacturing process,
XPS does not require facers to maintain its thermal or physical property
performance. Thus, it makes a more uniform substitute for corrugated cardboard.
Thermal conductivity varies between 0.029 and 0.039 W/(m�K) depending on bearing
strength/density and the average value is ~0.035 W/(m�K).

Water vapour diffusion resistance (�) of XPS is around 80�250.

Water absorption of polystyrene foams[edit]

Although it is a closed-cell foam, both expanded and extruded polystyrene are not
entirely waterproof or vaporproof.[39] In expanded polystyrene there are
interstitial gaps between the expanded closed-cell pellets that form an open
network of channels between the bonded pellets, and this network of gaps can become
filled with liquid water. If the water freezes into ice, it expands and can cause
polystyrene pellets to break off from the foam. Extruded polystyrene is also
permeable by water molecules and can not be considered a vapor barrier.[40]

Waterlogging commonly occurs over a long period of time in polystyrene foams that
are constantly exposed to high humidity or are continuously immersed in water, such
as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat
seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to
groundwater.[41] Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic
sheeting or a sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.

Copolymers[edit]

Pure polystyrene is brittle, but hard enough that a fairly high-performance product
can be made by giving it some of the properties of a stretchier material, such as
polybutadiene rubber. The two such materials can never normally be mixed because of
the small mixing entropy of polymers (see Flory-Huggins solution theory), but if
polybutadiene is added during polymerisation it can become chemically bonded to the
polystyrene, forming a graft copolymer,[citation needed] which helps to incorporate
normal polybutadiene into the final mix, resulting in high-impact polystyrene or
HIPS, often called "high-impact plastic" in advertisements. One commercial name for
HIPS is Bextrene. Common applications of HIPS include toys and product casings.
HIPS is usually injection molded in production. Autoclaving polystyrene can
compress and harden the material.

Several other copolymers are also used with styrene. Acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene or ABS plastic is similar to HIPS: a copolymer of acrylonitrile and
styrene, toughened with polybutadiene. Most electronics cases are made of this form
of polystyrene, as are many sewer pipes. SAN is a copolymer of styrene with
acrylonitrile, and SMA one with maleic anhydride. Styrene can be copolymerized with
other monomers; for example, divinylbenzene can be used for cross-linking the
polystyrene chains to give the polymer used in Solid phase peptide synthesis.

Oriented polystyrene[edit]

Oriented polystyrene (OPS) is produced by stretching extruded PS film, improving

visibility through the material by reducing haziness and increasing stiffness. This
is often used in packaging where the manufacturer would like the consumer to see
the enclosed product. Some benefits to OPS are that it is less expensive to produce
than other clear plastics such as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), and high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and it is less hazy than HIPS or PP. The
main disadvantage to OPS is that it is brittle, and will crack or tear easily.
Environmental issues[edit]

Production[edit]

Polystyrene foams are produced using blowing agents that form bubbles and expand
the foam. In expanded polystyrene, these are usually hydrocarbons such as pentane,
which may pose a flammability hazard in manufacturing or storage of newly
manufactured material, but have relatively mild environmental impact.[citation
needed] Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-134a),
[42] which have global warming potentials of approximately 1000�1300 times that of
carbon dioxide.[43]

Non-biodegradable[edit]

Discarded polystyrene does not biodegrade for hundreds of years and is resistant to
photo-oxidation.[44]

Litter[edit]

Polystyrene waste at a Japanese fish market

Coastal debris including polystyrene in Japan

Animals do not recognize polystyrene foam as an artificial material and may even
mistake it for food.[45] Polystyrene foam blows in the wind and floats on water,
due to its low specific gravity. It can have serious effects on the health of birds
or marine animals that swallow significant quantities.[45]

Reducing[edit]

Restricting the use of foamed polystyrene takeout food packaging is a priority of

many solid waste environmental organisations. Efforts have been made to find
alternatives to polystyrene, especially foam in restaurant settings. The original
impetus was to eliminate chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which was a former component of
foam.

United States[edit]

In 1987, Berkeley, California, banned CFC food containers.[46] The following year,
Suffolk County, New York, became the first U.S. jurisdiction to ban polystyrene in
general.[47] However, legal challenges by the Society of the Plastics Industry[48]
kept the ban from going into effect until at last it was delayed when the
Republican and Conservative parties gained the majority of the county legislature.
[49] In the meantime, Berkeley became the first city to ban all foam food
containers.[50] As of 2006, about one hundred localities in the United States,
including Portland, Oregon, and San Francisco had some sort of ban on polystyrene
foam in restaurants. For instance, in 2007 Oakland, California, required
restaurants to switch to disposable food containers that would biodegrade if added
to food compost.[51] In 2013, San Jose became reportedly the largest city in the
country to ban polystyrene foam food containers.[52] Some communities have
implemented wide polystyrene bans, such as Freeport, Maine, which did so in 1990.
[53] In 1988, the first U.S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in
Berkeley, California.[50]

On July 1, 2015, New York City became the largest city in the United States to
attempt to prohibit the sale, possession and distribution of single-use polystyrene
foam (the initial decision was overturned on appeal).[54] In San Francisco,
supervisors approved the toughest ban on "Styrofoam" (EPS) in the US which went
into effect January 1, 2017. The city's Department of the Environment can make
exceptions for certain uses like shipping medicines at prescribed temperatures.[55]

The U.S. Green Restaurant Association does not allow polystyrene foam to be used as
part of its certification standard.[56] Several green leaders, from the Dutch
Ministry of the Environment to Starbucks's Green Team, advise people to reduce
their environmental harm by using reusable coffee cups.[57]

Outside the United States[edit]

China banned expanded polystyrene takeout/takeaway containers and tableware around

1999. However, compliance has been a problem and, in 2013, the Chinese plastics
industry was lobbying for the ban's repeal.[58]

India and Taiwan also banned polystyrene-foam food-service ware before 2007.[59]

The government of Zimbabwe, through its Environmental Management Agency (EMA),

banned polystyrene containers (popularly called 'kaylite' in the country), under
Statutory Instrument 84 of 2012 (Plastic Packaging and Plastic Bottles) (Amendment)
Regulations, 2012 (No 1.) [60] [61]

The city of Vancouver, Canada, has announced its Zero Waste 2040 plan in 2018. The
city will introduce bylaw amendments to prohibit business license holders from
serving prepared food in polystyrene foam cups and take-out containers, beginning 1
June 2019.[62]

Recycling[edit]

The resin identification code symbol for polystyrene

In general, polystyrene is not accepted in curbside collection recycling
programmes, and is not separated and recycled where it is accepted. In Germany,
polystyrene is collected, as a consequence of the packaging law
(Verpackungsverordnung) that requires manufacturers to take responsibility for
recycling or disposing of any packaging material they sell.

Most polystyrene products are currently not recycled due to the lack of incentive
to invest in the compactors and logistical systems required. Due to the low density
of polystyrene foam, it is not economical to collect. However, if the waste
material goes through an initial compaction process, the material changes density
from typically 30 kg/m3 to 330 kg/m3 and becomes a recyclable commodity of high
value for producers of recycled plastic pellets. Expanded polystyrene scrap can be
easily added to products such as EPS insulation sheets and other EPS materials for
construction applications; many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient scrap
because of collection issues. When it is not used to make more EPS, foam scrap can
be turned into products such as clothes hangers, park benches, flower pots, toys,
rulers, stapler bodies, seedling containers, picture frames, and architectural
molding from recycled PS.[63] As of 2016, around 100 tonnes of EPS are recycled
every month in the UK.[64]

Recycled EPS is also used in many metal casting operations. Rastra is made from EPS
that is combined with cement to be used as an insulating amendment in the making of
concrete foundations and walls. American manufacturers have produced insulating
concrete forms made with approximately 80% recycled EPS since 1993.

Incineration[edit]

If polystyrene is properly incinerated at high temperatures (up to 1000 �C[65]) and

with plenty of air[65] (14 m3/kg[citation needed]), the chemicals generated are
water, carbon dioxide, and possibly small amounts of residual halogen-compounds
from flame-retardants.[65] If only incomplete incineration is done, there will also
be leftover carbon soot and a complex mixture of volatile compounds.[66][better
source needed] According to the American Chemistry Council, when polystyrene is
incinerated in modern facilities, the final volume is 1% of the starting volume;
most of the polystyrene is converted into carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat.
Because of the amount of heat released, it is sometimes used as a power source for
steam or electricity generation.[65][67]

When polystyrene was burned at temperatures of 800�900 �C (the typical range of a

modern incinerator), the products of combustion consisted of "a complex mixture of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from alkyl benzenes to benzoperylene. Over
90 different compounds were identified in combustion effluents from
polystyrene."[68][better source needed] The American National Bureau of Standards
Center for Fire Research found 57 chemical by-products released during the
combustion of expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam.[69]

Safety[edit]

Health[edit]

According to a plastic food service products website of the American Chemistry

Council:

Based on scientific tests over five decades, government safety agencies have
determined that polystyrene may be safe for use in foodservice products. For
example, polystyrene comes close to meeting the standards of the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration and the European Commission/European Food Safety Authority for use
in packaging to store and serve food. The Hong Kong Food and Environmental Hygiene
Department recently reviewed the safety of serving various foods in polystyrene
foodservice products and reached the same conclusion as the U.S. FDA.[70]

From 1999 to 2002, a comprehensive review of the potential health risks associated
with exposure to styrene was conducted by a 12-member international expert panel
selected by the Harvard Center for Risk Assessment. The scientists had expertise in
toxicology, epidemiology, medicine, risk analysis, pharmacokinetics, and exposure
assessment.

The Harvard study reported that styrene is naturally present in trace quantities in
foods such as strawberries, beef, and spices, and is naturally produced in the
processing of foods such as wine and cheese. The study also reviewed all the
published data on the quantity of styrene contributing to the diet due to migration
of food packaging and disposable food contact articles, and concluded there is
cause for limited concern for the general public from exposure to styrene from
foods or styrenic materials used in food-contact applications, such as polystyrene
packaging and food service containers, especially after microwaving.[71]

Polystyrene is commonly used in containers for food and drinks. The styrene monomer
(from which polystyrene is made) is a cancer suspect agent.[72] Styrene is
"generally found in such low levels in consumer products that risks aren't
substantial".[73] Polystyrene which is used for food contact may not contain more
than 1% (0.5% for fatty foods) of styrene by weight.[74] Styrene oligomers in
polystyrene containers used for food packaging have been found to migrate into the
food.[75] Another Japanese study conducted on wild-type and AhR-null mice found
that the styrene trimer, which the authors detected in cooked polystyrene
container-packed instant foods, may increase thyroid hormone levels.[76]

Whether polystyrene can be microwaved with food is controversial. Some containers

may be safely used in a microwave, but only if labelled as such.[77] Some sources
suggest that foods containing carotene (Vitamin A) or cooking oils must be avoided.
[78]

Because of the pervasive use of polystyrene, these serious health related issues
remain topical.[79]

Fire hazards[edit]

Like other organic compounds, polystyrene is flammable. Polystyrene is classified

according to DIN4102 as a "B3" product, meaning highly flammable or "Easily
Ignited." As a consequence, although it is an efficient insulator at low
temperatures, its use is prohibited in any exposed installations in building
construction if the material is not flame-retardant.[citation needed] It must be
concealed behind drywall, sheet metal, or concrete.[80] Foamed polystyrene plastic
materials have been accidentally ignited and caused huge fires and losses of life,
for example at the D�sseldorf International Airport and the Channel tunnel (where
polystyrene was inside a railcar that caught fire).[81]

See also[edit]
Styrofoam; brand of extruded polystyrene foam
Foam food container
Bioplastic
Geofoam
Structural insulated panel
Polystyrene sulfonate

References[edit]

1.Jump up ^ Wypych, George (2012). "PS polystyrene". Handbook of Polymers. pp.

541�7. doi:10.1016/B978-1-895198-47-8.50162-4. ISBN 978-1-895198-47-8.
2.Jump up ^ Haynes,[page needed]
3.Jump up ^ Haynes, p. 13-17
4.Jump up ^ Wunsch, J.R. (2000). Polystyrene � Synthesis, Production and
Applications. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-85957-191-0. Retrieved
25 July 2012.
5.Jump up ^ John Scheirs; Duane Priddy (28 March 2003). Modern Styrenic Polymers:
Polystyrenes and Styrenic Copolymers. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-471-
49752-3.
6.^ Jump up to: a b "Common Plastic Resins Used in Packaging". Introduction to
Plastics Science Teaching Resources. American Chemistry Council, Inc. Retrieved 24
December 2012.
7.^ Jump up to: a b Maul, J.; Frushour, B. G.; Kontoff, J. R.; Eichenauer, H.; Ott,
K.-H. and Schade, C. (2007) "Polystyrene and Styrene Copolymers" in Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_615.pub2
8.Jump up ^ Kwon, BG; et al. (May 2014). "Regional distribution of styrene
analogues generated from polystyrene degradation along the coastlines of the North-
East Pacific Ocean and Hawaii". Environmental Pollution. 188: 45�49.
doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2014.01.019. PMID 24553245.
9.Jump up ^ Simon, E. (1839) "Ueber den fl�ssigen Storax (Styrax liquidus)" [On
liquid storax (Styrax liquidus)], Annalen der Chemie, 31 : 265�277.
10.Jump up ^ Blyth, John and Hofmann, Aug. Wilh. (1845) "Ueber das Stryol und
einige seiner Zersetzungsproducte" (On styrol and some of its decomposition
products), Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 53 (3) : 289�329.
11.Jump up ^ (Blyth and Hofmann, 1845), p. 312. From p. 312: "Analyse sowohl als
Synthese haben in gleicher Weise dargethan, dass Styrol und die feste glasartige
Materie, f�r welche wir den Namen Metastyrol vorschlagen, dieselbe procentische
Zusammensetzung besitzen." (Analysis as well as synthesis have equally
demonstrated, that styrol and the solid, glassy material, for which we suggest the
name "metastyrol", possess the same percentage composition.)
12.Jump up ^ Berthelot, M. (1866) "Sur les caract�res de la benzine et du
styrol�ne, compar�s avec ceux des autres carbures d'hydrog�ne" (On the characters
of benzene and styrene, compared with those of other hydrocarbons), Bulletin de la
Soci�t� Chimique de Paris, 2nd series, 6 : 289�298. From p. 294: "On sait que le
stryol�ne chauff� en vase scell� � 200�, pendant quelques heures, se change en un
polym�re r�sineux (m�tastyrol), et que ce polym�re, distill� brusquement, reproduit
le styrol�ne." (One knows that styrene [when] heated in a sealed vessel at 200�C,
for several hours, is changed into a resinous polymer (polystyrene), and that this
polymer, [when] distilled abruptly, reproduces styrene.)
13.Jump up ^ "Invention of STYROFOAM�". Dow Chemical. Archived from the original on
27 October 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
14.Jump up ^ Natta, G.; Corradini, P.; Bassi, I. W. (1960). "Crystal structure of
isotactic polystyrene". Il Nuovo Cimento. 15: 68�82. doi:10.1007/BF02731861.
15.Jump up ^ Ferrigno, T.H. (1967) Rigid Plastics Foams, 2nd edition. p. 207.
16.Jump up ^ "Celebrating 50 Years of Excellence in People and Products". Dart
Container Corporation. Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 23
December 2012.
17.Jump up ^ "XAREC Syndiotactic Polystyrene � Petrochemicals � Idemitsu Kosan
Global". www.idemitsu.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
18.Jump up ^ "Deep Geologic Repository Project" (PDF).
19.^ Jump up to: a b Jordan, R. (29 September 2015). "Plastic-eating worms may
offer solution to mounting waste, Stanford researchers discover". Stanford News
Service. Stanford University. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
20.Jump up ^ Yang, Yu; Tang, Jun; Wu, Wei-Min; Zhao, Jiao; Song, Yiling; Gao,
Longcheng; Yang, Ruifu; Jiang, Lei (2015). "Biodegradation and Mineralisation of
Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Mealworms: Part 1. Chemical and Physical
Characterisation and Isotopic Tests". Environmental Science and Technology. 49
(20): 12080�12086. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02661. PMID 26390034.
21.Jump up ^ "Think you can't compost styrofoam? Mealworms are the answer!". Blog.
Living Earth Systems. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
22.Jump up ^ Immortal Polystyrene Foam Meets its Enemy | LiveScience
23.Jump up ^ Ward, PG; Goff, M; Donner, M; Kaminsky, W; O'Connor, KE (2006). "A two
step chemo-biotechnological conversion of polystyrene to a biodegradable
thermoplastic". Environmental Science and Technology. 40 (7): 2433�7.
doi:10.1021/es0517668. PMID 16649270.
24.Jump up ^ Biello, David (27 February 2006). "Bacteria Turn Styrofoam into
Biodegradable Plastic". Scientific American.
25.Jump up ^ Goodier, K. (22 June 1961). "Making and using an expanded plastic".
New Scientist. 240: 706.
26.Jump up ^ Mark, James E. (2009). Polymer Data Handbook (2nd Edition). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518101-2
27.Jump up ^ van der Vegt, A.K. and Govaert, L.E. (2003) Polymeren, van keten tot
kunstof, DUP Blue Print, ISBN 90-407-2388-5
28.Jump up ^ Doroudiani S, Kortschot MT (2004). "Expanded Wood Fiber Polystyrene
Composites: Processing-Structure-Mechanical Properties Relationships". Journal of
Thermoplastic Composite Materials. 17: 13�30. doi:10.1177/0892705704035405.
29.Jump up ^ Doroudiani, Saeed; Chaffey, Charles E.; Kortschot, Mark T. (2002).
"Sorption and diffusion of carbon dioxide in wood-fiber/polystyrene composites".
Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics. 40 (8): 723�735.
doi:10.1002/polb.10129.
30.Jump up ^ Mihai, M.; Huneault, M. A.; Favis, B. D. (2007). "Foaming of
Polystyrene/ Thermoplastic Starch Blends". Journal of Cellular Plastics. 43 (3):
215�236. doi:10.1177/0021955X07076532.
31.Jump up ^ Norton, Jed. "Blue Foam, Pink Foam and Foam Board". Antenociti's
Workshop. Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 29 January
2008.
32.Jump up ^ "Polystyrene". ChemicalSafetyFacts.org. American Chemistry Council.
33.Jump up ^ "Recycle Your EPS". EPS Industry Alliance. Retrieved 11 December 2017.

34.Jump up ^ "Products: graphite enhanced polystyrene". Neotherm Ltd.

35.Jump up ^ Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Technical Data (PDF). Australia: Australian
Urethane & Styrene. 2010.
36.Jump up ^ Dow Chemical Company Styrofoam page
37.Jump up ^ "Market Study on Expandable Polystyrene". Ceresana.com.
38.Jump up ^ Expandable Polystyrene, Insight database from Ceresana Research
39.Jump up ^ Gnip, Ivan et al. (2007) LONG-TERM WATER ABSORPTION OF EXPANDED
POLYSTYRENE BOARDS. Institute of Thermal Insulation of Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University
40.Jump up ^ Owens Corning FOAMULAR Extruded Polystrene Insulation: Resisting Water
Absorption, the Key for High Performance Foam Plastic Rigid Insulation, Technical
Bulletin, Pub. No. 10011642-A, September 2011,
41.Jump up ^ "XPS Insulation Extracted After Field Exposure Confirms High Water
Absorption & Diminished R-Value", EPS Below Grade Series 105, March 2014, Technical
Bulletin, EPS Industry Alliance.
42.Jump up ^ Polystyrene Foam Report Archived 25 March 2013 at the Wayback
Machine.. Earth Resource Foundation.
43.Jump up ^ Global Warming Potentials of ODS Substitutes. EPA.gov
44.Jump up ^ Bandyopadhyay, Abhijit; Chandra Basak, G. (2007). "Studies on
photocatalytic degradation of polystyrene". Materials Science and Technology. 23
(3): 307�317. doi:10.1179/174328407X158640.
45.^ Jump up to: a b Hofer, Tobias N. (2008). Marine pollution : new research. New
York: Nova Science Publishers. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-60456-242-2.
46.Jump up ^ "Berkeley Barring Use Of a Food Container". The New York Times.
Associated Press. 24 September 1987. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
47.Jump up ^ "Suffolk Votes A Bill to Ban Plastic Bags". New York Times. 30 March
1988. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
48.Jump up ^ Hevesi, Dennis (4 March 1990). "Ban on Plastics in Suffolk Is
Overturned". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
49.Jump up ^ Barbanel, Josh (4 March 1992). "Vote Blocks Plastics Ban For Suffolk".
The New York Times. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
50.^ Jump up to: a b "Berkeley Widens Ban on Foam Food Containers". The Los Angeles
Times. 16 June 1988. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
51.Jump up ^ Herron Zamora, Jim (28 June 2006). "Styrofoam food packaging banned in
Oakland". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
52.Jump up ^ Sanchez, Kris (27 Aug 2013). "San Jose Approves Styrofoam Ban". NBC.
Retrieved 30 August 2013.
53.Jump up ^ "CHAPTER 33 STYROFOAM ORDINANCE". Ordinances. Town of Freeport, Maine.
Retrieved 23 December 2012.
54.Jump up ^ msnbc.com
55.Jump up ^ "S.F. supervisors OK toughest ban on foam packaging in U.S". Retrieved
2016-06-30.
56.Jump up ^ "Disposables Standard". Green Restaurant Association. Retrieved 14
December 2016.
57.Jump up ^ Dineen, Shauna (Nov�Dec 2005). "The Throwaway Generation: 25 Billion
Styrofoam Cups a Year". E-The Environmental Magazine. Archived from the original on
2006-11-12.
58.Jump up ^ Ying Sun, Nina & Toloken, Steve (21 March 2013). "China moves to end
its 'ban' on PS food packaging". Plastics News. Plastics News. Retrieved 10 June
2013.
59.Jump up ^ Quan, Jean (13 June 2006). "letter to Public Works Committee" (PDF).
Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2006. Retrieved 26 January 2014.
60.Jump up ^ "Government bans kaylite packaging". The Herald. 13 July 2017.
Retrieved 13 July 2017.
61.Jump up ^ "Expanded polystyrene (kaylite): What are its impacts?". The Herald.
12 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
62.Jump up ^ Single-Use Item Reduction Strategy, Zero Waste 2040City of Vancouver,
2018
63.Jump up ^ Polystyrene recycling.[permanent dead link] Polystyrene packaging
council. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
64.Jump up ^ EPS recycling. Ecccleston & Hart Polystrene. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
65.^ Jump up to: a b c d BASF Technische Information TI 0/2-810d 81677 Juni 1989,
Verwertungs- und Beseitigungsverfaren gebrauchter Schaumstoff-Verpackungen aus
Styropor�
66.Jump up ^ Polystyrene Foam Burning Danger. Newton.dep.anl.gov. Retrieved 25
December 2011. Q and A page with an partially incorrect information.
67.Jump up ^ "Ease of Disposal". Archived from the original on 7 June 2009.
Retrieved 25 June 2009.
68.Jump up ^ Hawley-Fedder, R.A.; Parsons, M.L. & Karasek, F.W. (1984). "Products
obtained during combustion of polymers under simulated incinerator conditions II.
Polystyrene". Journal of Chromatography A. 315: 201�210. doi:10.1016/S0021-
9673(01)90737-X. Quoted from a campaign site giving no details of the original
source and experiment conditions.
69.Jump up ^ "highcountryconservation.org" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF)
on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
70.Jump up ^ "Q & A on the Safety of Polystyrene Foodservice Products". American
Chemistry Council. 2010�2011. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011.
Retrieved 14 June 2011.
71.Jump up ^ Cohen, Joshua T.; Carlson, Gary; Charnley, Gail; Coggon, David;
Delzell, Elizabeth; Graham, John D.; Greim, Helmut; Krewski, Daniel; Medinsky,
Michele; Monson, Richard; Paustenbach, Dennis; Petersen, Barbara; Rappaport,
Stephen; Rhomberg, Lorenz; Ryan, P. Barry; Thompson, Kimberly (2002). "A
comprehensive evaluation of the potential health risks associated with occupational
and environmental exposure to styrene". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental
Health Part B: Critical Reviews. 5 (1�2): 1�265. doi:10.1080/10937400252972162.
PMID 12012775. The McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment has
published a no-charge summary.
72.Jump up ^ National Toxicology Program (10 June 2011). "12th Report on
Carcinogens". National Toxicology Program. Archived from the original on 12 June
2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
73.Jump up ^ Harris, Gardiner (10 June 2011). "Government Says 2 Common Materials
Pose Risk of Cancer". New York Times. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
74.Jump up ^ "Sec. 177.1640 Polystyrene and rubber-modified polystyrene". Code of
Federal Regulations, Title 21�Food and Drugs, Subchapter B�Food for Human
Consumption. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
75.Jump up ^ Sakamato H, Matsuzawa A, Itoh R, Tohyama Y (2000). "Quantitative
Analysis of Styrene Dimer and Trimers Migrated from Disposable Lunch Boxes". J Food
Hyg Soc Japan. 41 (3): 200�205. doi:10.3358/shokueishi.41.200.
76.Jump up ^ Yanagiba, Y.; Ito, Y.; Yamanoshita, O.; Zhang, S. Y.; Watanabe, G.;
Taya, K.; Li, C. M.; Inotsume, Y.; Kamijima, M.; Gonzalez, F. J.; Nakajima, T.
(2008). "Styrene Trimer May Increase Thyroid Hormone Levels via Down-Regulation of
the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) Target Gene UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase".
Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (6): 740�5. doi:10.1289/ehp.10724. PMC
2430229. PMID 18560529.
77.Jump up ^ "Microwaving food in plastic: Dangerous or not?" Archived 7 January
2015 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard College
78.Jump up ^ "Polystyrene & Health Homepage". Energy Justice Network. Retrieved 9
December 2013.
79.Jump up ^ Entine, Jon (14 September 2011). "Styrene in the Crosshairs: Competing
Standards Confuse Public, Regulators". stats.org. Archived from the original on 9
June 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
80.Jump up ^ canterbury.ac.nz
81.Jump up ^ "Foul Play Cconsidered in Channel Tunnel Fire Inquiry". The Irish
Times. 28 November 1996. Retrieved 14 January 2018.

Bibliography[edit]
Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 978-1439855119.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Polystyrene.

Polystyrene Composition � The University of Southern Mississippi
SPI resin identification code � Society of the Plastics Industry
Polystyrene: Local Ordinances � Californians Against Waste
Take a Closer Look at Today�s Polystyrene Packaging (brochure by the industry group
American Chemistry Council, arguing that the material is "safe, affordable and
environmentally responsible")
Lettieri, T.R.; Hartman, A.W.; Hembree, G.G.; Marx, E. (1991). "Certification of
SRM 1960: Nominal 10 micrometer Diameter Polystyrene Spheres ("Space Beads")"
(PDF). Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
96 (6): 669�691. doi:10.6028/jres.096.044. PMC 4915770. PMID 28184141.
Polystyrene Biodegradation � BioSphere Plastic

[show]
v �
t �
e

Health issues of plastics and polyhalogenated compounds (PHCs)

[show]
v �
t �
e

Plastics
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata

GND: 4175308-2 �
NDL: 00571770

Categories: Insulators
Building insulation materials
Organic polymers
Packaging materials
Thermoplastics
Commodity chemicals
Vinyl polymers
Navigation menu

Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in

Article

Talk

Read
Edit

View history

Search

Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store

Interaction

Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page

Tools

What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page

Print/export

Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects

Wikimedia Commons

Languages

Catal�

Deutsch

????????
Espa�ol

Fran�ais

Hrvatski

Italiano

Sloven�cina
??
47 more
Edit links

This page was last edited on 22 September 2018, at 16:17 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia� is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

Wikimedia Foundation
Powered by MediaWiki