A GIS-Based Assessment of Liquefaction Potential of

the City of Aqaba, Jordan

NASSER M. MANSOOR
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, 195 University Avenue,
Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102

TINA M. NIEMI
Department of Geosciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 5100 Rockhill Road,
Kansas City, MO 64110

ANIL MISRA
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Missouri-Kansas City,
5100 Rockhill Road, Kansas City, MO 64110

Key Terms: Liquefication, GIS, Aqaba, Jordan, Earth- historically experienced liquefaction were found to
quake, Dead Sea Transform exist within the high susceptibility zone as well,
supporting the findings of this study.

ABSTRACT
The city of Aqaba, Jordan, located along the
northern shore of the Gulf of Aqaba, is built over the
seismically active Dead Sea Transform plate bound-
ary fault system. The subsurface stratigraphic
sequence underlying the city is composed of alluvial
fan deposits containing varying amounts of clay, silt,
sand, and gravel interbedded within the coastal areas
with aeolian and beach sand. Groundwater levels
along the coastal areas are very shallow. The
groundwater levels increase to the north and north-
east to depths greater than 17 m about 5 km from the
shore. The liquefaction potential of the city of Aqaba
soils was analyzed using the Simplified Procedure of
Youd and Idriss and the modified Chinese criteria of
Wang. Maps of the liquefaction susceptibility of areas
in the city of Aqaba were displayed using the
Geographic Information System (GIS). Application
of the modified Chinese criteria indicates that the
cohesive subsurface layers are predominantly non-
liquefiable. The types of sediments most susceptible to
liquefaction are saturated silt and sand deposits. Two
classification schemes were developed in this lique-
faction analysis. Our results indicate that the coastal
areas of Aqaba have a high potential to liquefy,
whereas the eastern parts of the city lie predomi-
nantly within a nonliquefaction zone. The critical
facilities were overlaid with the liquefaction hazard
map of the city and show that only the hotel and the
commercial districts lie within a zone of high
susceptibility to liquefaction. The areas that have
INTRODUCTION
The modern city of Aqaba lies at the north shore of the
Gulf of Aqaba, in southwestern Jordan, about 320 km
south of the capital Amman. It is the only port for the
country of Jordan and is a vital commercial, economic,
and tourism center. The city straddles the seismically
active Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system (Figure 1).
Historical accounts and other macroseismic data suggest
that Aqaba has experienced severely damaging earth-
quakes in the past (e.g., Ambraseys and Melville, 1989;
Ghawanmeh, 1992; and Ambraseys et al., 1994). The
archaeological record confirms that major destruction in
Aqaba occurred to the Late Roman-Byzantine structures
in the AD 363 earthquake (Parker, 1999) and to the
Islamic city of Ayla, located within the hotel district in the
central part of the city, in the AD 1068 earthquake
(Whitcomb, 1994). Maps of modern seismicity show that
the city of Aqaba lies within a zone of high seismic hazard
and is potentially susceptible to major damage in a future
earthquake (Figure 2). Based on previous observations at
other sites, the types of seismic damage that the city could
expect include surface rupture, soil differential compac-
tion, and soil liquefaction. Liquefaction can cause
reduction of foundation bearing capacity, lateral spread-
ing, ground settling, and other destructive ground failures.
Earthquake awareness was significantly heightened in
the countries bordering the Gulf of Aqaba after the
Nuweiba earthquake of November 22, 1995. This
magnitude MW 7.3 event (Dziewonski et al., 1997) (MW
7.2 in Hofstetter et al., 2003) was the largest earthquake

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 297
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra
Figure 1. Regional map of the tectonic setting of the study area
(modified after Garfunkel and Ben-Avraham, 1996). J, Jordan Valley
fault; E, Ed Damur fault; R, Rachaya fault; Y, Yammouneh fault; G,
Ghab fault; CN-S, Central Negev Sinai shear belt.
on the DST during the 20th century. The earthquake was
felt over an area greater than 1,000 km2 (Malkawi et al.,
1999c). More than 150 aftershocks with M . 4 were
recorded during the 2 years following the Nuweiba
earthquake (Rabinowitz and Steinberg, 1998; Malkawi
et al., 1999c). The Nuweiba earthquake ruptured along
a NNE-trending, left-lateral strike-slip fault (Figure 2).
The distribution of aftershocks lies predominantly along
the eastern side of the Gulf of Aqaba and suggests that the
main fault rupture occurred on a 45- to 70-km length of
the strike-slip fault along the Aragonese and Elat
bathymetric deeps (Figure 2) (Hofstetter et al., 2003;
Klinger et al., 1999). The rupture propagated from south
to north in at least two subevents (Klinger et al., 1999;
Pinar and Türkelli, 1997; and Hofstetter et al., 2003).
298 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
Seismological and synthetic aperture radar interferometry
data indicate about 1.4 to 3.2 m of sinistral slip in the
earthquake (Baer et al., 1999).
During the 12 years preceding the Nuweiba earth-
quake, there were three discrete periods (1983, 1990, and
1993) of increased seismic activity within the Gulf of
Aqaba (El-Isa et al., 1984; Alamri, 1991; and Amrat,
1996). These earthquake swarms migrated from north to
south and define the approximate rupture boundaries of
the Nuweiba 1995 rupture trace (Klinger et al., 1999).
The maximum magnitude event during all the swarms
was the MW 6.1 earthquake of August 3, 1993. A focal
plane mechanism and the alignment of microseismicity
epicenters indicate that the 1993 rupture occurred on
a N328W-trending, normal fault (Dziewonski et al., 1994;
Pinar and Türkelli, 1997). This is particularly interesting
because similar cross-fault structures are mapped in
Aqaba (Niemi and Smith, 1999; Mansoor, 2002; and
Slater and Niemi, 2003) and because the Nuweiba
earthquake nucleated near the August 3, 1993 earthquake.
Damage from the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake was
concentrated in the cities on the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt),
the Saudi Arabian coastline, and the cities of Aqaba
(Jordan) and Elat (Israel) located 70 km to the north of
the epicenter. The hotel districts located near the beaches
in Elat and Aqaba sustained the most damage from the
1995 Nuweiba earthquake as a result of local amplifica-
tion of the peak ground acceleration (Wust, 1997;
Saffarini and Kabalawi, 1999; and Al-Tarazi, 2000).
High ground water conditions, resulting in saturated sand
layers, make this region also susceptible to liquefaction.
Although liquefaction sand blows were observed in Elat
(Wust, 1997), subsidence was the only observable
evidence of potential liquefaction in Aqaba (Malkawi
et al., 1999c). Other damage in Aqaba included lateral
spreading and differential settlement.
Wust (1997) concluded that damage to structures built
on alluvial fan sediments appeared to be more extensive in
Aqaba, as compared to buildings on the same substrate in
Elat. Several reasons were suggested for this, including
different construction standards, amplification within
alluvial fan sediments, and potential reactivation of faults
buried in the alluvium (Wust, 1997). Two strong motion
accelerographs were stationed in Aqaba at the time of the
1995 Nuweiba earthquake (Saffarini and Kabalawi, 1999;
Malkawi et al., 1999c). These instruments were stationed
on the ground floors of the Aqaba Hotel, located at the
beach, and the Civil Defense Building, located on alluvial
fan deposits 3 km north of the beach. Maximum ac-
celeration recorded at the beach location was signifi-
cantly higher (0.16 g) than at the inland site (0.06 g)
(Saffarini and Kabalawi, 1999; Malkawi et al., 1999c).
The low-rise residential and commercial structures within
Aqaba are constructed predominantly of reinforced
concrete. The houses and apartment complexes are two
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Figure 2. (A) Map of recorded earthquakes along the Dead Sea Transform (Jordan Seismological Observatory, Natural Resources Authority). (B)
Schematic diagram of the structure of the Gulf of Aqaba showing location of active faults, pullapart basins, and the epicenter and rupture length of the
1995 Nuweiba earthquake (map modified after Ben-Avraham, 1985; epicenter and rupture length after Baer et al., 1999).

to three stories high, whereas commercial structures vary
from one story to five stories high. A few 10- or more
story buildings exist in the central part of the city, within
the hotel district, along the beachfront.
Using catalogues of instrumentally recorded and
historical earthquakes, Malkawi and Fahmi (1996) de-
veloped a ground motion attenuation model for Jordan
that relates peak ground acceleration (PGA) to epicentral
distance, surface wave magnitude, and Mercalli intensity.
A PGA model in conjunction with a model for prob-
abilistic earthquake recurrence was used by Malkawi and
others (1995) and Fahmi and others (1996) to produce
seismic zonation maps of Jordan. However, according to
Saffarini and Kabalawi (1999), although the Jordanian
building code adopted in 1985 has earthquake-resistant
specifications, provisions for site amplification or other
site-specific seismic response spectra do not exist. Most
buildings are designed to carry only gravitational load, not
lateral acceleration (Malkawi et al., 1999b). Seismic
engineering ground-motion data for specific locations,
such as the Port of Aqaba (Fahmi and Malkawi, 1998), are
part of ongoing efforts by the Aqaba Region Authority to
upgrade the building code of Jordan.
Calculation of local expected PGA is one of the most
relevant parameters for use in structural design of
buildings. PGA is calculated based on expected magni-
tude and distance to the epicenter of a future earthquake.
Other elements of seismic hazard analysis involve
assessment of seismically induced ground failure, in-
cluding landslides, liquefaction, and lateral spreading, as

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 299
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra
Figure 3. Quaternary geologic map of the region along the Dead Sea
Transform north of the Gulf of Aqaba showing the geometry of faults
in the region of Aqaba, Jordan and Elat, Israel (modified after
Garfunkel, 1970).
well as site effects of ground shaking such as amplifica-
tion. In this paper we evaluate the liquefaction hazard in
the city of Aqaba based on subsurface geotechnical data
obtained from various sources. The results are presented
in a point-based Geographic Information System (GIS)
format that can be updated easily and interpolated across
areas that lack geotechnical information but have similar
subsurface conditions. This study will provide the city
planners and the engineering designers with numerical
values of the liquefaction hazard that can be used to help
refine the building code provisions and improve the safety
of structures and critical facilities.
300 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
TECTONIC AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Aqaba lies within a major active seismic region, along
the plate boundary of the Dead Sea Transform fault
system (DST). The transform extends for about 1,100 km
and separates the Arabian Plate on the east from the Sinai
subplate on the west (Figure 1). The transtensional motion
and the en echelon fault geometry have created several
pull-apart basins. According to models of gravity data
collected across the DST presented by Ten Brink and
others (1999), the fault valley between the Dead Sea and
the Gulf of Aqaba is composed of several small
depositional basins. These en echelon basins are oriented
at a clockwise angle to the axis of the transform and are
shallow toward the north. The average minimum late
Quaternary slip rate for the DST is about 4–7 mm/year
(Zhang, 1998; Klinger et al., 2000; and Niemi et al.,
2001).
The city of Aqaba is built on alluvial sediments derived
from the Wadi Yutim, located east of the city between the
rugged mountains of Ash Shahabi and Al Akhdar, and
alluvial fans emanating from the eastern plateau (Figure
3). Niemi and Smith (1999) divided the Wadi Yutim
surficial deposits into four mappable Quaternary fan units,
based on air photo interpretations. The subsurface
stratigraphy of the various alluvial fan units was in-
vestigated in several trench excavations and soil pits of up
to 4 m deep (Mansoor, 2002; Niemi and Mansoor, in
preparation). Existing boring logs, up to 20 m in depth,
and several hand auger cores of depths up to 4 m were also
analyzed to provide essential information about the
lithology and the groundwater conditions.
LIQUEFACTION PRINCIPLE AND OCCURRENCE
Liquefaction is defined as the process by which the
saturated sediments temporarily lose their shear strength
and behave as a viscous fluid rather than as a solid (Seed
and Idriss, 1982; Kramer, 1996). Consequently, structures
may tilt or sink, and buried pipelines may float to the
surface. Ground fissures and lateral spreading can also be
a result of the liquefaction phenomenon. The liquefaction
susceptibility of soil deposits may be affected by factors
such as grain size, relative density, depth and thickness
of the strata, age of sediments, presence of overlying
nonliquefiable layers, and the previous seismic history
(Seed, 1979; Seed and Idriss, 1982; and Obermeier and
Pond, 1999). Generally, three conditions must exist
for liquefaction to occur: (1) soil type susceptible to
liquefaction; (2) presence of a shallow water table
resulting in a saturated condition, and (3) strong ground
shaking (Kramer, 1996).
The sediments most susceptible to liquefaction are
saturated silts and sands. If the silt and sand sediments are
overlain by a nonliquefiable stratum, the liquefaction
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan
susceptibility may be very high because high pore
pressure will not dissipate to the surface. Several recent
studies also indicate that gravel may be liquefiable, and
instances have been reported in Japan, China, New
Zealand, and the United States (e.g., Seed et al., 1985;
Stokoe et al., 1988; and Obermeier and Pond, 1999). Most
commonly, liquefaction originates at depths of 2 to 5 m
below the ground surface, but it can also originate at
depths of up to 20 m or more (Seed and Idriss, 1982).
Liquefaction can be explained as the process of
trapping excess pore pressure as a result of cyclic loading
generated by ground shaking. The overburden pressure of
a non-cohesive soil produces contact forces between each
grain and its neighboring particles, creating soil strength.
When water saturates the soil, pore pressure counters the
overburden pressure. If a rapid loading such as that of
seismic ground shaking is applied, the particles tend to
move into a denser configuration as a result of shearing
and temporary loss of grain-to-grain contact. The loss of
grain-to-grain contact temporarily transfers some or all of
the overburden stress to the pore water. As a result, the
pore pressure reduces the contact forces between the
particles, and consequently, the shear strength of the soil
will decrease, and the soil may behave as a fluid.
Literature on liquefaction-induced features and the
associated damage within the city of Aqaba and the
adjacent areas is very limited. Most of the reported
liquefaction damage is related to the Nuweiba earthquake
of November 1995 (Wust, 1997; Malkawi et al., 1999c).
Other studies concerned with archeological structures
within the city reveal evidence of paleoseismic events
associated with liquefaction (Ghawanmeh, 1992; Whit-
comb, 1994; and Al-Homoud and Tal, 1998).
Damage assessment reports from the 1995 Nuweiba
earthquake (as previously discussed) indicate that several
areas experienced liquefaction damage as well as
liquefaction-induced features. Wust (1997) surveyed the
post-seismic damage from this earthquake within and
around Aqaba, Elat, and the eastern Sinai Peninsula. He
reported that the failure features and lateral spreading
within Elat’s hotel district were caused by liquefaction as
a result of local amplification of ground acceleration in the
unconsolidated alluvial fan and sabkha material on which
the city is built. Sand boils were reported both in natural
environments and in conjunction with man-made struc-
tures such as landfills, ramps, ditches, and levees. This
suggests that liquefaction (accompanied by water-table
fluctuations) was an active process during this earthquake.
On the other hand, the damage within the city of Aqaba,
according to Wust (1997), was most severe along the
shoreline areas around the Alcazar Hotel, Miramar Hotel,
and Aqaba Gulf Hotel because of different construction
standards and reactivation of the fault lines in the alluvial
fans under Aqaba. Earthquake damage in Aqaba was
reported by Malkawi and others (1999c) and included
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
differential settlement, lateral spreading, and separation of
foundations, mostly along the shoreline area. They did not
observe any direct evidence of liquefaction such as sand
boils or dikes.
In an archeological study, Whitcomb (1994) excavated
the ancient walled city of Ayla that is located adjacent to
the beach and extends a few tens of meters north of the
shoreline (Figure 3). Ayla was founded in the eighth
century AD. Whitcomb (1994) shows, from detailed
mapping of the ancient architecture, that this ancient city
experienced subsidence caused by several earthquakes.
Historical records describe the subsidence of the ancient
Ayla City as ‘‘swallowed by the earth’’ after the AD 1068
earthquake (Ghawanmeh, 1992). This description of the
damage can possibly be explained by the liquefaction
phenomenon. Geotechnical research at ancient Ayla by
Al-Homoud and Tal (1998) indicates that tilting and
sinking of portions of the exterior walls may have been
the result of liquefaction.
BOREHOLE DATA
An evaluation of the liquefaction hazard in Aqaba was
conducted based on Seed and Idriss’s stress approach
(1971, 1982), updated by Seed and others (1985) and
Youd and Idriss (1997). This method utilizes Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) blow count data. This common
technique uses the corrected blow count for an energy
ratio of 60 percent and an effective overburden pressure
of 1 ton/ft2 (95.76 kPa) as a function of the soil type,
(N1)60. The total and the effective overburden pressure at
the point of interest, as well as the earthquake magnitude,
must be established to perform an empirical correlation
between the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and the corrected
blow count of the SPT to estimate the cyclic resistance
ratio (CRR). The borehole data included in this study
consist of the logs of 109 boreholes compiled from
different studies and geotechnical investigations carried
out in the city of Aqaba. The data were compiled mainly
from Malkawi and Fahmi (1996), Malkawi and others
(1997), Al-Homoud and Tal (1998), the Jordanian
Natural Resources Authority (NRA) in collaboration
with the Royal Scientific Society (RSS), and private
geotechnical companies.
The borehole logs contain detailed stratigraphic de-
scriptions and different geotechnical test data, especially
SPT data. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging
from 2.3 m to 20 m. The NRA drilled only three boreholes
to the depth of bedrock (Malkawi and Fahmi, 1996). In
addition, three boreholes were drilled using a hand auger
to aid in determination of the shoreline areas, subsurface
stratigraphy and to confirm the depth to groundwater. The
data include coordinates of the borehole, surface eleva-
tion, the variation of the soil profile with depth,
groundwater depth, and laboratory test results performed
301
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 4. Cross section trending NNW–SSE showing the elevation of the different stratigraphic layers along the gulf shoreline, groundwater
elevations, and the N-value of the SPT where tested. See Figure 15 for cross section location.

on samples from specific depths. These laboratory tests
included Atterberg limits and natural moisture content.
The field N-value of the standard penetration test data is
recorded as a separate parameter included in the borehole
logs. Figure 4 presents a generalized cross section
constructed from boreholes located along the shoreline.
The cross section shows a detailed stratigraphic sequence,
water levels, and the N-value of the SPT. The correlation
between soil consistency and Peck’s N-value of 1974
were also used in this study (Table 1). A semiquantitative
description of the relative density or compactness, ranging
from very loose to very dense, is correlated to the N-value.
The analyses involved evaluating the subsurface
stratigraphy and the groundwater conditions, analyzing
the geotechnical borehole data, and using various values
for earthquake magnitudes and PGA derived from
recorded accelerometers and response spectra developed
by previous studies (Fahmi and Malkawi, 1998; Malkawi
et al., 1999b,c). The average soil unit weights (dry and
saturated) of Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) were used in
the liquefaction evaluation (Table 2) to calculate the
vertical overburden stress.
A multi-layer spatial analysis was conducted to provide
the first point-based liquefaction hazard map of the region.
The geological, hydrological, and geotechnical data were
entered into a computer-based GIS. The database included
a base map of the city of Aqaba, digitized at a scale of
1:10,000, including roads, utilities, and various critical
features. Three layers were spatially registered to the base
map: (1) geologic map with fault locations, (2) ground-
water levels from borehole data, and (3) geotechnical data
and subsurface lithology based on borehole data. The
analysis component included total and effective over-
burden stress calculations, ground motion parameters, and
liquefaction evaluations. These steps are discussed in
more detail in the following sections.
GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS
Groundwater depth plays a key role in liquefaction
evaluation because it results in increased saturation and
reduces the effective vertical stress. Shearing disrupts the
depositional grain packing and results in a more closely
packed grain structure, forming a denser material.
Mapping groundwater conditions within the city of
Aqaba is based on a compilation of groundwater level
data from geotechnical borehole logs that have been
drilled, for engineering purposes, throughout the city.

302 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Table 1. Correlation between soil consistency and the N-value of the Table 2. Typical soil unit weights used for calculating the overburden
SPT. pressure.

Cohesionless Soils Cohesive Soils Normalized

Unit Weight
Consistency N-Value Consistency N-Value
Void Ratio Dry, Saturated,
Very loose ,4 Very soft ,2 cdry/cw csat/cw
Loose 4–10 Soft 2–4 Soil Type emax emin Avg Avg
Medium dense 10–30 Firm 4–8
Dense 30–50 Stiff 8–15 Uniform granular soil
Very dense .50 Very stiff 15–30 Equal spheres 0.92 0.35 — —
Hard .30 Standard Ottawa sand 0.80 0.50 1.62 1.80
Clean uniform sand 1.00 0.40 1.62 1.77
After Peck et al. (1974). Uniform inorganic silt 1.10 0.40 1.59 1.74
Well-graded granular soil
Silty sand 0.90 0.30 1.72 1.85
The data were used to generate a groundwater contour Clean fine to coarse sand 0.95 0.20 1.79 1.88
map of the study area that was used in the liquefaction Micaceous sand 1.20 0.40 1.57 1.72
evaluation within Aqaba (Figure 5A). A compiled cross Silty sand and gravel 0.85 0.14 1.89 1.96
section in the northeast–southwest direction shows the Silty or sandy clay 1.80 0.25 1.56 1.98
general elevation of the groundwater levels within the Graded silty clay with
study area (Figure 5B). gravel or larger 1.00 0.20 1.80 2.13
The groundwater level surface shows that the area is Well-graded gravel, sand,
silt, and clay 0.70 0.13 1.99 2.25
characterized by shallow water levels at the south and Clay (30 to 50
southwest along the gulf shoreline from about 1.4 m percent ,2 lm) 2.40 0.50 1.30 1.82
below ground surface to about 17 m to the north and Colloidal clay (over
northeast (Figure 5A). Most of the boreholes located 50 percent ,2 lm) 12.00 0.60 0.96 1.60
about 3 km to the north and northeast portions of the gulf Organic silt 3.00 0.55 1.20 1.75
Organic clay (30 to
shoreline are characterized by dry conditions up to 20 m 50 percent ,2 lm) 4.40 0.70 1.04 1.65
deep. The study area portrays both unconfined and
confined conditions, caused by the presence of local clay Note: cw ¼ 9.80 kN/m3.
lenses, within the subsurface stratigraphic sequence Modified after Kulhawy and Mayne (1990).
(Figure 4). Groundwater movement is mainly from the
northeast to the southwest in the northern parts of the city
Malkawi and Fahmi (1996) evaluated the MPE for the
and from east to west in the southern parts of the city, as
Aqaba region and calculated a horizontal peak ground
indicated in the groundwater contour map and the cross
acceleration (PGA) of about 200 cm/second2 (0.2 g),
section (Figure 5A and B). Municipal use of the
which corresponds to 100 years of exposure time at 90
groundwater may affect future groundwater levels of the
percent probability of not being exceeded. Malkawi and
study area and, consequently, may reduce the liquefac-
Fahmi (1996) derived an instrumentally based PGA
tion hazard.
attenuation equation that combines the surface magnitude
(MS) and the hypocentral distance as follows:
SEISMICITY, GROUND MOTION
PGA ðin cm=second2 Þ ¼ 837:0 e0:89Ms ðR þ 25Þ
1:73 ð1Þ
PARAMETERS, AND PGA
In order to perform a liquefaction hazard evaluation at Applying this equation to the most recent earthquake of
a specific site, the magnitudes of both a Maximum November 1995 (MS of 7.2; Wust, 1997) yielded a PGA
Credible Earthquake (MCE) and a Maximum Probable of 0.16 g. If the epicenter of a future earthquake of MS
Earthquake (MPE) must be estimated. According to 7.2 is located within a 50-km radius of Aqaba at the same
guidelines issued by the California Division of Mines and focal depth, the PGA is expected to reach at least 0.3 g
Geology (1975), the MCE is the maximum earthquake based on the previous empirical equation of Malkawi and
that appears capable of occurring under the presently Fahmi (1996). This scenario is highly likely because the
known tectonic framework at any time. The MPE is the city of Aqaba is built on top of faults that may rupture in
maximum earthquake that is likely to occur during a 100- the future. Therefore, the liquefaction hazard analysis is
year interval. The MCE should be regarded as a magni- based on applying four different earthquake scenarios
tude not less than the maximum that has occurred within with an average PGA of 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, and 0.4 g. A
a historic time. PGA of 0.3 g will be presented in more detail because it

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 303
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 5. (A) Contour of the depth to the water table in meters, derived from modeling the groundwater depth recorded in borehole data. See Figure
14 for detailed location of boreholes. Coordinates in the Palestine Belt Grid. (B) Cross section showing the general groundwater elevation within the
study area (see next page).

may be considered very reasonable, based on the
previous discussion of the tectonic setting and
the historical records as well as the most recent PGA
attenuation equation by Malkawi and Fahmi (1996).
LIQUIFACTION ANALYTICAL METHOD
A basic method to evaluate liquefaction (called the
Simplified Procedure) was first proposed by Seed and
Idriss (1971). This procedure has been revised and
updated by several studies (Seed and Idriss, 1982; Seed et
al., 1983, 1984; NRC, 1985; NCEER, 1997; and Youd
and Idriss, 2001). The method of evaluating a soil’s
ability to resist liquefaction, expressed in terms of the
cyclic resistance ratio (CRR), is based on the correlation
between the seismic demand placed on a soil layer,
expressed as the cyclic stress ratio (CSR), and the
corrected blow count of standard penetration resistance

304 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Figure 5. (continued)

(N1)60. Figure 6 presents the relationship between the
CSR causing liquefaction and the (N1)60 values for an
earthquake of magnitude 7.5. The plot of the CRR shows
the calculated CSR and (N1)60 data from different sites
where liquefaction effects were or were not noted fol-
lowing major earthquakes, along with the variations in
fines content (Seed et al., 1984). The curve represented
by fine grain-size content less than 5 percent is the basic
criterion for the simplified procedure and is referred to as
the ‘‘simplified base curve.’’ This curve is valid only for
earthquakes of magnitude 7.5. A magnitude scaling
factor (MSF) recommended by the National Center of
Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER, 1997) is
used to adjust the CRR7.5 curve to CRR for other
magnitudes as shown in Figure 7 and the following
equation:
of silt and clay is controlled by grain size, water content,
and liquid limit. Perlea and others (1999) modified the
Chinese Criteria (Wang, 1979) based on the difference
between the soil index properties determined by the
Chinese standards and the American Society for Testing
and Material (ASTM) methods. Their results to delineate
liquefaction and non-liquefaction based on the soil index
properties are presented in Figure 8. The Simplified
Procedure for liquefaction evaluation and the modified
Chinese Criteria are used in this study to evaluate the
liquefaction hazard, taking into account the revision
and the updates, where possible, based on the available
data.
According to Seed and Idriss (1971), the CSR is
expressed as the ratio of the average shear stress to the
initial vertical effective stress as follows:

MSF ¼ 102:24 =M2:56 ð2Þ CSR ¼ ðs=r9V8 Þ ¼ 0:65ðamax =gÞðrV8 =r9V8 Þrd ð3Þ

On the other hand, Wang (1979) suggested the where:

Chinese Criteria method based on observations made s ¼ the average shear stress in the soil.
during strong earthquakes in China between 1966 and r9V8 ¼ the total effective overburden stress at the depth
1976. This method suggests that the liquefaction potential of consideration.

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 305
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 6. Relationship between CSR causing liquefaction and the corrected blow count of SPT (N1)60 for clean sands in an M7.5 earthquake showing
the Simplified Base Curve for calculating CRR (modified from NCEER, 1997; after Seed et al., 1985).

amax ¼ the peak horizontal acceleration at the ground r9V8 ¼ rV8
u ð4Þ
surface generated by an earthquake.
g ¼ the gravitational acceleration.
rV8 ¼ the total overburden stress at the same depth. where:
rd ¼ the stress reduction coefficient. r9V8 ¼ the total vertical effective overburden stress at the
point of interest.
The vertical effective stress acting at a point of u ¼ the pore pressure.
interest below the ground surface can be estimated as rV8 ¼ the total overburden stress acting at the same
follows: point.

306 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan
Figure 7. Magnitude Scaling Factor (MSF) derived by various investigators (after NCEER, 1997).
The pore pressure can be calculated based on Eq. 5, and
the total overburden stress can be estimated using Eq. 6
as follows:
u ¼ cw 3 hw ð5Þ
where:
cw ¼ the water unit weight.
hw ¼ the depth below the water table to the point of
interest.
rV8 ¼ ðc1 3 h1 Þ þ ðc2 3 h2 Þ þ    þ ðci 3 hi Þ ð6Þ
where:
c1, c2, ci ¼ the unit weight of soil layers 1, 2, and ith.
h1, h2, hi ¼ the thickness of layer 1, 2, and ith.
According to NCEER (1997), the (N1)60 of the
standard penetration test used in this evaluation is the
field blow count corrected to an energy ratio of 60 percent
and an effective overburden pressure of 1 ton/ft2 (95.76
kPa). Several factors should be accounted for in
calculating the (N1)60 blow count as expressed in the
following equation:
ðN1 Þ60 ¼ Nm CN CE CB CR CS ð7Þ
where:
(N1)60 ¼ the corrected blow count for an energy ratio of
60 percent and an effective overburden pressure
of 1 ton/ft2.
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
Nm ¼ the measured field blow count.
CN ¼ the correction expression for the effective
overburden pressure.
CE ¼ hammer energy ratio.
CB ¼ borehole diameter.
CR ¼ drilling rod length.
CS ¼ type of sampler.
Because the available borehole data lack information
regarding borehole diameter and drilling rod length,
a more simplified equation is used in this study. The
factor CS is taken as 1.0 for a standard sampler, and an
average value for the energy ratio of 60 percent given by
Seed and others (1985) is assumed, then the corrected SPT
blow count can be calculated using the following equation:
ðN1 Þ60 ¼ Nm CN ERm =60 ð8Þ
where:
ERm ¼ the corresponding energy ratio in percent (60
percent).
The overburden correction factor (CN) is based on
applying the following equation (Liao and Whitman,
1986a):
CN ¼ 9:78ð1=r9V8 Þ0:5  2 ð9Þ
The stress reduction factor (rd) used in Eq. 3 provides
a correction of the soil profile as proposed by Seed and
Idriss (1971) (Figure 9). According to the NCEER
workshop of 1997, the following equations may be used
307
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra
Figure 8. Chinese Criteria adapted to ASTM definition of index soil properties (after Perlea et al., 1999).
to estimate the average values of rd, considering the depth
below the ground surface (Z) as proposed by Liao and
Whitman (1986b):
rd ¼ 1:0
0:00765 Z for Z  9:15 m
rd ¼ 1:174
0:0267 Z for 9:15 , Z  23 m
To plot the results accurately and to calculate the factor
of safety against liquefaction initiation, an empirical
equation that represents the ‘‘simplified base curve’’ was
required. In this study, the following formula, derived by
Robertson and Fear (1995) and recommended by the
NCEER, is used to plot the results of the liquefaction
analyses. The equation allows us to compare the CSR and
the CRR7.5 to present the results at a detailed scale where
the liquefaction hazard can be subdivided along several
boundaries. This equation, according to Robertson and
Fear (1995), is valid only for (N1)60 less than 30 as follows:
100 3 CRR7:5
¼ 95=½34
ðN1Þ60  þ ½ðN1Þ60 =1:3
0:5
Finally, the factor of safety (FS) against liquefaction
initiation is expressed in the following equation. It takes
into consideration the magnitude scaling factor (MSF)
correction as proposed by Seed and Idriss (1982):
FS ¼ ðCRR7:5 =CSRÞ MSF
The previous method of analysis using the Simplified
Procedure and the index soil properties of the modified
308 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
Chinese Criteria (Perlea et al., 1999) is simplified by the
flow chart presented in Figure 10.
Figure 10 shows how liquefaction hazards data were
generated. Each soil profile is divided into several
ð10Þ sublayers based on stratigraphic variation and saturation
ð11Þ condition in order to calculate the overburden stresses
used in the analysis. For the analyses at each location, the
depth was determined based on the groundwater depth
because liquefaction cannot be generated under dry
conditions. The liquefaction analyses were also based
on applying four different cyclic loading scenarios at
PGA equal to 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, and 0.4 g. Laboratory
tests carried out on the different cohesive layers
encountered at the borehole locations are characterized
by high liquid limit values and low moisture content.
These values fall in the non-liquefiable zone based on the
modified Chinese Criteria presented in Figure 8. On the
other hand, the same layers play a major role in trapping
the excess pore pressure after liquefaction within the
cohesionless layers. The results of the liquefaction hazard
evaluation, as determined by applying the modified
ð12Þ Simplified Procedure to the cohesionless layers encoun-
tered in all boreholes, are presented in Figure 11 for
different values of PGA as point-based values for each
borehole location.
These results lack the spatial distribution of the
liquefaction hazard within Aqaba City. To overcome this
problem, a GIS approach is used to overlay the result
ð13Þ onto a base map as discussed later.
A PGA of 0.1 g reveals only one location that may be
susceptible to liquefaction, as shown in Figure 11A, but
significantly more locations pose a liquefaction hazard if
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan
Figure 9. The stress reduction coefficient (rd) versus depth curves developed by Seed and Idriss (1971) (after NCEER, 1997).
a higher PGA is applied as indicated in Figure 11B–D.
Subsurface conditions within the city of Aqaba reveal
three zones of liquefaction hazard. These zones are non-
liquefaction zones, marginal liquefaction zones, and
liquefaction zone. Some areas that have a tendency to
liquefy, or are considered as marginal liquefaction areas
under high PGA, pose no liquefaction hazard under
a lower PGA. On the other hand, certain locations in the
central parts of the city tend to liquefy under a PGA of
0.2 g and higher. Therefore, specific classification criteria
that combine different PGA values are required to present
the liquefaction results, taking into consideration a hazard
magnitude (e.g., low or high liquefaction hazard) to
simplify the numerical results.
SPATIAL INPUTS USING GIS
One of the main goals of this study is to present the
liquefaction hazards in Aqaba in a form that is clear, easy
to access, and capable of being updated as a result of
future work and acquisition of new data. GIS technolo-
gies provide an important method to achieve such goals.
With GIS, large amounts of data can be processed easily,
and the results can be updated when additional data are
acquired. Several recent studies have used GIS to
incorporate site-specific engineering, geological, and
seismological information to areas likely to experience
liquefaction hazards (e.g., Rockaway et al., 1997; Hitch-
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
cock et al., 1999). GIS is able to handle a large volume of
data, display maps at different scales, combine source
data, and perform unique analyses to display these data in
a form that conveys the results used in decision making.
GIS technologies are used in this study to combine
different base maps with geotechnical data, groundwater
levels, and PGA to provide a point-based and zonation
liquefaction hazard map for Aqaba. Input to the GIS
system consists of four main layers: (1) base map of the
city of Aqaba, displaying different land uses such as
residential areas and critical facilities, (2) geologic map
with the location of active faults, (3) geotechnical database
that includes subsurface soil profiles and various engi-
neering properties, and (4) groundwater level data. Output
includes the following: (1) liquefaction hazard maps using
several hazard-rating schemes, (2) liquefaction potential
reported in table and chart formats, (3) overlays of critical
facilities (hospitals, hotels, and schools) in Aqaba with
hazard ranking, and (4) interpolation between the point-
based results to cover areas that lack geotechnical data.
Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram of all the spatial
layers and types of data used in this study to perform the
liquefaction analyses.
The base map used in this study is a regional planning
map at a scale of 1:10,000, provided by the Aqaba Region
Authority, of the city of Aqaba. This paper map is
displayed in an equal-area geographic projection set based
on the local Palestine Belt Grid Coordinate System. The
309
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 10. Flow chart showing the process of performing the liquefaction analysis.

310 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Figure 11. Liquefaction hazards results from Aqaba. Results based on a PGA of 0.1 g (A), 0.2 g (B), 0.3 g (C), or 0.4 g (D).

paper map was digitized using a Calcomp tablet running
under ArcView version 3.2 GIS software. The digitizing
process included converting point, line, and polygon
features into spatial data stored in a GIS format. The error
limit used in the digitizing process was set to 0.004 in. (0.1
mm). The base map covers an area of about 75 km2 and
includes the following themes within Aqaba’s municipal
boundary: gulf shorelines, residential, hotels, commercial
and industrial areas, community service institutions, city
port, government institutions, tourism and camping
locations, park area, stadiums, sewage treatment plant,
mosques and churches, schools, and hospitals (Figure 13).
The Quaternary fan units of the Wadi Yutim surficial
deposits were digitized in a separate spatial layer based
on the aerial photograph interpretations of Niemi and
Smith (1999). These digitized features included (1)
different Quaternary fan units, (2) bedrock boundary,
(3) location and extent of active fault segments, and (4)
location of archeological sites. The edge matching and
rubber sheeting processes were very tedious herein
because of distortion in the aerial photographs to match
the exact location of the superficial deposits with their
corresponding field locations and according to selected
coordinate points. Sites that experienced liquefaction,

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 311
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 12. Schematic diagram showing the types of spatial layers and data used in the liquefaction analyses.

based on the damage reports of the Nuweiba earthquake
of 1995 and several previous studies, were also added to
the map, in a separate polygon theme, to validate the final
liquefaction hazard results within Aqaba.
The tabular database input consists of four main
categories: (1) geotechnical information, (2) groundwater
levels, (3) trenching locations, and (4) considered
earthquake magnitude. The geotechnical information
contains 109 point-based subsurface data including soil
texture description, SPT and laboratory tests obtained
directly from drill reports with laboratory data from
boreholes located within the study area. Each borehole is
georeferenced spatially, corresponding to the local
Palestine Belt Grid Coordinate System and surface
elevation based on mean sea level. The database compiled
from the boreholes was summarized and added into
a separate theme table. The data include (1) the type and
depth of the different subsurface soil units, (2) depth to

312 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Figure 13. Base GIS map of the city of Aqaba showing facilities within the municipal boundary. Source of map: Aqaba Town (Land Use and
Transportation Revised Master Plan 1995–2020), Royal Jordanian Geographic Centre, September 1995, scale 1:10,000. Provided by Aqaba
Regional Authority.

groundwater, (3) the N-value of the Standard Penetration
Test, and (4) the soil index properties from laboratory
tests, where available, as well as the normalized unit
weight of the different soils, based on the estimations of
Kulhawy and Mayne (1990).
LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY
CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
The Simplified Procedure forms the basis of the
liquefaction analysis process used in this study. The
modified Chinese Criteria were also used to depict
liquefiable areas within the cohesive soil units. Limited
laboratory data are available regarding the subsurface
cohesive units; therefore, application of the modified
Chinese Criteria was not included in the GIS analysis
component but was performed separately to depict the
liquefaction hazard results.
Two classification schemes were developed for this
study. The first scheme is a combined method based on
different earthquake scenarios resulting in different
PGAs. Figure 14 presents a flow chart explaining the
details of the first scheme. Six liquefaction susceptibility
classes were used in the first scheme, from extremely
susceptible to non-liquefiable. Each considered PGA
value was applied in the analysis component to calculate
the ratio between the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) and
the cyclic stress ratio (CSR). If the ratio of the CRR to
CSR is less than 1, the site is considered to be susceptible
to liquefaction; i.e., the correlation between the (N1)60
and the CSR falls within the liquefaction boundary based
on Figure 6. If the ratio is equal to or more than 1 at low
PGA, then the site is non-liquefiable under the considered
PGA and should be tested under a higher PGA. The
subsequent analyses involved applying the higher PGA
to determine the liquefaction susceptibility at the con-
sidered depth on the same bases used before. The com-
bination of these application processes forms the final
concept in displaying the liquefaction hazard results.
In order to interpolate the results into areas that lack
point-based geotechnical information, several factors

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 313
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 14. Flow chart showing the combined classification scheme used to display the point-based liquefaction hazards.

should be considered in a classification scheme because
the geotechnical properties can vary significantly from
one location to another, and, therefore, interpolation and
extrapolation may represent false conditions. To over-
come this problem, the boundaries between the Quater-
nary fan units, the gulf shoreline, and the groundwater
contours were used to set barriers to divide areas that may
represent similar subsurface conditions. This interpola-
tion process requires a different classification scheme,
using a unique PGA value in order to depict the
liquefaction susceptibility results under similar condi-
tions. Table 3 presents the second classification scheme

314 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Table 3. Liquefaction susceptibility classification scheme based on values to present a hazard zonation map within areas that
applying 0.3 g PGA. represent similar subsurface conditions.
The areas that are susceptible to liquefaction were
FS ¼ CRR/CSR Liquefaction Susceptibility
identified and displayed using the spatial analyses and the
.1.101 Non-liquefiable classification techniques of the GIS. The liquefaction
1.000–1.100 Marginal liquefaction susceptibility overlays within Aqaba are presented in
0.801–0.999 Low susceptibility several forms that can be used according to the user’s
0.650–0.800 Moderate susceptibility
,0.65 High susceptibility interest. The results are presented in four displays as
follows: (1) liquefaction susceptibility overlays based on
the combined classification scheme presented in Figure 15
developed for this purpose, in which the ratio between the at each borehole location, (2) liquefaction susceptibility
CRR and the CSR was divided into five different classes display based on the developed scheme presented in Table
based on considering a PGA of 0.3 g. This classification 3 by applying a PGA of 0.3 g, (3) point-based liquefaction
scheme was used in displaying the liquefaction hazard results with location of the critical facilities, and (4)
and thereafter performing interpolation between these a liquefaction susceptibility zonation map that interpolates

Figure 15. Point-based liquefaction susceptibility map of the city of Aqaba based on the combined classification scale. Locations of all boreholes are
shown.

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320 315
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Figure 16. Point-based liquefaction susceptibility map of the city of Aqaba based on a PGA of 0.3 g.

the point-based hazard results into other areas that may
have similar subsurface conditions. Each of these maps
can be presented at a smaller scale to display liquefaction
susceptibility within a limited area for design consider-
ations. The data can also be represented in tables, charts,
and reports. This is accomplished by selecting a specific
area with known coordinates or within a specific facility
or geologic theme. These reports and charts provide
numerical values of the liquefaction hazards and the
subsurface conditions at each location used in the various
design calculations and the settlement considerations.
The point-based liquefaction susceptibility results
based on applying the developed classification scheme
are presented in Figure 15. The analyses show that most of
the considered boreholes along the gulf shoreline are
characterized mainly by moderate to high susceptibility.
The same result of mostly moderate to high susceptibility
is also found based on applying a PGA of 0.3 g as shown
in Figure 16. In order to get a clear idea about specific
structures and facilities that are likely to be affected by
liquefaction within Aqaba, only critical facilities in-
cluding hospitals, schools, and the high-rise buildings
represented by hotels and commercial structures were
extracted from the base map and overlaid on the point-
based liquefaction susceptibility hazard map, as shown in
Figure 17. The map shows that hospitals and schools are
located within areas not susceptible to liquefaction but
that the hotel and the commercial district lie within a high
liquefaction hazard zone and should be reconsidered from
a design point of view.

316 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
 Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan
Figure 17. Liquefaction susceptibility zonation map within the hotel and commercial district of Aqaba within the coastal zone.
On the basis of the subsurface data from the boreholes
supplemented by the mapped Quaternary alluvial units
and the depth of the groundwater levels around the hotel
and the commercial areas, similar subsurface conditions
may be assumed within this particular region. If this
assumption is valid, the results can be interpolated into
areas that lack geotechnical data. The interpolation
process is based on considering the nearest 12 calculated
values of the ratio between the CRR and the CSR, and the
results are presented in Figure 17. The overlay shows that
the liquefaction susceptibility decreases toward the north
and east, where the groundwater depth decreases and the
age of Quaternary fan deposits becomes older. These data
suggest that the schools apparently lie within a non-
liquefiable hazard zone. However, site-specific studies
should be conducted at these locations to verify the
interpolated data at these important facilities.
Finally, overlaying the areas that experienced sub-
sidence in the Nuweiba earthquake of 1995 with the
liquefaction hazard results shows good agreement be-
tween the results obtained in this study and their
investigations (Figure 17). These previous studies con-
cluded that areas within the hotel district are most
susceptible to liquefaction and are characterized by major
earthquake damage. The historical liquefaction-induced
features documented by Ghawanmeh (1992) and Al-
Homoud and Tal (1998) for the archaeological ruins of the
ancient city of Ayla also agree with the liquefaction
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
susceptibility results derived from this study. Ayla is
located within a zone of high liquefaction susceptibility,
as shown in Figure 17.
CONCLUSIONS
Subsurface data from Aqaba indicate that the sedimen-
tary deposits underlying the city consist predominantly of
poorly consolidated silt, sand, and gravel with occasional
lenses of clay. Sorted, wind-blown, beach sand becomes
more dominant along the gulf shoreline. Groundwater
levels along the coastal areas are very shallow. Ground-
water levels increase to the north and northeast to depths
. 17 m at about 5 km from the shoreline. Application of
the modified Chinese Criteria indicates that the cohesive
layers are non-liquefiable, but they can trap excess water
pressure induced by seismic shaking. Different strati-
graphic units are divided into liquefaction, marginal
liquefaction, and non-liquefaction zones by applying the
Simplified Procedure. Certain locations that have
a tendency to liquefy or are considered as marginal
liquefaction under high PGA pose no liquefaction threat
under lower PGA. Areas that are susceptible to liquefac-
tion were identified and displayed using the analyses and
the classification techniques of GIS. Hazard maps can be
updated by acquiring additional geotechnical data and
groundwater levels to depict the liquefaction potential
within areas that lack information in this study.
317
 Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra
Most of the soils considered, as represented in
boreholes along the gulf shoreline, are characterized
mainly by moderate to high susceptibility, in agreement
with the conclusions of Malkawi and others (1999a). The
soils represented in boreholes located to the north and
northeast, within the older Quaternary alluvial fan
deposits, are predominantly non-liquefiable. The critical
facilities extracted from the base map of Aqaba were
overlaid with the liquefaction potential. These maps show
that the hospital and the schools apparently are located
within areas not susceptible to liquefaction. However,
these sites should be verified with site-specific inves-
tigations. The hotels and the commercial district lie within
a high-liquefaction-hazard zone. Overlaying the liquefac-
tion susceptibly maps derived from this study with the
areas that had documented damage in the 1995 Nuweiba
earthquake, and the historically-documented liquefaction-
induced features in the archaeological ruins show a good
agreement between the results of this study and the
damage assessment reports.
Further geotechnical exploration is required along the
gulf shorelines north of the hotel district and within the
port location to get a comprehensive understanding about
the liquefaction hazards within these locations. The
additional data could be incorporated simply in the GIS
techniques used for this study. We strongly recommend
that the Jordanian National Building Codes require
reconsidering or updates of their provisions relevant to
the seismic conditions for the city of Aqaba as well as
enforcement of those new regulations and improvement
of engineering construction practices. We recommend
careful evaluation of the existing structures to find out
whether or not they are capable of withstanding the
seismic hazard and performing a comprehensive seismic
retrofit process where required, if possible. The sub-
surface stratigraphy should be considered carefully to
perform interpolation between the point-based results to
extend the liquefaction hazard maps to areas that lack
geotechnical information and must be used as a pre-
liminary or a supplementary parameter for design
purposes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to the staff of the Aqaba
Special Economic Zone (Aqaba Region Authority),
especially Engineer Mohammad Balqar, for help and
support during three seasons of field investigations. We
also thank the Natural Resources Authority and Engineer
Mahmoud Azzam for providing most of the geotechnical
data. A very grateful thanks to Dr. Abdallah Husein
Malkawi of the Jordan University of Science and
Technology for his assistance and support. GIS analyses
were carried out in the research laboratory of Dr. Wei Ji of
318 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297–320
the University of Missouri-Kansas City. Funding for this
project was made possible through an American Associ-
ation of Petroleum Geologists Grant-in-Aid of Research to
N. M. Mansoor. We are extremely grateful to Dr. S.
Thomas Parker, director of the North Carolina State
University’s Roman Aqaba Project archaeological exca-
vation, for providing room and board and other logistic
support during field research for this project.
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